Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
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Updated March 20, 2019
Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Mixed Migration to Europe
Routes, Flows, and Arrival Profiles
Over the past several years, Europe has experienced
Refugees and migrants travel various routes to reach
significant refugee and migrant flows as people have fled
Europe, and the routes often shift in use and popularity. As
conflict and poverty in bordering regions. Although 2015 is
seen in Figure 1, several routes cross the western, central,
considered the height of the crisis, refugee and migrant
and eastern Mediterranean Sea. Greece and Italy have been
arrivals have continued (see Table 1). The war in Syria has
major arrival and transit points for years, and Spain has
created millions of refugees in neighboring countries and
seen an uptick in arrivals since 2017. There are land routes
driven some to leave for Europe. Other refugees and
via Turkey and the Balkans and along eastern borders with
migrants originate from elsewhere in the Middle East, as
Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, and Russia.
well as Afghanistan, Africa, South Asia, and some Western
Balkan countries. Experts characterize these flows as mixed
Figure 1. Main Mediterranean Sea Migration Routes
migration, defined as different groups of people—such as
economic migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless
persons, trafficked persons, and unaccompanied children—
who travel the same routes and use the same modes of
transportation (see text box). Many of these individuals do
not have the required documentation, such as passports and
visas, and often use smugglers and unauthorized border
crossings.
The flows have challenged European governments and the
European Union (EU). The distinctions between groups in
the mixed migration flows have raised questions about
determination of status and rights. A key policy
consideration is whether the movement is viewed as
voluntary or forced. The U.N. High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) asserts that many of the arrivals are
from refugee-producing countries and require due process
for asylum claims. Many also need humanitarian and
protection assistance. At the same time, some of those
seeking to enter Europe may be economic migrants.
Source: Graphic created by CRS, based on information from The
Economist, New York Times, UNHCR, and Frontex.
Mixed migration flows may include groups such as
Reportedly, significant numbers of refugees and migrants
Economic migrants, who are largely trying to escape poverty
arriving in Greece come from Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan,
and seek a better life. They do so legally or il egally, for the long
whereas a majority of those arriving in Italy and Spain are
term or temporarily. In theory, these migrants would receive the
from African countries. Although the main surge in arrivals
protection of their government should they return home.
occurred in 2015, the estimated number of dead or missing
Refugees, who have fled their country of origin because of a
was highest in 2016. The International Organization for
well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
Migration (IOM) estimates that many of those who have
nationality, or membership in a particular social or political
perished in the Mediterranean were from Africa.
group. Refugees are unwil ing or unable to avail themselves of
the protection of their home government due to fears of
Table 1. Estimated Refugee/Migrant Flows to Europe
persecution. Once granted refugee status, a person has certain
legal rights and protections under international law.
Year
Sea Arrivals
Land Arrivals
Dead/Missing
Asylum-seekers, who flee their home country and seek
2014
216,054
Not available
3,538
sanctuary in another state where they apply for asylum (i.e., the
right to be recognized as a refugee). Asylum-seekers may receive
2015
1,015,078
34,887
3,771
legal protection and assistance while their formal status is
2016
362,753
24,388
5,096
determined.
Stateless persons, who are not considered to be citizens of any
2017
161,338
10,550
3,049
state under national laws.
2018
116,711
24,800
2,277
Source: UNHCR, IOM.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Many refugees and migrants are eager to reach European
the “frontline” countries of Italy and Greece to help register
countries that belong to the Schengen area of free
refugees and migrants; efforts to strengthen external EU
movement, which allows travel without passport checks
border controls and bolster Frontex (the EU’s border and
among 26 participating states. Germany and Sweden
coast guard agency); and initiatives to address the root
traditionally have been preferred final destinations due to
causes of migration, especially in Africa. The EU also has
perceptions that they are more likely to grant asylum and
worked to resettle refugees from outside the EU and to
provide better welfare benefits.
relocate some asylum-seekers from Greece and Italy to
other EU countries for asylum processing.
Asylum Claims
As seen in Table 2, asylum claims in the EU spiked in 2015
Despite the decrease in refugee and migrant arrivals since
and 2016 but have since decreased to pre-crisis levels.
