Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
link to page 1 
November 18, 2016
Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
North American crude oil and natural gas production has
Petcoke impurities (i.e., the non-elemental carbonaceous
increased significantly over the past decade, primarily as a
substances) include some residual hydrocarbons left over
result of new or improved technologies (e.g., hydraulic
from processing (referred to as volatiles), as well as
fracturing, directional drilling, in situ injection) used on
elemental forms of nitrogen, sulfur, nickel, vanadium, and
unconventional resources (e.g., shale, tight sands, coalbed
other heavy metals. These impurities exist as a hardened
methane, oil sands). The increase in production has
residuum captured within coke’s carbon matrix. Table 1
occasioned a range of societal transformations, both
provides an observed range of petcoke’s main properties.
economic and otherwise, including the potential for new
environmental impacts.
Table 1. Petcoke Elemental Composition
One area of concern arises from the production and use of
Composition
% by weight
petroleum coke, or petcoke. Petcoke is a co-product of
Carbon
80.0–95.0
several processes used during petroleum refining to upgrade
“residuum” into gasoline and middle distillate-range fuels.
Volatile matter
5.0–15.0
Residuum (or resid) is the substance that remains after
refineries initially distill heavy crude oils. Nearly half of
Hydrogen
3.0–4.5
U.S. petroleum refineries (56 in 2015, as reported by the
Sulfur
0.2–6.0
U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA]) have the
capacity to process heavy crude oils. Many refiners
Ash (including heavy metals)
0.1–1.0
installed technologies over the past decade to take
Nitrogen
0.1–0.5
advantage of lower priced heavy crude oils from Saudi
Arabia, Venezuela, and the Canadian oil sands.
Source: American Fuel and Petrochemical Manufacturers, Petroleum
Coke Overview.
In 2013, issues related to the production of petcoke in
Health and Environmental Impacts
Detroit and Chicago drew national attention. In both
instances, petcoke produced at local refineries was being
The recent increase in coking capacity in the United States
stored in large piles prior to sale and shipment. Community
has raised concerns over the potential impacts of petcoke on
stakeholders raised questions regarding the impacts of
both human health and the environment. These impacts
stored petcoke on air quality due to fugitive dust and water
may arise during various stages of petcoke’s life cycle,
quality due to run-off; the potential for toxic and other
including its production, handling, storage, transportation,
emissions (including carbon dioxide emissions [CO
combustion, use, and disposal.
2]) from
petcoke’s combustion as a fuel; and whether these issues
were adequately addressed by local, state, and federal
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
regulations. As petroleum refining is a nationwide
surveyed the potential human health and environmental
commercial industry, these questions may arise—or be
impacts of petcoke through its High Production Volume
revisited—in other locales.
Challenge Program. Additionally, in 2016, the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for
Production and Composition
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR),
Petcoke often has economic value as both a heating fuel and
conducted an analysis on the potential impacts of
as a raw material in manufacturing. Fuel-grade petcoke can
particulate matter (PM) and metals exposure stemming
substitute for coal in power plant boilers, having the
from the Chicago petcoke storage facilities in 2013.
advantage of a higher heating value. Conventional coal-
fired boilers often blend petcoke with coal, and newer
Most chemical analyses of petcoke, as referenced by EPA
boiler designs can substitute it entirely. In manufacturing,
and ATSDR, find it to be highly stable and non-reactive at
petcoke is used in the aluminum, graphite electrode, steel,
ambient environmental conditions. Most toxicity analyses
and titanium dioxide industries. In 2015, EIA reported that
find it has a low health hazard potential in humans, with no
U.S. refineries produced in excess of 57 million metric tons
observed carcinogenic, reproductive, or developmental
(MMT) of petcoke, of which 26% was used as on-site
effects. Only animal case studies of repeated-dose and
refinery fuel, 12% was marketed domestically, and 62%
chronic inhalation have shown respiratory inflammation
was exported. Top destinations for exports in 2015 included
attributed to the non-specific effects of petcoke as a dust
India (4.7 MMT), Japan (4.3 MMT), and China (3.3 MMT).
particle rather than the specific effects of petcoke’s
chemistry. The ASTDR analysis of petcoke’s particulate
Petcoke is composed primarily of carbon. The specific
effects found a potential for a “health threat to sensitive
chemical composition of petcoke depends on the
individuals and to those with pre-existing respiratory
composition of the petroleum feedstock used in refining.
illnesses” on poor air quality days.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 link to page 1 Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
In regard to reactivity, petcoke is generally stable under
Similarly, petcoke is not subject to the federal cleanup
normal conditions. However, like many organic substances,
authorities of the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
petcoke has the potential to become flammable or explosive
Compensation, and Liability Act (often referred to as
under certain conditions. Emissions from the combustion of
Superfund) because of the exclusion of petroleum from the
petcoke can release common pollutants (e.g., PM, nitrogen
statute. The act defines a hazardous substance, pollutant, or
oxides [NOx], and sulfur dioxides [SO2]), hazardous
contaminant to exclude “petroleum, including crude oil or
substances, and CO2. When combusted as a fuel, petcoke
any fraction thereof which is not otherwise specifically
commonly has higher emissions of SO2 and CO2—per unit
listed or designated as a hazardous substance.”
of energy produced—relative to other comparable
hydrocarbons (see Table 2).
