Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
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October 15, 2015
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
Scope of the Problem
than $200 million annually). Other wildlife commonly
Asian demand for illegal wildlife has increased in recent
trafficked include pangolins, rhinos, bears, and tigers.
years, raising concerns about species conservation amid
heightened poaching rates. As one of several contributing
Illegal Ivory: Top Asian Countries of Concern
threats to biodiversity, wildlife poaching also raises national
security and transnational crime concerns. Crimes related to
At the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties
illegal wildlife reportedly generate billions of dollars each
(CoP) to the Convention on International Trade in
year, a source of funds that may fuel instability and finance
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in 2013,
armed groups, particularly in Africa. Closer to illicit retail
eight States Parties were identified as countries of
outlets, the markup on wildlife products is most pronounced
“primary concern” for their role in the illegal trade in
in Asia, and Asian criminal groups largely control this high-
elephant ivory—including five Asian countries: China
profit, low-risk black market—often benefitting from the
(including Hong Kong), Malaysia, the Philippines,
cooperation of corrupt government officials to facilitate
Thailand, and Vietnam. At subsequent CITES
cross-border shipments and protect traffickers. According
Standing Committee meetings, several additional
to the United Nations, environmental crimes represent
countries were designated as countries of “secondary
nearly one-third of the Asia-Pacific black market,
concern” or “importance to watch”—including Laos.
conservatively estimated to be worth approximately $86
billion annually (see Figure 1, below). Illegal wildlife,
Tiger Trafficking and Population Trends
however, represents only a small portion of major
Wild tigers in Asia are believed to range across 13
environmental crimes in the region (the largest contributor
countries, although field estimates suggest that tiger
to environmental crimes is illegal trade in wood products).
populations are declining overall (see Table 1 below).
Figure 1. Organized Crime in the Asia-Pacific Region
Bucking the trend, India has reported increases of up to
30% in tiger populations in the past three years. Captive
tiger populations in several Asian countries may be higher.
For example, China has over 5,000 captive tigers.
Table 1. Wild Tiger Population Estimates
Country
Field Estimate
Official Estimate
Bangladesh
n/a
300-500
Bhutan
50
115-150
Burma
n/a
85
Cambodia
0
10-30
China
<7
20
India
1,706
2,226
Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational
Laos
2
17
Organized Crime in East Asia and the Pacific (2013).
Malaysia
300
250-340
The recent surge in Asian demand for illegal wildlife is
Nepal
198
198
driven largely by an expansion of wealth in Asian countries
North Korea
n/a
n/a
and the perceived value of rare wildlife and related products
as luxury goods, exotic pets, restaurant delicacies, and
Russia
n/a
360
ingredients in traditional Asian medicine. According to the
United Nations, illegal marine wildlife trafficking
Thailand
221
189-252
(excluding off-shore illegal fishing) represents the largest
Vietnam
<5
<10
market in Asia (at least $850 million annually). Such
trafficking involves species of sharks, marine turtles, corals
Source: International Union for Conservation of Nature.
and aquarium fish, and seahorses. Among illegally traded
U.S. Responses
mammals, Asian consumer demand for elephant ivory has
surged in recent years and represents more than half the
In July 2013, President Barack Obama issued Executive
total illegal wildlife market for mammals in Asia (more
Order (E.O.) 13648 on combating wildlife trafficking. It
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
directed federal agencies to enhance efforts to address the
authorizing, and allocating specific funds for programs to
problem, established an interagency Presidential Task Force
combat such trafficking; and introducing new bills. Such
on Wildlife Trafficking to produce a National Strategy for
efforts have included the following:
Combating Wildlife Trafficking, and created a non-
governmental Advisory Council on Wildlife Trafficking to
Department of State Rewards Program Update and
provide outside expertise and support to the Task Force.