2016, many EU governments face domestic pressure for
policies largely aimed at curbing future flows. Among other
Table 2. First-Time Asylum Applications in the EU
measures, the EU is considering establishing regional
disembarkation platforms outside the EU to assess asylum
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
claims for people saved at sea. This proposal is
562,700
1,256,600
1,206,000
654,600
580,800
controversial both within and outside the EU amid
questions about its feasibility and legality. The EU would
Source: Eurostat.
have to persuade non-EU countries to participate, and some
African countries do not appear inclined to do so. Revising
Some 80% of asylum claims in the fourth quarter of 2018
EU asylum processing rules to relieve some of the burden
were in six EU countries: Germany (24%), France (21%),
on frontline states is also contentious. In 2018, Italy began
Greece (13%), Spain (10%), the UK (7%), and Italy (6%).
turning away some ships with rescued refugees and
On average in the EU, 90% of Syrians and 80% of Eritreans
migrants, asserting that other EU countries must be willing
qualified for asylum or subsidiary protection, as did over
to accept more individuals for asylum processing.
50% of Afghans, Sudanese, and Somalis, and roughly 40%
of Iraqis and Iranians. The majority of asylum claims from
International Humanitarian Response
people from other African countries, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
UNHCR is working closely with the EU, national
and the Western Balkans were rejected.
governments, and local authorities to assess humanitarian
and protection needs and provide support. Other
EU Responses and Challenges
international humanitarian organizations and entities are
For years, the EU has sought to develop a comprehensive
also assisting the displaced. Even as overall numbers of
migration and asylum policy, but progress has been slow
refugee and migrant arrivals fall, reports of people
because of national sovereignty concerns and sensitivities
smuggling; trafficking networks; unaccompanied children;
about minorities and integration. As a result, policies vary
abuses (including sexual violence, torture, abductions); and
widely across the EU. Germany and Sweden have accepted
deaths persist. With limited oversight and legal protection,
hundreds of thousands of migrants and refugees since 2015,
UNHCR and others argue the flow of arrivals cannot be
but other EU countries—especially in Central and Eastern
exported to other countries. Experts say there is a need for
Europe—have been less welcoming. The EU has attempted
increased resettlement, safe and legal mechanisms for
to address the flows through a range of initiatives, but the
arrivals, greater access to asylum procedures at borders, and
flows have posed humanitarian and security challenges,
better protection in neighboring countries.
strained the Schengen system, and divided the EU.
Issues for the United States
By March 2016, EU efforts began to focus on discouraging
Many U.S. officials and Members of Congress view the
people from undertaking the journey to Europe. EU leaders
refugee and migrant flows to Europe as a potential threat to
agreed to end the “wave-through approach,” which allowed
the region’s stability and a key challenge facing the EU.
individuals arriving in Greece to transit the Western
U.S. concerns also have centered on the risk that terrorists
Balkans to seek asylum in other EU countries. The EU also
could enter Europe as part of the flows. The United States
concluded a deal with Turkey in which Turkey agreed to
has supported NATO maritime missions and NATO-EU
take back irregular migrants crossing from Turkey into
cooperation in the Mediterranean, and U.S. and EU officials
Greece in exchange for substantial EU financial assistance
traditionally have worked together on global refugee and
and other concessions. The accord with Turkey and similar
migration concerns. In 2018, U.N. member states adopted a
EU efforts in 2017 to work with the U.N.-backed Libyan
Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
government are credited with helping reduce the flows.
and a Global Compact on Refugees. The United States
Such measures, however, remain controversial on human
withdrew from both compacts during the negotiation phase.
rights grounds and fragile given heightened EU-Turkish
The U.S. worldwide refugee ceiling was set at 110,000 in
tensions and instability in Libya. In late 2017, the EU began
FY2017, 45,000 in FY2018, and 30,000 in FY2019.
assisting refugees and migrants facing abuse in Libyan
detention centers with repatriation to their country of origin,
Kristin Archick,
or, for those unable to return, with resettlement elsewhere.