Industrial Stormwater Runoff
The storage of petcoke may be regulated under certain
Table 2.Petcoke vs. Coal: Combustion Emissions
provisions of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit program, as authorized in Section
HHV
SO2 lbs./
CO2 lbs./
402 of the Clean Water Act, if it is determined that runoff
Btu/lb
Million
Million
from storage sites due to rain or snowmelt has the potential
Fuel
(avg.)
Btu
Btu
to transport the substance to nearby surface waters.
Common NPDES permit requirements include the
Petcoke
14,200
0.3–8.5
207–245
development of a written stormwater pollution prevention
Coal
plan and the implementation of control measures. Control
measures could include site-specific best management
Pittsburgh #8
13,300
3.2–3.5
202–204
practices, maintenance plans, inspections, employee
Illinois #6
11,000
6.0–8.1
201–203
training, and reporting. NPDES permit programs are
typically administered by state and local agencies.
Wyoming PRB
8,400
0.9–1.2
211–213
Texas Lignite
7,100
1.5–4.8
205–224
Fugitive Dust
The handling, storage, and transportation of petcoke may
Source: CRS, with data for higher heating values (HHV) in British
create local nuisance problems due to the release of fugitive
thermal units per pound (Btu/lb) and sulfur and carbon content
dust into the atmosphere. Regulatory oversight for this issue
ranges from Table 1 and M.I.T., The Future of Coal, 2007, p. 111.
is commonly implemented at the state and local levels and
Regulatory Requirements
generally takes the form of a fugitive dust control program.
These programs are often a necessary component to any air
Various aspects of the production, handling, storage,
permitting requirements for industrial sources, including
transportation, combustion, and use of petcoke have been
permits to install, operate, or decommission a facility.
addressed at local, state, and federal levels to protect human
health and the environment. While some federal statutes
At the federal level, EPA has set National Ambient Air
address certain environmental impacts of petcoke’s life
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM, among other
cycle, most regulatory action and oversight has been
pollutants, under the Clean Air Act. If fugitive dust
undertaken at the state and local levels, generally through
generation is determined to be an issue at a facility that
facility-specific permitting requirements. With few
produces, handles, stores, or transports petcoke, and if the
exceptions, petcoke is not regulated specifically. Rather, it
facility is situated in an area that EPA identifies as
is petcoke’s potential contribution to more general hazards
“nonattainment” for PM NAAQS, then it may be possible
(e.g., air and water quality impacts such as haze, fugitive
for state authorities to require the facility to report on and
dust, and stormwater runoff) that is monitored and
manage its fugitive dust emissions—if it is not doing so
controlled through various regulatory requirements.
already—within the context of their NAAQS State
Implementation Plan.
Waste Classifications
Federal law generally exempts petcoke from classification
Petcoke Combustion in Power Generation
as either a solid or hazardous waste. The exemption stems
When petcoke is combusted at power generating or other
from the scope of the statutory term “solid waste” as
industrial facilities, the resulting emissions would be
decided in American Mining Congress v. U.S. EPA. In that
regulated under the specific standards set on the respective
decision, the court held that materials recycled and reused
facility. For example, federal regulations that may be
in an ongoing manufacturing or industrial process were not
implemented could include EPA’s New Source
considered to be “discarded” and, hence, not considered to
Performance Standards for Electricity Generating Units,
be “solid wastes.” Furthermore, in 1998, EPA identified a
Mercury and Air Toxics Standards, Cross State Air
list of petroleum refining wastes that would be subject to
Pollution Rule for NOx and SO2, Title V Permitting
federal regulations applicable to the management of
Requirements, Greenhouse Gas Reporting Requirements,
hazardous waste established under the Resource
and Steam Electric Effluent Guidelines.
Conservation and Recovery Act. In this rulemaking, EPA
stated that petcoke is not a waste but rather a “co-product”
Richard K. Lattanzio, Specialist in Environmental Policy
of the refining process. In a separate rulemaking, EPA
further supported this classification by including petcoke
IF10507
among its definition of “traditional fuels” (at 40 C.F.R.
§241.2).
