South Sudan: Current Issues
October 1, 2014
South Sudan: Current Issues
South Sudan emerged in 2011 as the world’s newest
country, and as one of its least developed. After almost
40 years of war between the Sudan government and
southern insurgents, an overwhelming majority of southern
Sudanese voted in January 2011 to secede from Sudan.
More than 2.5 million people were killed in the civil war
and more than 4 million were displaced. Many fled as
refugees, including to the United States. South Sudan was
devastated by the conflict, which hindered the development
of basic infrastructure and formal civilian institutions. The
war created massive, chronic humanitarian needs that have
persisted, despite a bounty of natural resources, including
75% of Sudan’s former oil reserves. Corruption also slowed
post-war recovery and development. South Sudan was the
world’s largest recipient of humanitarian aid in 2013.
the population, facing alarming levels of food insecurity.
The fighting has disrupted farming cycles and grazing
In December 2013, less than three years after
patterns, and local markets have collapsed. Aid agencies
independence, growing political tensions among key
warn that parts of the country may face famine conditions
leaders in South Sudan erupted in violence. The political
in early 2015. Of the displaced, more than 458,000 people
dispute that triggered the crisis was not based on ethnic
have fled as refugees to neighboring Ethiopia, Sudan,
identity, but it overlapped with preexisting ethnic and
Uganda, and Kenya. The conflict also affects humanitarian
political grievances, sparking armed clashes and targeted
access to over 220,000 refugees who fled an ongoing
ethnic killings in the capital, Juba, and then beyond.
conflict in neighboring Sudan and who are sheltering in
Ongoing fighting, between forces loyal to South Sudan
camps in South Sudan.
President Salva Kiir and forces aligned with his former vice
president, Riek Machar, and among armed civilians, has
U.N. officials assert that targeted attacks against
caused a security and humanitarian emergency, adding to
civilians and U.N. personnel during the conflict may
vast pre-existing needs and development challenges.
constitute war crimes or crimes against humanity. The
U.N. Mission in the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS)
After the initial outbreak of violence, Riek Machar
reported in May that “from the very outset of the violence,
declared a rebellion against President Kiir, who accused
gross violations of human rights and serious violations of
Machar of plotting a coup. The fighting has continued,
humanitarian law have occurred on a massive scale.
despite international pressure to resolve the conflict and
Civilians were not only caught up in the violence, they were
repeated commitments by the warring parties to observe a
directly targeted, often along ethnic lines.” Both sides have
cessation of hostilities deal signed in January.
reportedly used child soldiers. Thousands have been killed,
and almost 100,000 have sought refuge at UNMISS
Regional mediators have led negotiations in Ethiopia
peacekeeping bases. By numerous accounts, many of those
amid ongoing violence, but progress has been limited. In
sheltering at the crowded U.N. bases fear that they may be
early June, the two sides agreed to the mediators’ proposal
targeted based on political or ethnic affiliation if they leave.
for a transitional government, but they continue to disagree
Disease outbreaks are a major concern in the rainy
on its composition. Significant questions remain regarding
season—the first cholera cases were reported in May.
the scope of the dialogue to come, the willingness of either
side to compromise, and the extent to which other
Background and Context
stakeholders are included in the process. Some South
Sudanese express concern that a proposed power-sharing
The current crisis reflects underlying tensions and
arrangement may not address the root causes of the conflict.
mistrust among South Sudanese leaders and ethnic
groups that date back to Sudan’s civil war, and before.
Impact of the Conflict
While the war was described broadly as a north-south
conflict, infighting among southern rebel commanders in
More than 1.8 million people have been displaced since
the 1990s nearly derailed the southern bid for self-
December, and experts warn that the country is on the
determination, as leaders of the insurgency, the Sudan
verge of a humanitarian catastrophe. U.N. officials
People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/SPLA),
estimate that 7 million people are at risk of hunger and
competed for power and mobilized supporters along ethnic
disease in 2014, with nearly 4 million, almost one-third of
lines, resulting in atrocities by all sides. Khartoum fueled
SPLM splits by financing and arming breakaway factions.
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South Sudan: Current Issues
The major factions reconciled in the early 2000s, although
Responding to the Crisis
several smaller southern militias continued to operate.
