Mali: Current Issues
October 3, 2014
Mali: Current Issues
With substantial international assistance, Mali has
emerged from a complex political and security crisis, yet
still faces stark challenges. Between 2011 and 2013, Mali
experienced a separatist rebellion in the north led by
members of the nomadic minority ethnic Tuareg
community, a military coup that overthrew an elected
government, a regional drought that caused a food security
crisis, and ultimately the takeover of the northern two-thirds
of the country by Islamist extremists.
By mid-2012, three Islamist extremist groups had routed or
integrated most of the separatist fighters and asserted
control over most of northern Mali. These groups were: Al
Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), a regional
network led primarily by Algerian nationals; the Movement
for Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJWA), an AQIM
help stabilize key areas and protect civilians; assist with
splinter faction founded by Mauritanian and Malian Arabs;
political dialogue, national reconciliation, and the conduct
and a Malian Tuareg-led group, Ansar al Dine. In 2013,
of anticipated local-level elections; support the
MUJWA and another AQIM splinter faction merged as Al
reestablishment of state authority; and promote human
Murabitoun, a group described by the State Department as
rights, among other tasks. MINUSMA does not have a
“the greatest near-term threat to U.S. and international
direct counterterrorism role, unlike French forces.
interests in the Sahel.” These groups reportedly have ties to
Logistical hurdles and security threats—including regular
the Nigerian group Boko Haram, elements of which
attacks by Islamist insurgents—have hindered the mission’s
reportedly received training in northern Mali in 2012.
ability to deploy its forces beyond large towns in the north.
France launched a military intervention in January 2013
Security conditions in the north have improved since
that ousted Islamist commanders from major towns in the
2012, but rebel groups have not been demobilized and
north. Acting under a bilateral agreement with Mali, French
Islamist extremists have not been fully defeated. In May
operations have killed or captured a number of extremist
2014, deadly clashes erupted between Malian troops and
fighters and disrupted their logistical networks. The French
the Tuareg-led National Movement for the Liberation of
were assisted in early 2013 by Chadian military forces that
Azawad (MNLA), along with other rebel forces, in the
had deployed as part of an African Union (AU) stabilization
MNLA stronghold of Kidal, when Prime Minister Moussa
operation. Some extremist commanders reportedly moved
Mara attempted to visit the area. The rebels killed a number
to other countries—notably Libya—while others remain
of Malian soldiers and officials, and went on to reassert
active in Mali. France is expected to maintain roughly
control in Kidal and other areas. The military largely
1,000 troops in Mali as part of an evolving counterterrorism
collapsed and withdrew from much of the north.
deployment in West Africa, known as Operation Barkhane.
Humanitarian needs remain extensive in both the north
Mali held presidential and parliamentary elections in the
and south, with about 1.9 million Malians (over one in ten)
second half of 2013, leading the United States to lift coup-
facing “severe” food insecurity, according to U.N. figures.
related aid restrictions and African regional organizations to
As of mid-2014, nearly 130,000 Malians remained
restore Mali’s membership. President Ibrahim Boubacar
internally displaced as a result of the 2011-2013 crisis, and
Kéïta, a veteran Malian politician and former opposition
about 140,000 remained refugees in neighboring countries.
leader, successfully campaigned on a platform of
“reconciliation, peace, and sovereignty,” promising a break
Peace Process in Algiers
from past patterns of poor governance. His record in office
has been marred, however, by deteriorating security trends
In June 2013, a cease-fire accord was signed by the then-
and a series of high-level corruption scandals.
interim government, the MNLA, and other northern rebels,
paving the way for the 2013 elections. Known as the
The United Nations (U.N.) Integrated Stabilization
Ouagadougou agreement, it called for “inclusive” peace
Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) was established in July
talks within 60 days of the formation of a newly elected
2013, largely absorbing the AU operation. As of August 31,
government. Such talks are widely viewed as necessary to
it comprised about 9,300 uniformed personnel out of a total
address the grievances of northern nomadic populations
authorized strength of 12,640. MINUSMA is mandated to
who perceive a long-running pattern of exclusion and
www.crs.gov | 7-5700
Mali: Current Issues
persecution by the central state in Bamako. However, a
with regard to implementing promised anti-terrorism
peace process has been slow to take shape, in part due to
prosecutions and a truth-and-reconciliation commission.
disagreements on the prerequisites, scope, and range of
parties to be included. Lack of political will on both sides
U.S. Policy and Issues for Congress
has been a key factor. Many southerners—i.e., President
Kéïta’s base—ardently oppose peace talks with the MNLA
The U.S. response to the crisis in Mali has included
due to its role Mali’s crisis. For their part, MNLA
humanitarian aid; logistical support for French operations
commanders have rejected the government’s calls for them
and for African troop deployments; elections support; and
to disarm, and cease-fire provisions calling for armed
security assistance for neighboring states to help prevent
groups to be confined to camps have not been implemented.
spillover. The Obama Administration voted at the U.N.