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10507 · VERSION 2 · NEW
November 18, 2016
Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
North American crude oil and natural gas production has
Petcoke impurities (i.e., the non-elemental carbonaceous
increased significantly over the past decade, primarily as a
substances) include some residual hydrocarbons left over
result of new or improved technologies (e.g., hydraulic
from processing (referred to as volatiles), as well as
fracturing, directional drilling, in situ injection) used on
elemental forms of nitrogen, sulfur, nickel, vanadium, and
unconventional resources (e.g., shale, tight sands, coalbed
other heavy metals. These impurities exist as a hardened
methane, oil sands). The increase in production has
residuum captured within coke’s carbon matrix. Table 1
occasioned a range of societal transformations, both
provides an observed range of petcoke’s main properties.
economic and otherwise, including the potential for new
environmental impacts.
Table 1. Petcoke Elemental Composition
One area of concern arises from the production and use of
Composition
% by weight
petroleum coke, or petcoke. Petcoke is a co-product of
Carbon
80.0–95.0
several processes used during petroleum refining to upgrade
“residuum” into gasoline and middle distillate-range fuels.
Volatile matter
5.0–15.0
Residuum (or resid) is the substance that remains after
refineries initially distill heavy crude oils. Nearly half of
Hydrogen
3.0–4.5
U.S. petroleum refineries (56 in 2015, as reported by the
Sulfur
0.2–6.0
U.S. Energy Information Administration [EIA]) have the
capacity to process heavy crude oils. Many refiners
Ash (including heavy metals)
0.1–1.0
installed technologies over the past decade to take
Nitrogen
0.1–0.5
advantage of lower priced heavy crude oils from Saudi
Arabia, Venezuela, and the Canadian oil sands.
Source: American Fuel and Petrochemical Manufacturers, Petroleum
Coke Overview.
In 2013, issues related to the production of petcoke in
Health and Environmental Impacts
Detroit and Chicago drew national attention. In both
instances, petcoke produced at local refineries was being
The recent increase in coking capacity in the United States
stored in large piles prior to sale and shipment. Community
has raised concerns over the potential impacts of petcoke on
stakeholders raised questions regarding the impacts of
both human health and the environment. These impacts
stored petcoke on air quality due to fugitive dust and water
may arise during various stages of petcoke’s life cycle,
quality due to run-off; the potential for toxic and other
including its production, handling, storage, transportation,
emissions (including carbon dioxide emissions [CO
combustion, use, and disposal.
2]) from
petcoke’s combustion as a fuel; and whether these issues
were adequately addressed by local, state, and federal
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has
regulations. As petroleum refining is a nationwide
surveyed the potential human health and environmental
commercial industry, these questions may arise—or be
impacts of petcoke through its High Production Volume
revisited—in other locales.
Challenge Program. Additionally, in 2016, the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for
Production and Composition
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR),
Petcoke often has economic value as both a heating fuel and
conducted an analysis on the potential impacts of
as a raw material in manufacturing. Fuel-grade petcoke can
particulate matter (PM) and metals exposure stemming
substitute for coal in power plant boilers, having the
from the Chicago petcoke storage facilities in 2013.
advantage of a higher heating value. Conventional coal-
fired boilers often blend petcoke with coal, and newer
Most chemical analyses of petcoke, as referenced by EPA
boiler designs can substitute it entirely. In manufacturing,
and ATSDR, find it to be highly stable and non-reactive at
petcoke is used in the aluminum, graphite electrode, steel,
ambient environmental conditions. Most toxicity analyses
and titanium dioxide industries. In 2015, EIA reported that
find it has a low health hazard potential in humans, with no
U.S. refineries produced in excess of 57 million metric tons
observed carcinogenic, reproductive, or developmental
(MMT) of petcoke, of which 26% was used as on-site
effects. Only animal case studies of repeated-dose and
refinery fuel, 12% was marketed domestically, and 62%
chronic inhalation have shown respiratory inflammation
was exported. Top destinations for exports in 2015 included
attributed to the non-specific effects of petcoke as a dust
India (4.7 MMT), Japan (4.3 MMT), and China (3.3 MMT).
particle rather than the specific effects of petcoke’s
chemistry. The ASTDR analysis of petcoke’s particulate
Petcoke is composed primarily of carbon. The specific
effects found a potential for a “health threat to sensitive
chemical composition of petcoke depends on the
individuals and to those with pre-existing respiratory
composition of the petroleum feedstock used in refining.
illnesses” on poor air quality days.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 link to page 1 Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
In regard to reactivity, petcoke is generally stable under
Similarly, petcoke is not subject to the federal cleanup
normal conditions. However, like many organic substances,
authorities of the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
petcoke has the potential to become flammable or explosive
Compensation, and Liability Act (often referred to as
under certain conditions. Emissions from the combustion of
Superfund) because of the exclusion of petroleum from the
petcoke can release common pollutants (e.g., PM, nitrogen
statute. The act defines a hazardous substance, pollutant, or
oxides [NOx], and sulfur dioxides [SO2]), hazardous
contaminant to exclude “petroleum, including crude oil or
substances, and CO2. When combusted as a fuel, petcoke
any fraction thereof which is not otherwise specifically
commonly has higher emissions of SO2 and CO2—per unit
listed or designated as a hazardous substance.”
of energy produced—relative to other comparable
hydrocarbons (see Table 2).