Technical Corrections Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-283),
which allows the State Department to offer rewards for
In February 2014, the Obama Administration released a
information on transnational criminal networks,
National Strategy for Combating Wildlife Trafficking. It
including those related to wildlife trafficking (up to $1
prioritizes domestic and international responses to wildlife
million is currently being offered for information on the
trafficking related to law enforcement, demand reduction,
Xaysavang Network, a wildlife trafficking syndicate led
and cooperation. The Administration also released a plan to
by Laos-based Vixay Keosavang);
implement the National Strategy with 24 core objectives—
Carl Levin and Howard P. “Buck” McKeon National
several of which involve steps specific to Asia, including
Defense Authorization Act for FY2015 (P.L. 113-291),
support for U.S. participation in international enforcement
which expands the Defense Department’s
operations targeting wildlife poaching networks in Asia;
counternarcotics authorities to include international
initiatives in Asia to reduce demand and raise trafficking
support to combat wildlife trafficking (in Asia, partner
awareness among potential consumers; and expanded
support efforts are underway through the U.S. Pacific
cooperation with China.
Command, the Joint Interagency Task Force-West, and
Policy Implementation
the Naval Criminal Investigative Service); and
Key U.S. agencies involved in implementing the National
State Department funding in FY2014 ($45 million) and
Strategy in Asia include the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
FY2015 ($55 million) appropriations Acts (P.L. 113-76
(FWS), which has stationed a special agent at the U.S.
and P.L. 113-235) specifically to combat wildlife
Embassy in Bangkok, Thailand, since 2014 and continues
poaching and trafficking—in addition to longstanding
to protect Asian wildlife through its Multinational Species
appropriations for FWS’s MSCF ($9.1 million in
Conservation Fund (MSCF) programs for Asian tigers,
FY2015), a program that is also funded with proceeds of
rhinos, elephants, and marine turtles. The U.S. Department
a special-issued postage stamp as well as through
of State and Agency for International Development
matching support from partner organizations.
additionally fund multiple anti-trafficking projects
internationally. U.S. agencies also partner with outside
Several bills pertaining to wildlife trafficking have been
groups to develop training material for wildlife trafficking
introduced in the 114th Congress (e.g., S. 27, H.R. 2494,
investigations, implement novel technologies to survey
and H.R. 1945). As Congress evaluates the Obama
Administration’s anti
animal populations, and pursue consumer awareness and
-trafficking efforts, the Asia-Pacific
demand reduction campaigns.
region may come under particular scrutiny, especially with
respect to demand reduction. Some approaches to enhance
Building on recent momentum to address wildlife
existing efforts might include greater Intelligence
trafficking, the United States has supported three
Community focus on the impact of Asian wildlife
multinational counter-trafficking operations known as
trafficking on U.S. national security, along the lines of a
Cobra I, II, and III. During Cobra III, which took place in
2013 assessment by the National Intelligence Council on
May 2015, participating law enforcement authorities from
poaching threats in Africa. Another approach might involve
62 countries reported 139 arrests and more than 247
more regional action to account for differences in the
seizures of ivory, rhino horns, pangolins, tortoises,
manifestation of wildlife trafficking among Asian countries.
rosewood, rare medicinal plants, and other Asian wildlife.
Wildlife trafficking has also been a topic under
Law enforcement activity has also translated into U.S.
consideration as part of the multilateral Trans-Pacific
indictments, prosecutions, and convictions related to Asia-
Partnership trade negotiations.
linked wildlife trafficking.
Within the Asia-Pacific region, much attention remains on
Heightened attention to the wildlife trafficking situation has
China, which is widely believed to be the primary source of
prompted several Asian countries to increase their
global demand for illegal wildlife products. The topic was
discussed during President Xi Jinping’s State Visit
commitments and political will to combat such crimes.
to the
China, Hong Kong, and the Philippines have also destroyed
United States in September 2015. It has also been discussed
domestic ivory stockpiles since 2013 (the United States
in past meetings of the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic
conducted its own ivory stockpile crushes in 2013 and
Dialogues, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and
2015). In 2014, the Prime Minister of Vietnam issued a top-
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.
level directive to give priority to wildlife trafficking
Liana W. Rosen, Specialist in International Crime and
enforcement, and China committed $10 million in funding
Narcotics
to support wildlife protection and conservation in Africa.
