Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

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Updated November 7, 2024

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

Overview

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

Overview

Burma (also known as Myanmar) is a multi-ethnic Southeast Asian nation of 57.5 million that has been under some degree of military rule since 1962 and under an authoritarian military junta since a February 2021 coup d’'état. The coup ended a decade-long period of partial democratization and ushered in a broad nationwide conflict that has killed tens of thousands of people and, according to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), displaced 2.6 million.

More than three years after the coup, the military (commonly known as the Tatmadaw) is fighting several ethnic armed groups on Burma’s periphery as well as recently formed anti-junta militias across much of the country. . After more than four years of conflict and a devastating March 2025 earthquake, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), estimates that 3.5 million people—6% of the country's population—have been displaced since the coup. The military currently is fighting numerous ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) as well as recently-formed anti-junta militias across much of the country. Some anti-junta groups have gained control over large regions in Burma. Anti-junta activists overseas, including members of the ousted National League for Democracy (NLD), the political party of Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi, have created a shadow government called the National Unity Government (NUG), and seek diplomatic recognition. In 2023, the NUG opened an office in Washington, DC.

Against this backdrop, criminal activity in Burma has flourished. Large cyber-scam operations, many reportedly run by international criminal enterprises, have grown in regions bordering the People's Republic of China (PRC, or China) and Thailand. Human trafficking and illegal trafficking in narcotics, wildlife, and sanctioned materials such as gemstones, continues.

Congress has taken considerable interest in Burma since a democratic movement rose therethe emergence of the pro-democracy movement in the late 1980s. In the 117^th Congress, the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 (FY2023 NDAA; (NDAA 2023; P.L. 117-263) included provisions related to the 2021 coup that had been part of the proposed Burma Unified through Rigorous Military Accountability Act (BURMA Act; H.R. 5497//S. 2937)), passed by the House of Representatives on April 6, 2022. The FY2023 NDAA states that it is U.S. policy to “"support the people of Burma in their struggle for democracy, freedom, human rights, and justice”" and authorizes additional sanctions and non-lethal, technical assistance to resistance groups, among other provisions. In the 119^th Congress, the Brave BURMA Act (H.R. 3190) was introduced, calling for a special coordinator for Burma policy. Congress also has appropriated resources to providefunds for humanitarian assistance and promote democracy and human rights promotion in Burma, although many of these programs have been impacted by the Trump Administration's cuts to foreign assistance in 2025.in Burma.

Historical Background

Burma gained independence from the U.K. in 1948, and in its early years some political leaders, including Aung San Suu Kyi’'s father, Aung San, sought to develop some form of federalism in the multi-ethnic nation. A 1962 coup installed a military junta that rejected autonomy for ethnic minority areas, initiating a decades-long period of military rule and ethnic conflict. In 1990, the junta, then known as the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), ignored the results of a general election won by Aung San Suu Kyi’'s NLD, and detained her under home arrest.

Beginning in 2010, the junta allowed a partial transition toward a more democratic system, in which a hybrid civilian-military government led the country following

parliamentary elections in 2010 and 2015. The civilian side of the government undertook some political and economic reforms and released thousands of political prisoners, while the military retained control of the country’'s security ministries and key economic assets. During this period, the military committed grievous human rights abuses, particularly against Burma’'s Rohingya minority. (See “"Plight of the Rohingya,”" below.)

Figure 1. Burma

Source: CIA World Factbook, 2024.

Burma held another election in November 2020, in which the The NLD won an overwhelming majority of parliamentary seats, vastly outperforming military parties in November 2020 elections. Claiming the results were fraudulent, the military launched a coup the day before new members were set to be sworn in, and installed aand installed another junta, known as the State Administrative Council (SAC), led by military commander Min Aung Hlaing. The junta arrested Aung San Suu Kyi and many other NLD leaders.