Rhoda Margesson,
Other EU steps since 2015 to address the flows include
IF10259
enhanced EU maritime missions in the Mediterranean and
cooperation with NATO to save lives and combat human
trafficking; establishment of EU facilities (or hotspots) in
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10259 · VERSION 8 · UPDATED
Updated March 20, 2019
Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Mixed Migration to Europe
Routes, Flows, and Arrival Profiles
Over the past several years, Europe has experienced
Refugees and migrants travel various routes to reach
significant refugee and migrant flows as people have fled
Europe, and the routes often shift in use and popularity. As
conflict and poverty in bordering regions. Although 2015 is
seen in Figure 1, several routes cross the western, central,
considered the height of the crisis, refugee and migrant
and eastern Mediterranean Sea. Greece and Italy have been
arrivals have continued (see Table 1). The war in Syria has
major arrival and transit points for years, and Spain has
created millions of refugees in neighboring countries and
seen an uptick in arrivals since 2017. There are land routes
driven some to leave for Europe. Other refugees and
via Turkey and the Balkans and along eastern borders with
migrants originate from elsewhere in the Middle East, as
Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, and Russia.
well as Afghanistan, Africa, South Asia, and some Western
Balkan countries. Experts characterize these flows as mixed
Figure 1. Main Mediterranean Sea Migration Routes
migration, defined as different groups of people—such as
economic migrants, refugees, asylum-seekers, stateless
persons, trafficked persons, and unaccompanied children—
who travel the same routes and use the same modes of
transportation (see text box). Many of these individuals do
not have the required documentation, such as passports and
visas, and often use smugglers and unauthorized border
crossings.
The flows have challenged European governments and the
European Union (EU). The distinctions between groups in
the mixed migration flows have raised questions about
determination of status and rights. A key policy
consideration is whether the movement is viewed as
voluntary or forced. The U.N. High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) asserts that many of the arrivals are
from refugee-producing countries and require due process
for asylum claims. Many also need humanitarian and
protection assistance. At the same time, some of those
seeking to enter Europe may be economic migrants.
Source: Graphic created by CRS, based on information from The
Economist, New York Times, UNHCR, and Frontex.
Mixed migration flows may include groups such as
Reportedly, significant numbers of refugees and migrants
Economic migrants, who are largely trying to escape poverty
arriving in Greece come from Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan,
and seek a better life. They do so legally or il egally, for the long
whereas a majority of those arriving in Italy and Spain are
term or temporarily. In theory, these migrants would receive the
from African countries. Although the main surge in arrivals
protection of their government should they return home.
occurred in 2015, the estimated number of dead or missing
Refugees, who have fled their country of origin because of a
was highest in 2016. The International Organization for
well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion,
Migration (IOM) estimates that many of those who have
nationality, or membership in a particular social or political
perished in the Mediterranean were from Africa.
group. Refugees are unwil ing or unable to avail themselves of
the protection of their home government due to fears of
Table 1. Estimated Refugee/Migrant Flows to Europe
persecution. Once granted refugee status, a person has certain
legal rights and protections under international law.
Year
Sea Arrivals
Land Arrivals
Dead/Missing
Asylum-seekers, who flee their home country and seek
2014
216,054
Not available
3,538
sanctuary in another state where they apply for asylum (i.e., the
right to be recognized as a refugee). Asylum-seekers may receive
2015
1,015,078
34,887
3,771
legal protection and assistance while their formal status is
2016
362,753
24,388
5,096
determined.
Stateless persons, who are not considered to be citizens of any
2017
161,338
10,550
3,049
state under national laws.
2018
116,711
24,800
2,277
Source: UNHCR, IOM.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
link to page 2 Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Many refugees and migrants are eager to reach European
the “frontline” countries of Italy and Greece to help register
countries that belong to the Schengen area of free
refugees and migrants; efforts to strengthen external EU
movement, which allows travel without passport checks
border controls and bolster Frontex (the EU’s border and
among 26 participating states. Germany and Sweden
coast guard agency); and initiatives to address the root
traditionally have been preferred final destinations due to
causes of migration, especially in Africa. The EU also has
perceptions that they are more likely to grant asylum and
worked to resettle refugees from outside the EU and to
provide better welfare benefits.
relocate some asylum-seekers from Greece and Italy to
other EU countries for asylum processing.
Asylum Claims
As seen in Table 2, asylum claims in the EU spiked in 2015
Despite the decrease in refugee and migrant arrivals since
and 2016 but have since decreased to pre-crisis levels.