Pervaze A. Sheikh, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Congressional Role and Policy Issues
IF10305
Recent Congresses have taken steps to address wildlife
trafficking by holding hearings; expanding, renewing,
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10305 · VERSION 9 · NEW
October 15, 2015
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
Scope of the Problem
than $200 million annually). Other wildlife commonly
Asian demand for illegal wildlife has increased in recent
trafficked include pangolins, rhinos, bears, and tigers.
years, raising concerns about species conservation amid
heightened poaching rates. As one of several contributing
Illegal Ivory: Top Asian Countries of Concern
threats to biodiversity, wildlife poaching also raises national
security and transnational crime concerns. Crimes related to
At the 16th meeting of the Conference of the Parties
illegal wildlife reportedly generate billions of dollars each
(CoP) to the Convention on International Trade in
year, a source of funds that may fuel instability and finance
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in 2013,
armed groups, particularly in Africa. Closer to illicit retail
eight States Parties were identified as countries of
outlets, the markup on wildlife products is most pronounced
“primary concern” for their role in the illegal trade in
in Asia, and Asian criminal groups largely control this high-
elephant ivory—including five Asian countries: China
profit, low-risk black market—often benefitting from the
(including Hong Kong), Malaysia, the Philippines,
cooperation of corrupt government officials to facilitate
Thailand, and Vietnam. At subsequent CITES
cross-border shipments and protect traffickers. According
Standing Committee meetings, several additional
to the United Nations, environmental crimes represent
countries were designated as countries of “secondary
nearly one-third of the Asia-Pacific black market,
concern” or “importance to watch”—including Laos.
conservatively estimated to be worth approximately $86
billion annually (see Figure 1, below). Illegal wildlife,
Tiger Trafficking and Population Trends
however, represents only a small portion of major
Wild tigers in Asia are believed to range across 13
environmental crimes in the region (the largest contributor
countries, although field estimates suggest that tiger
to environmental crimes is illegal trade in wood products).
populations are declining overall (see Table 1 below).
Figure 1. Organized Crime in the Asia-Pacific Region
Bucking the trend, India has reported increases of up to
30% in tiger populations in the past three years. Captive
tiger populations in several Asian countries may be higher.
For example, China has over 5,000 captive tigers.
Table 1. Wild Tiger Population Estimates
Country
Field Estimate
Official Estimate
Bangladesh
n/a
300-500
Bhutan
50
115-150
Burma
n/a
85
Cambodia
0
10-30
China
<7
20
India
1,706
2,226
Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational
Laos
2
17
Organized Crime in East Asia and the Pacific (2013).
Malaysia
300
250-340
The recent surge in Asian demand for illegal wildlife is
Nepal
198
198
driven largely by an expansion of wealth in Asian countries
North Korea
n/a
n/a
and the perceived value of rare wildlife and related products
as luxury goods, exotic pets, restaurant delicacies, and
Russia
n/a
360
ingredients in traditional Asian medicine. According to the
United Nations, illegal marine wildlife trafficking
Thailand
221
189-252
(excluding off-shore illegal fishing) represents the largest
Vietnam
<5
<10
market in Asia (at least $850 million annually). Such
trafficking involves species of sharks, marine turtles, corals
Source: International Union for Conservation of Nature.
and aquarium fish, and seahorses. Among illegally traded
U.S. Responses
mammals, Asian consumer demand for elephant ivory has
surged in recent years and represents more than half the
In July 2013, President Barack Obama issued Executive
total illegal wildlife market for mammals in Asia (more
Order (E.O.) 13648 on combating wildlife trafficking. It
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
directed federal agencies to enhance efforts to address the
authorizing, and allocating specific funds for programs to
problem, established an interagency Presidential Task Force
combat such trafficking; and introducing new bills. Such
on Wildlife Trafficking to produce a National Strategy for
efforts have included the following:
Combating Wildlife Trafficking, and created a non-
governmental Advisory Council on Wildlife Trafficking to
Department of State Rewards Program Update and
provide outside expertise and support to the Task Force.