Conflict Post-2021

Resistance to the coup gave rise to conflict that has spread across much of Burma. Resistance forces, many made up of ethnic minority groups that already effectively controlled significant territory, have gained control over additional territoryareas, particularly since 2023. The military has repeatedly used lethal force against peaceful protestors, waged offensives—including with airstrikes—against ethnic minority militias, and allegedly committed a wide range of human rights violations, including targeted killings, burning of villages, and sexual violence. OCHA reports that as of November 2024, 18.6 million people— 33%May 2025, 19.9 million people—more than a third of the country’'s population—are in humanitarian need. It cites active fighting, administrative restrictions imposed by all sides, and violence and harassment of humanitarian personnel as barriers to providing assistance.

The resistance to Burma’s military junta is diverse, and it is unclear whether its numerous elements share a common vision for the country’s future. In April 2021, a group of ousted parliamentarians, most of them in exile, named a “shadow” cabinet, the NUG, which included Aung San Suu

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

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Kyi as “acting State Counsellor” and a full cabinet of ministers, including a shadow foreign minister. Most of the NUG’s membership is comprised of NLD members, but also has named representatives of two minority groups as president and prime minister. The NUG has held Burma’s seat at the United Nations since the coup took place. The European Unition (EU) Parliament voted in 2021 to recognize the NUG as the “only legitimate representatives of the democratic wishes of the people of Myanmar.”

Numerous ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) exert varying levels of administrative control in minority- The March 2025 earthquake, measured at 7.7 on the Richter scale and centered in northern Burma, greatly exacerbated humanitarian need and reportedly killed over 3,800 people. Assistance workers report difficulty in accessing some affected areas, and in delivering aid without restriction from the military. The resistance to Burma's military junta is diverse, and it is unclear whether its numerous elements share a common vision for the country's future. The NUG, most of whose members are NLD members, has held Burma's seat at the United Nations since the coup took place. Numerous EAOs exert varying levels of administrative control in minority-dominated regions of the country and have stepped up their decades-long fight for greater autonomy. In late 2023, three EAOs overran dozens of military posts near the Chinese border. autonomy. Other opponents of the military government have formed informal militias known as People’'s Defense Forces (PDFs) and waged sabotage campaigns against the regime. Analysts say there is some level of coordination among the various forces, but broad agreement on political goals remains elusive. The NUG issued a Federal Democracy Charter in 2021, outlining a roadmap to a post-conflict Burma, but elements of the national resistance—both within and between the NUG and the EAOs—do not agree on the degree of federalism and regional autonomy they seek.

U.S. Policy

The Biden Administration has responded to the crisis

U.S. Policy

Following the coup, the Biden Administration responded with sanctions and other restrictive actions against the military government. Under Executive Order 14014, the Administration imposed a range of sanctions on the regime, its backers, and numerous military-linked companies including the state oil and gas monopoly, “"to disrupt the regime’'s access to the U.S. financial system and curtail its ability to perpetrate atrocities.” Following the coup, the Administration has withheld U.S. foreign assistance from Burma’s government, as required by law, while continuing to fund projects to support pro-democracy actors and provide humanitarian assistance. For FY2024, Congress appropriated $121 million " according to a press statement from then-Secretary of State Antony Blinken. The Administration continued to fund projects to support pro-democracy actors and provide humanitarian assistance. It made citizens of Burma who could demonstrate continuous residence in the United States as of March 11, 2021, eligible for Temporary Protected Status.

For FY2024 and FY2025, Congress appropriated $121 million annually for democracy, human rights, and governance-related programs as well as humanitarian assistance related to Burma. However, the Trump Administration's cuts to foreign assistance and its policies toward refugees leaves much U.S. assistance toward Burma and immigrants from Burma in flux. U.S. programs to support refugees from Burma in Thailand reportedly were eliminated in March, as were human rights and democracy programs aimed at groups in exile. The United States sent a humanitarian assessment team to Burma following the March 2025 earthquake. The initial three-person team reportedly arrived a week after the disaster, later than those of other humanitarian donors, and was issued termination notices while on the ground. In June 2025, Burma was listed as one of 12 countries for which the United States would not issue entry visas.