2016, many EU governments face domestic pressure for
policies largely aimed at curbing future flows. Among other
Table 2. First-Time Asylum Applications in the EU
measures, the EU is considering establishing regional
disembarkation platforms outside the EU to assess asylum
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
claims for people saved at sea. This proposal is
562,700
1,256,600
1,206,000
654,600
580,800
controversial both within and outside the EU amid
questions about its feasibility and legality. The EU would
Source: Eurostat.
have to persuade non-EU countries to participate, and some
African countries do not appear inclined to do so. Revising
Some 80% of asylum claims in the fourth quarter of 2018
EU asylum processing rules to relieve some of the burden
were in six EU countries: Germany (24%), France (21%),
on frontline states is also contentious. In 2018, Italy began
Greece (13%), Spain (10%), the UK (7%), and Italy (6%).
turning away some ships with rescued refugees and
On average in the EU, 90% of Syrians and 80% of Eritreans
migrants, asserting that other EU countries must be willing
qualified for asylum or subsidiary protection, as did over
to accept more individuals for asylum processing.
50% of Afghans, Sudanese, and Somalis, and roughly 40%
of Iraqis and Iranians. The majority of asylum claims from
International Humanitarian Response
people from other African countries, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
UNHCR is working closely with the EU, national
and the Western Balkans were rejected.
governments, and local authorities to assess humanitarian
and protection needs and provide support. Other
EU Responses and Challenges
international humanitarian organizations and entities are
For years, the EU has sought to develop a comprehensive
also assisting the displaced. Even as overall numbers of
migration and asylum policy, but progress has been slow
refugee and migrant arrivals fall, reports of people
because of national sovereignty concerns and sensitivities
smuggling; trafficking networks; unaccompanied children;
about minorities and integration. As a result, policies vary
abuses (including sexual violence, torture, abductions); and
widely across the EU. Germany and Sweden have accepted
deaths persist. With limited oversight and legal protection,
hundreds of thousands of migrants and refugees since 2015,
UNHCR and others argue the flow of arrivals cannot be
but other EU countries—especially in Central and Eastern
exported to other countries. Experts say there is a need for
Europe—have been less welcoming. The EU has attempted
increased resettlement, safe and legal mechanisms for
to address the flows through a range of initiatives, but the
arrivals, greater access to asylum procedures at borders, and
flows have posed humanitarian and security challenges,
better protection in neighboring countries.
strained the Schengen system, and divided the EU.
Issues for the United States
By March 2016, EU efforts began to focus on discouraging
Many U.S. officials and Members of Congress view the
people from undertaking the journey to Europe. EU leaders
refugee and migrant flows to Europe as a potential threat to
agreed to end the “wave-through approach,” which allowed
the region’s stability and a key challenge facing the EU.
individuals arriving in Greece to transit the Western
U.S. concerns also have centered on the risk that terrorists
Balkans to seek asylum in other EU countries. The EU also
could enter Europe as part of the flows. The United States
concluded a deal with Turkey in which Turkey agreed to
has supported NATO maritime missions and NATO-EU
take back irregular migrants crossing from Turkey into
cooperation in the Mediterranean, and U.S. and EU officials
Greece in exchange for substantial EU financial assistance
traditionally have worked together on global refugee and
and other concessions. The accord with Turkey and similar
migration concerns. In 2018, U.N. member states adopted a
EU efforts in 2017 to work with the U.N.-backed Libyan
Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
government are credited with helping reduce the flows.
and a Global Compact on Refugees. The United States
Such measures, however, remain controversial on human
withdrew from both compacts during the negotiation phase.
rights grounds and fragile given heightened EU-Turkish
The U.S. worldwide refugee ceiling was set at 110,000 in
tensions and instability in Libya. In late 2017, the EU began
FY2017, 45,000 in FY2018, and 30,000 in FY2019.
assisting refugees and migrants facing abuse in Libyan
detention centers with repatriation to their country of origin,
Kristin Archick,
or, for those unable to return, with resettlement elsewhere.
Rhoda Margesson,
Other EU steps since 2015 to address the flows include
IF10259
enhanced EU maritime missions in the Mediterranean and
cooperation with NATO to save lives and combat human
trafficking; establishment of EU facilities (or hotspots) in
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Europe’s Refugee and Migration Flows
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10259 · VERSION 8 · UPDATED