Industrial Stormwater Runoff
The storage of petcoke may be regulated under certain
Table 2.Petcoke vs. Coal: Combustion Emissions
provisions of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) permit program, as authorized in Section
HHV
SO2 lbs./
CO2 lbs./
402 of the Clean Water Act, if it is determined that runoff
Btu/lb
Million
Million
from storage sites due to rain or snowmelt has the potential
Fuel
(avg.)
Btu
Btu
to transport the substance to nearby surface waters.
Common NPDES permit requirements include the
Petcoke
14,200
0.3–8.5
207–245
development of a written stormwater pollution prevention
Coal
plan and the implementation of control measures. Control
measures could include site-specific best management
Pittsburgh #8
13,300
3.2–3.5
202–204
practices, maintenance plans, inspections, employee
Illinois #6
11,000
6.0–8.1
201–203
training, and reporting. NPDES permit programs are
typically administered by state and local agencies.
Wyoming PRB
8,400
0.9–1.2
211–213
Texas Lignite
7,100
1.5–4.8
205–224
Fugitive Dust
The handling, storage, and transportation of petcoke may
Source: CRS, with data for higher heating values (HHV) in British
create local nuisance problems due to the release of fugitive
thermal units per pound (Btu/lb) and sulfur and carbon content
dust into the atmosphere. Regulatory oversight for this issue
ranges from Table 1 and M.I.T., The Future of Coal, 2007, p. 111.
is commonly implemented at the state and local levels and
Regulatory Requirements
generally takes the form of a fugitive dust control program.
These programs are often a necessary component to any air
Various aspects of the production, handling, storage,
permitting requirements for industrial sources, including
transportation, combustion, and use of petcoke have been
permits to install, operate, or decommission a facility.
addressed at local, state, and federal levels to protect human
health and the environment. While some federal statutes
At the federal level, EPA has set National Ambient Air
address certain environmental impacts of petcoke’s life
Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM, among other
cycle, most regulatory action and oversight has been
pollutants, under the Clean Air Act. If fugitive dust
undertaken at the state and local levels, generally through
generation is determined to be an issue at a facility that
facility-specific permitting requirements. With few
produces, handles, stores, or transports petcoke, and if the
exceptions, petcoke is not regulated specifically. Rather, it
facility is situated in an area that EPA identifies as
is petcoke’s potential contribution to more general hazards
“nonattainment” for PM NAAQS, then it may be possible
(e.g., air and water quality impacts such as haze, fugitive
for state authorities to require the facility to report on and
dust, and stormwater runoff) that is monitored and
manage its fugitive dust emissions—if it is not doing so
controlled through various regulatory requirements.
already—within the context of their NAAQS State
Implementation Plan.
Waste Classifications
Federal law generally exempts petcoke from classification
Petcoke Combustion in Power Generation
as either a solid or hazardous waste. The exemption stems
When petcoke is combusted at power generating or other
from the scope of the statutory term “solid waste” as
industrial facilities, the resulting emissions would be
decided in American Mining Congress v. U.S. EPA. In that
regulated under the specific standards set on the respective
decision, the court held that materials recycled and reused
facility. For example, federal regulations that may be
in an ongoing manufacturing or industrial process were not
implemented could include EPA’s New Source
considered to be “discarded” and, hence, not considered to
Performance Standards for Electricity Generating Units,
be “solid wastes.” Furthermore, in 1998, EPA identified a
Mercury and Air Toxics Standards, Cross State Air
list of petroleum refining wastes that would be subject to
Pollution Rule for NOx and SO2, Title V Permitting
federal regulations applicable to the management of
Requirements, Greenhouse Gas Reporting Requirements,
hazardous waste established under the Resource
and Steam Electric Effluent Guidelines.
Conservation and Recovery Act. In this rulemaking, EPA
stated that petcoke is not a waste but rather a “co-product”
Richard K. Lattanzio, Specialist in Environmental Policy
of the refining process. In a separate rulemaking, EPA
further supported this classification by including petcoke
IF10507
among its definition of “traditional fuels” (at 40 C.F.R.
§241.2).
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Petroleum Coke: Industry, Health, and Environmental Issues
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10507 · VERSION 2 · NEW