International Actions

for democracy, human rights, and governance-related programs as well as humanitarian assistance related to Burma. The Administration imposed U.S. entry restrictions on coup leaders and their family members, and strengthened export controls against military- linked companies. It made Burmese citizens who can demonstrate continuous residence in the United States as of March 11, 2021, eligible for Temporary Protected Status.

The United States has sought to support multilateral responses, including through the United Nations Security Council (UNSC), the G7, and other fora. It has encouraged efforts by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which Burma is a member, to pressure the junta to lessen violence and take part in dialogue with opposition actors. Several U.S. sanctions announcements have been coordinated with sanctions imposed by other nations, including the U.K. and Canada.

International Actions

The UN Security Council has passed a series of resolutions condemning the coup and calling for a cessation of violence and dialogue among all stakeholders in Burma. In December 2022, UNSC Resolution 2668 called for an

immediate cessation of violence, unhindered access for the provision of humanitarian assistance, and the protection of all civilians. The United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Myanmar issued a report in March 2024 stating that the country’s humanitarian crisis “has continued to worsen.”

In April 2021, ASEAN’s leaders agreed on a “Five-Point Consensus”In April 2021, leaders of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which Burma is a member, agreed on a "Five-Point Consensus" calling for: an immediate end to violence in the country, dialogue among all parties, the appointment of an ASEAN special envoy, humanitarian assistance from ASEAN to Burma, and the junta to allow the special envoy to visit and meet with all parties. In an expression of disappointment at the junta’'s actions, ASEAN has not invited Min Aung Hlaing to its summits since the coup.

The People’s Republic of China (PRC or China), although he did attend an April 2025 multilateral meeting in Thailand following the earthquake. China, which shares a 1,350-mile border with Burma and, has maintained links both with successive governments of Burmanational governments and with ethnic groups close to itsthe PRC border. There is mistrust between the Burma’'s military and Beijing, reflecting Burma’'s desire not to be dominated by its larger neighbor and PRC concerns about instability. In 2023, China tacitly supported an October 2023 offensive by ethnic militiamilitias, reportedly due to concerns about the proliferation of cyber-scam operators in Burma that target PRC citizens. However, in a In a later sign of support, the PRC government hosted Min Aung Hlaing in Beijing in November 2024.

China has substantial infrastructure investments in Burma, including an oil pipeline that connects China with the Bay of Bengal.

Plight of the Rohingya

Plight of the Rohingya

The Rohingya, a predominantly Sunni Muslim ethnic minority in western Burma, have been subjected to systematic and pervasive discrimination and abuse by Burma’'s military since the 1962 coup. Unlike most ethnic groups in Burma, the Rohingya are not recognized by the government or most ethnic-Burman citizens as an “official”"official" ethnic minority. In 1982, the ruling military junta promulgated a citizenship law that stripped the Rohingya of citizenship.

In 2017-2018, violence by the military and others in Rakhine state, home to most of Burma’s Rohingya, killed over 9,000 Rohingya and resulted in the exodus of over 900,000 people into neighboring Bangladesh. The vast majority still reside in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch estimates that another 130,000 Muslims, overwhelmingly Rohingya, live in internal displacement camps in western Burma, where they settled during earlier periods of violence. Fighting between the junta and EAOs reportedly has resulted in more violence against the roughly 630,000 Rohingya still in Burma.

The United States has designated several military leaders, including Min Aung Hlaing, for sanctions and visa bans related to the violence in Rakhine. In 2019, the Gambia filed an application at the International Court of Justice, arguing that Burma had violated the 1948 UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced in March 2022 that the United States had determinedIn March 2022, then-Secretary Blinken announced a determination that members of Burma’'s military had committed genocide and crimes against humanity against the Rohingya.

Ben Dolven, Specialist in Asian Affairs

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

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Disclaimer

This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

In both the 118^th and 119^th Congresses, the Rohingya GAP Act (H.R. 8936; H.R. 4140) was introduced, calling for continued U.S. support for Rohingya humanitarian relief and the naming of a Special Coordinator for policy toward the Rohingya.