Security Council in favor of creating MINUSMA and
Peace talks began in July 2014, hosted by Algeria, after
contributes to its budget. In April 2014, U.S. Permanent
the Kidal clashes led to a renewed push. On July 24, a
Representative to the U.N. Ambassador Samantha Power
preliminary framework was signed by the government and
testified before Congress that “the need now is to further
two northern rebel coalitions. The signatories agreed to
marginalize the terrorist groups, while fostering national
accept Mali’s territorial integrity and a secular state. A
reconciliation, ending impunity, guarding against
second round of talks began in Algiers in September, with
corruption, and laying the groundwork for a government in
the aim of ultimately signing an agreement in Mali. The
which all Malians can have faith.” In May 2014, in
current round of talks is expected to address substantive
response to the Kidal clashes, the State Department
issues such as how to achieve meaningful decentralization
spokeswoman called for “an inclusive and credible
of political power in the north; the potential integration of
negotiation process” with rebel groups.
rebel combatants into the security forces and
administration; and the potential for acknowledgment and
The United States provided an estimated $116 million in
prosecutions of abuses committed during cyclical conflicts.
bilateral aid to Mali in FY2014, in addition to MINUSMA
contributions (estimated at $319 million in FY2014-
Conflict in the north is rooted in multi-layered disputes
appropriated funds), emergency humanitarian aid (at least
over political power; shifting social hierarchies; control of
$75 million to date in FY2014), and other funds budgeted
smuggling routes and patronage opportunities; and access
on a regional or global basis. The Administration has
to natural resources such as water and arable land.
requested $122 million in bilateral aid for FY2015. Such
Communal tensions that arose in past conflicts, notably in
aid aims to support health programs, food security, good
the 1990s, have deepened. The current peace talks are
governance, and “inclusive economic growth,” among other
unlikely to address all of these issues. Many observers
goals. The Administration has also re-started some military
emphasize the importance of community reconciliation, but
aid programs, focusing initially on defense sector reform
there is little consensus on how best to pursue it.
and professionalization. (Prior to 2012, Mali was a major
recipient, within the Sahel, of U.S. counterterrorism
Governance Concerns
assistance under the Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism
Partnership [TSCTP].) Mali is one of six African countries
Corruption and the reported involvement of state actors in
that will be the focus of the Administration’s new Security
illicit trafficking remain concerns. The crisis showed that
Governance Initiative, announced in August 2014.
corruption and mismanagement had hollowed out many
state institutions, notwithstanding adherence to democratic
Congressional authorizations, appropriations, and
processes such as regular multiparty elections. Despite
oversight have actively shaped the scope of U.S. aid to
President Kéïta’s campaign promises, the International
Mali, contributions to MINUSMA, and defense and
Monetary Fund and other donors suspended budget support
counterterrorism initiatives in the Sahel. Congress may
in May 2014, citing improper fiscal management and a lack
consider the implications of developments in Mali for U.S.
of budget transparency. The government has agreed to
counterterrorism, stabilization, humanitarian, and
auditing and reforms in the hope of restoring funding.
democracy promotion efforts, both in Africa and beyond.
Military dysfunction was a key factor behind both
Outlook
insurgent gains and the military coup in 2012. The
European Union is conducting a multi-year initiative to
Mali has overcome many obstacles since early 2013, but
reform and retrain the Malian armed forces, but the Malian
enduring governance and security problems threaten
military’s collapse during the May clashes in Kidal pointed
the sustainability of these gains. Political instability and
to how difficult and time-consuming this effort is likely to
security threats in neighboring states may also affect Mali’s
be. President Kéïta has also restructured the military chain
trajectory. Donors have pledged billions of dollars in aid for
of command and initiated a trial of the 2012 coup leader, in
Mali’s post-conflict recovery, yet the government’s ability
connection with alleged intra-military abuses. Critics view
to absorb and oversee such aid flows may be questioned, as
the government as less willing to pursue allegations of
may Malian leaders’ capacity and will to address
abuses against Tuareg and Arab civilians in the north.
underlying factors of instability. Some observers refer to
Mali as having returned to the pre-crisis “status quo ante,”
A weak and sometimes dysfunctional justice sector is
reflecting improvements but also potential risks.
widely viewed as contributing to impunity and to northern
grievances against the government. Progress has been slow
Alexis Arieff, aarieff@crs.loc.gov, 7-2459
IF00031
www.crs.gov | 7-5700