The international community is mobilizing diplomatic,
In 2005, the Sudan government and the SPLM signed the
humanitarian, and peacekeeping resources to protect
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) to end the war.
civilians, respond to rising needs, and bring an end to
That deal paved the way for 2010 elections and the southern
the conflict. Donors have pledged about $963 million to
referendum, after which South Sudan, led by the SPLM,
date in response to a U.N. appeal for $1.8 billion in relief
seceded in July 2011. The relationship between Sudan
aid for 2014. The United States is by far the largest
and South Sudan remains tense, and parts of the CPA
humanitarian donor, allocating more than $720 million.
have yet to be fully implemented. In early 2012, South
Sudan’s government, angered by Khartoum’s unilateral
The humanitarian response has been constrained by
decisions regarding the transit and export of South
funding shortfalls, access challenges, threats against
Sudanese oil through Sudan, and by border disputes,
U.N. and other aid agency personnel, and ongoing
suspended oil production for over a year. This led to fiscal
hostilities. The looting of relief supplies at the onset of the
austerity measures and economic shocks in both countries.
conflict, followed by heavy seasonal rains, has necessitated
the costly distribution of food supplies by air. The U.N.
Most SPLM leaders publicly put aside their differences as
Security Council unanimously authorized a substantial
the war was ending to present a unified front and, in some
increase in peacekeeping forces for UNMISS in December,
cases, position themselves for political office. Ethnic
and in late May modified the mission’s mandate to focus on
tensions and bitter interpersonal rivalries grew under the
four key tasks: protecting civilians, monitoring and
strain of increased governing responsibilities, amid severe
investigating human rights abuses, facilitating aid delivery,
human, institutional, and infrastructure capacity constraints.
and supporting the cessation of hostilities deal. African
The country remained awash in small arms, and localized
leaders have joined U.N., U.S., and other international
interethnic violence increased and appeared progressively
leaders in criticizing both sides for the civilian suffering
politicized. Political maneuvering ahead of anticipated
arising from the ongoing fighting, and East African officials
2015 elections added to these dynamics. Work on a new
have threatened sanctions against the warring parties.
constitution stalled, and a political struggle among senior
SPLM members unfolded. President Kiir’s July 2013
“If the conflict continues, half of South Sudan’s 12 mil ion
cabinet reshuffle, in which long-time political rival and
people wil either be displaced internally, refugees abroad,
presidential hopeful Machar and other key officials were
starving or dead by the year’s end.” U.N. Secretary-General
removed from office, formalized a major fissure in the
Ban Ki-moon to the U.N. Security Council, May 12, 2014
ruling party. Tensions rose as Machar and others publicly
accused President Kiir of becoming increasingly dictatorial.
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
The initial fighting, on December 15, reportedly
occurred in Juba between presidential guard soldiers
The United States played a major role in facilitating the
from the country’s largest and second largest ethnic
CPA and South Sudan’s subsequent independence, and
groups, the Dinka and the Nuer, from which Kiir and
the United States has been the country’s largest bilateral
Machar, respectively, hail. The fighting soon spread
foreign aid donor. It also has played a lead role in U.N.
beyond the capital to the eastern state of Jonglei, where
Security Council deliberations on the country. Engagement
inter-communal violence had already displaced 100,000
by Congress has been historically driven by human rights
people, and to the oil-producing states of Unity and Upper
and humanitarian concerns. Despite strains in the
Nile. South Sudan’s military split, largely along ethnic
relationship with the South Sudan government, several
lines. Some military units rebelled against Kiir, purportedly
senior Obama Administration officials have expressed a
in response to targeted ethnic attacks against Nuer in Juba
personal stake in resolving the current crisis. U.S. officials
by government forces. The fighting has primarily occurred
have sought to pressure both sides to accept a settlement
in Jonglei, Unity, and Upper Nile as the two sides vie for
that will facilitate reconciliation and as accountability for
territory. Ugandan military support for the government has
crimes committed during the conflict. President Obama
been controversial. Other neighbors have sought to
imposed targeted sanctions under Executive Order
maintain the appearance of neutrality, although some South
13664 on two military leaders deemed responsible for
Sudan officials accuse Sudan of arming Machar’s forces.
fueling the war—a senior rebel commander and the head of
the presidential guard—in May 2014. Two additional
Senior SPLM political figures were initially arrested in
commanders were sanctioned in September. The State
December for plotting what President Kiir claimed was
Department has requested $331 million in FY2015 foreign
a failed coup attempt. U.S. officials have reported no
aid for South Sudan (not including anticipated humanitarian
evidence of such an effort. The detained politicians were
aid) to protect development gains, ensure delivery of
later released, but not exonerated, and they have sought to
essential services, and promote peace, in addition to a
form a third block at the peace talks. Rebuilding trust
request of more than $390 million to support UNMISS.
among political leaders, and between communities affected
by ethnic violence, may prove increasingly difficult the
See also CRS Report R43344, The Crisis in South Sudan.
longer the crisis continues. Many warn that the fighting
may increase with the onset of the dry season in late 2014.
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, lploch@crs.loc.gov, 7-7640
IF00032
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