Eritrea
Updated February 28, 2019
Eritrea
Eritrea has been called a pariah state by some observers for
Figure 1. Eritrea Facts
its poor human rights record, political repression, and
history of aid to rebel groups in the region. International
support for the country, which gained independence from
Ethiopia in 1993, declined after a border war with Ethiopia
(1998-2000), amidst a severe crackdown on dissent. Recent
political reforms in Ethiopia, however, have precipitated a
rapprochement between those two countries, which ended a
military stalemate along the border in July 2018. Ethiopia
has since facilitated renewed ties between Eritrea and its
rivals Djibouti and Somalia. In late 2018, in recognition of
“historic rapprochements in the Horn of Africa,” the U.N.
Security Council lifted sanctions that were imposed on
Source: CRS map. Facts from CIA and IMF reference databases.
Eritrea in 2009 in response to its border conflict with
Djibouti and support for armed groups in the region.
Despite early optimism about Eritrea’s prospects,
conditions deteriorated soon after independence. Opposition
Such progress notwithstanding, Eritrea remains a closed
society in which the government controls the economy and
parties were excluded from working on a new constitution,
which a transitional parliament unanimously endorsed in
sharply limits civil liberties. Thousands of political
1997 but never implemented. Legislative elections,
prisoners reportedly remain in detention. Despite reports
that it would curtail the country’s widely criticized system
scheduled for 1998, were indefinitely postponed as conflict
resumed with Ethiopia. In 2001, Isaias ordered the arrest,
of indefinite national service, the government of President
for treason, of 15 senior officials who had called for
Isaias Afewerki has yet to do so. Authoritarianism has
prompted massive refugee outflows: Eritrea was the ninth-
democratic reforms. Some fled, but 11 were arrested, along
with 10 journalists. None were formally charged or
largest source of refugees as of 2017, and in 2018 was the
convicted; at least one has reportedly died in detention.
second-largest source of arrivals across the Mediterranean
to Italy. Many cite forced conscription as a key reason for
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flight. Outflows have reportedly risen since the détente with
President Isaias has long justified repressive policies and
Ethiopia, as many Eritreans have taken advantage of the
mandatory military service as necessary to defend against
reopened border to seek reunion with relatives abroad.
Ethiopian aggression. Some hoped that rapprochement with
U.S. policymakers have expressed concern over Chinese
Ethiopia would give rise to a broader political opening, but
and Russian activities in Eritrea, which is sits on the
there have been few signs of reform. Isaias continues to
strategic waterway between the Gulf of Aden and the Red
dominate the government and punish dissent. In late 2018,
Sea. Russia has announced plans to build a logistics center
authorities arrested a former minister who criticized Isaias;
in the country; China is active in Eritrea’s mining sector, as
like thousands of others he received no trial, and he
is a Canadian mining company that faces a lawsuit linked to
reportedly remains in indefinite incommunicado detention.
Eritrea’s forced conscription. Eritrea has built alliances with
Political opposition is effectively nonexistent—the PFDJ
Arab Gulf states, and Gulf actors helped mend ties between
controls politics and the media, and is the sole recognized
Ethiopia and Eritrea. The United Arab Emirates (UAE)
party. Elections have not been held since independence.
supports Saudi-led military operations in Yemen, to which
Officials have cited “the prevailing wish of the people” and
Eritrea contributes troops, from a base on the Eritrean coast.
the border dispute with Ethiopia as justifications for the
Background
continued delay of elections and implementation of the
constitution. The most recent apparent challenge to Isaias
In 1991, after 30 years of war with successive Ethiopian
came in 2013, when a failed mutiny signaled fissures in the
governments, the secessionist Eritrean People’s Liberation
Front (EPLF) defeated Ethiopian forces, took control of the
regime. Eritrea ranked 179 of 180 countries in Reporters
Without Borders’ 2018
coastal province of Eritrea, and established a provisional
World Press Freedom Index.
government. Eritreans voted for independence in a U.N.-
Human Rights Record
sponsored plebiscite, and Eritrea officially became a
The State Department’s most recent Human Rights report
country in May 1993. The EPLF announced a four-year
on Eritrea describes abuses such as “disappearances; torture
transition period and established institutions, including a
and other cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment by
legislature and a judiciary. The legislature’s first act was to
security forces; [...] arbitrary arrest; denial of fair public
elect longtime EPLF leader Isaias Afewerki as head of
trial; unlawful interference with privacy, family, or home;
state. In 1994, the EPLF became a political party, renaming
restrictions on freedom of speech and press.” In 2016, the
itself the People’s Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ).
U.N. Commission of Inquiry (COI) on Human Rights in
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Eritrea
Eritrea released a report finding reasonable grounds to
troops to keep peace along the border. Both countries have
believe that crimes against humanity had been committed in
since released detainees, but Djibouti claims that Eritrea
a “persistent, widespread, and systematic” manner in
still holds prisoners of war. Qatar pulled its troops in 2017
Eritrea. According to the Commission, the indefinite nature
after a diplomatic dispute, after which Djibouti accused
of obligatory military service and its “terrible” conditions
Eritrea of reoccupying disputed border territory. In late
“make national service an institution where slavery-like
2018, however, Eritrea and Djibouti agreed to normalize
practices are routine.” The government has disclosed that
relations following Ethiopia-led mediation efforts. The two
service conscripts are used in a wide range of economic
countries have initiated a dialogue over contested territory
activities. In early 2018, the U.N. special rapporteur on
and other matters. Saudi Arabia has supported those talks.
human rights in Eritrea stated that human rights violations
identified in the 2016 COI report “continued unabated.”