Technical Corrections Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-283),
which allows the State Department to offer rewards for
In February 2014, the Obama Administration released a
information on transnational criminal networks,
National Strategy for Combating Wildlife Trafficking. It
including those related to wildlife trafficking (up to $1
prioritizes domestic and international responses to wildlife
million is currently being offered for information on the
trafficking related to law enforcement, demand reduction,
Xaysavang Network, a wildlife trafficking syndicate led
and cooperation. The Administration also released a plan to
by Laos-based Vixay Keosavang);
implement the National Strategy with 24 core objectives—
Carl Levin and Howard P. “Buck” McKeon National
several of which involve steps specific to Asia, including
Defense Authorization Act for FY2015 (P.L. 113-291),
support for U.S. participation in international enforcement
which expands the Defense Department’s
operations targeting wildlife poaching networks in Asia;
counternarcotics authorities to include international
initiatives in Asia to reduce demand and raise trafficking
support to combat wildlife trafficking (in Asia, partner
awareness among potential consumers; and expanded
support efforts are underway through the U.S. Pacific
cooperation with China.
Command, the Joint Interagency Task Force-West, and
Policy Implementation
the Naval Criminal Investigative Service); and
Key U.S. agencies involved in implementing the National
State Department funding in FY2014 ($45 million) and
Strategy in Asia include the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
FY2015 ($55 million) appropriations Acts (P.L. 113-76
(FWS), which has stationed a special agent at the U.S.
and P.L. 113-235) specifically to combat wildlife
Embassy in Bangkok, Thailand, since 2014 and continues
poaching and trafficking—in addition to longstanding
to protect Asian wildlife through its Multinational Species
appropriations for FWS’s MSCF ($9.1 million in
Conservation Fund (MSCF) programs for Asian tigers,
FY2015), a program that is also funded with proceeds of
rhinos, elephants, and marine turtles. The U.S. Department
a special-issued postage stamp as well as through
of State and Agency for International Development
matching support from partner organizations.
additionally fund multiple anti-trafficking projects
internationally. U.S. agencies also partner with outside
Several bills pertaining to wildlife trafficking have been
groups to develop training material for wildlife trafficking
introduced in the 114th Congress (e.g., S. 27, H.R. 2494,
investigations, implement novel technologies to survey
and H.R. 1945). As Congress evaluates the Obama
Administration’s anti
animal populations, and pursue consumer awareness and
-trafficking efforts, the Asia-Pacific
demand reduction campaigns.
region may come under particular scrutiny, especially with
respect to demand reduction. Some approaches to enhance
Building on recent momentum to address wildlife
existing efforts might include greater Intelligence
trafficking, the United States has supported three
Community focus on the impact of Asian wildlife
multinational counter-trafficking operations known as
trafficking on U.S. national security, along the lines of a
Cobra I, II, and III. During Cobra III, which took place in
2013 assessment by the National Intelligence Council on
May 2015, participating law enforcement authorities from
poaching threats in Africa. Another approach might involve
62 countries reported 139 arrests and more than 247
more regional action to account for differences in the
seizures of ivory, rhino horns, pangolins, tortoises,
manifestation of wildlife trafficking among Asian countries.
rosewood, rare medicinal plants, and other Asian wildlife.
Wildlife trafficking has also been a topic under
Law enforcement activity has also translated into U.S.
consideration as part of the multilateral Trans-Pacific
indictments, prosecutions, and convictions related to Asia-
Partnership trade negotiations.
linked wildlife trafficking.
Within the Asia-Pacific region, much attention remains on
Heightened attention to the wildlife trafficking situation has
China, which is widely believed to be the primary source of
prompted several Asian countries to increase their
global demand for illegal wildlife products. The topic was
discussed during President Xi Jinping’s State Visit
commitments and political will to combat such crimes.
to the
China, Hong Kong, and the Philippines have also destroyed
United States in September 2015. It has also been discussed
domestic ivory stockpiles since 2013 (the United States
in past meetings of the U.S.-China Strategic and Economic
conducted its own ivory stockpile crushes in 2013 and
Dialogues, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, and
2015). In 2014, the Prime Minister of Vietnam issued a top-
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum.
level directive to give priority to wildlife trafficking
Liana W. Rosen, Specialist in International Crime and
enforcement, and China committed $10 million in funding
Narcotics
to support wildlife protection and conservation in Africa.
Pervaze A. Sheikh, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Congressional Role and Policy Issues
IF10305
Recent Congresses have taken steps to address wildlife
trafficking by holding hearings; expanding, renewing,
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking in Asia: An Overview
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10305 · VERSION 9 · NEW