Eritrea’s relations also have improved with Somalia, where
Eritrean support for armed groups—including Al Shabaab,
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a Somali-based Al Qaeda affiliate—prompted the U.N.
Eritrea’s economy is centrally managed and features limited
Security Council to place an arms embargo and targeted
private sector activity. Economic performance depends
sanctions on Eritrea in 2009. Eritrea and Somalia agreed to
primarily on the growing mining sector and on fluctuating
restore relations in mid-2018; alongside Ethiopia, they have
global commodity prices. Growth peaked near 9% in 2011
since embarked on trilateral meetings to discuss security
owing to high gold prices, fell below 2% in 2016, then
and development cooperation, among other issues.
rebounded to 4% in 2018 as mining production increased.
Eritrea’s status as a major source of refugees and migrants
Economic ties with China, Eritrea’s top trade partner,
bound for Europe has raised its profile among European
recently expanded with the sale of a major stake in the
donors and spurred greater diplomatic engagement since
country’s largest copper-zinc mine to a Chinese firm.
2015. A European Union multi-year development fund for
Impediments to growth include political uncertainty, low
Eritrea worth over $200 million has attracted scrutiny—
foreign investment (prohibited in most sectors), a large
critics contend it ignores ongoing human rights abuses.
budget deficit due to military spending, and a notoriously
poor business climate. Eritrea ranks second to last in the
U.S. Policy and Sanctions
World Bank’s 2019 Doing Business index.
Relations between the United States and Eritrea have been
poor, though in late 2018 the State Department suggested
Sporadic growth has done little to address substantial
that “through a concerted, mutual effort that began in late
development challenges. GDP per capita is low and food
2017...there are steady improvements.” Eritrea’s warming
insecurity is a persistent problem. Most of the population
ties with Ethiopia, a key U.S. development and security
depends on subsistence agriculture, which suffers from
partner, may enable further progress. Notably, the United
recurrent drought. Humanitarian concerns are heightened
because of the government’s routine denial of food
States ultimately supported lifting U.N. sanctions on Eritrea
in late 2018, after initial reports suggested U.S. opposition.
shortages and ban on most humanitarian agencies. Eritrea
ranked 179 out of 189 countries on the 2018 U.N. Human
Successive U.S. Administrations have described Eritrea as
Development Index. Eritrea has reportedly made progress
authoritarian and raised human rights concerns. Once its
on health and education indicators, but data is limited.
largest bilateral donor, the United States now provides no
bilateral aid. Two local embassy staff who were arrested
International Relations
without charge in 2001 reportedly remain in detention;
Spurred by a leadership transition and ensuing reforms in
other local staff have since reportedly been imprisoned. The
Ethiopia, which has taken on a mediation role in the Horn,
Eritrean government requested that USAID leave in 2005,
Eritrea has renewed ties with its erstwhile rivals in the sub-
and there has been no U.S. ambassador to Eritrea since
region. Detente with Ethiopia could be transformative for
2010. A 2018 visit by the State Department’s top Africa
Eritrea’s politics and economy. After their border war in the
official was the highest level travel to Eritrea in over a
late 1990s, in which an estimated 80,000 died, the two
decade. The State Department has welcomed peace between
countries clashed periodically in disputed border areas and
Ethiopia and Eritrea and offered support.
supported proxy forces in nearby Somalia. They also
accused each other of backing rebels in their respective
Eritrea is subject to various U.S. restrictions, including on
countries. Eritrean officials routinely cited Ethiopia’s
the transfer of U.S. defense articles and services. Three
failure to implement a boundary commission’s 2002 ruling
Eritrean officials are subject to targeted financial sanctions
and its military occupation of territory awarded to Eritrea as
under Executive Order 13536, pertaining to Somalia. In
justification for support to Ethiopian armed groups. In June
2017, the United States imposed sanctions on Eritrea’s navy
2018, Ethiopia announced that it would fully implement the
under the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act
2000 peace agreement and withdraw from the disputed
in response to its import of military communications
territories. The countries have restored diplomatic ties,
equipment from North Korea. Eritrea is subject to sanctions
reopened phone lines, and resumed flights. Reconnecting
based the Trafficking Victims Protection Act and its
Ethiopia to Eritrea’s ports will likely boost trade and jobs.
designation since 2004 as a Country of Particular Concern
under the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998.
Eritrea-Djibouti relations also have improved. Djibouti, like
Ethiopia, has long accused Eritrea of sabotaging regional
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, Specialist in African Affairs
stability. Tensions between Eritrea and Djibouti stem from
Tomas F. Husted, Analyst in African Affairs
a 2008 border conflict. Eritrea withdrew its troops from
Djibouti in 2010 after mediation by Qatar, which deployed
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Eritrea
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