Kenya: In Brief

Kenya: In Brief
May 20, 2024
On May 23, 2024, President Joe Biden is scheduled to hostJune 24, 2024 President Joe Biden hosted President William Ruto of the President William Ruto of the
Republic of Kenya for a State VisitRepublic of Kenya for a State Visit on May 23, 2024. The event . The event marksmarked the 60th anniversary of the U.S.-Kenya the 60th anniversary of the U.S.-Kenya
diplomatic relationship, Lauren Ploch Blanchard
diplomatic relationship, established after Kenya’s independence from the United Kingdom. established after Kenya’s independence from the United Kingdom. It is
Specialist in(The last African African Affairs
the first State Visit by an African leader for the Biden Administration. (The last African leader

leader Specialist in African Affairs invited for a State Visit was invited for a State Visit was the president of GhanaGhana’s president in 2008; Kenya’s third president, Mwai in 2008; Kenya’s third president, Mwai
Kibaki, Kibaki, preceded him in 2003.) Ruto’s visit preceded him in 2003.) Ruto’s visit followsfollowed a series of visits to Kenya by senior a series of visits to Kenya by senior U.S.

Biden Administration officials. The country was the initial stop on Secretary of State Antony Blinken’s officials. The country was the initial stop on Secretary of State Antony Blinken’s first official trip first official trip
to Africa, and several other administration officials, including Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin, have also visitedto Africa, and Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin also visited Kenya on his first Africa tour. First Lady . First Lady
Jill Biden traveled Jill Biden traveled to Kenya in early there in 2023. A regional hub and an anchor state in East Africa, Kenya is a frequent destination 2023. A regional hub and an anchor state in East Africa, Kenya is a frequent destination
for congressional travel. for congressional travel.
The State Visit highlights Kenya’s importance to the United States as a strategic partner, not only as a key diplomatic, The State Visit highlights Kenya’s importance to the United States as a strategic partner, not only as a key diplomatic,
economic, and security actor in East Africa, but economic, and security actor in East Africa, but also as an African counterpart on shared global priorities. as an African counterpart on shared global priorities. KenyaThe country, which , which
served on the U.N. Security Council in 2021-2022, is one of the only African members of the Ukraine Defense Contact served on the U.N. Security Council in 2021-2022, is one of the only African members of the Ukraine Defense Contact
Group. Kenya Group. Kenya also participates in Operation Prosperity Guardian, a maritime taskforce launched by the United States in participates in Operation Prosperity Guardian, a maritime taskforce launched by the United States in
response to Houthi attacks against vessels in the Red Sea. With U.S. support, the country is response to Houthi attacks against vessels in the Red Sea. With U.S. support, the country is currently preparing to lead preparing to lead a new
the Multinational Security Support mission in Haiti, where gangs have taken over much of the Multinational Security Support mission in Haiti, where gangs have taken over much of the country’s capital. capital.
AfterThe U.S.-Kenya relationship took on a new dimension after Al Qaeda’s 1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Al Qaeda’s 1998 bombings of the U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, Tanzania, the U.S.-Kenya partnership took on a new
dimension as Kenya emerged on the frontline in the struggle against international terrorism. In 2011, Kenya launched as Kenya emerged on the frontline in the struggle against international terrorism. In 2011, Kenya launched
military operations in neighboring Somalia against a regional Al Qaeda affiliate, Al Shabaab, and subsequently joined the military operations in neighboring Somalia against a regional Al Qaeda affiliate, Al Shabaab, and subsequently joined the
U.N.-authorized African Union stabilization mission in Somalia. U.N.-authorized African Union stabilization mission in Somalia. Subsequent attacks by Al Shabaab Al Shabaab attacks against soft targets against soft targets
frequented by foreigners, including American citizens, in Kenya’s capital raised the group’s international profilefrequented by foreigners, including American citizens, in Kenya’s capital raised the group’s international profile, and in
. In 2020, Al Shabaab killed a U.S. 2020, Al Shabaab killed a U.S. service memberservicemember and two U.S. contactors in an attack on Manda Bay Airfield, a Kenyan base and two U.S. contactors in an attack on Manda Bay Airfield, a Kenyan base
used by the U.S. military near the Somali border. Al Shabaab, which U.S. officials have described as Al Qaeda’s largest and used by the U.S. military near the Somali border. Al Shabaab, which U.S. officials have described as Al Qaeda’s largest and
wealthiest affiliate globally, continues to pose a threat in Kenya and the broader region. wealthiest affiliate globally, continues to pose a threat in Kenya and the broader region.
Kenya hosts the largest U.S. embassy in sub-Saharan Africa and regularly ranks among the top recipients of U.S. foreign aid Kenya hosts the largest U.S. embassy in sub-Saharan Africa and regularly ranks among the top recipients of U.S. foreign aid
globally, a majority of it focused on health programs. Conservation efforts globally, a majority of it focused on health programs. Conservation efforts have beenare another area of another area of longstanding U.S. engagement. U.S. engagement.
Kenya hosts U.S. forces supporting counterterrorism Kenya hosts U.S. forces supporting counterterrorism operationsefforts in the region at Cooperative Security Location (CSL) Manda in the region at Cooperative Security Location (CSL) Manda
Bay. Bay. KenyaThe country is a leading beneficiary of tariff benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA; P.L. 106-200, is a leading beneficiary of tariff benefits under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA; P.L. 106-200,
as amended) and is in negotiations with the United States under a Strategic Trade and Investment Partnership (STIP). as amended) and is in negotiations with the United States under a Strategic Trade and Investment Partnership (STIP).

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link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 8 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 16 During the State Visit, President Biden announced his intent to designate Kenya as a Major Non-NATO Ally. Kenya would be the first country in sub-Saharan Africa granted that status, which conveys defense trade and security cooperation benefits. The two governments made commitments and announced new initiatives on a range of issues, including with respect to technology, clean energy, and carbon management. They revealed a new partnership on semiconductor manufacturing in Kenya to strengthen the global supply chain. They launched the Nairobi-Washington Vision, which calls on the international community to help developing countries manage debt while investing in economic growth. The Biden Administration pledged new funding for police professionalization, prison reforms, health, education, agriculture, and civil society in Kenya. The U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC) also announced new investments that bring its portfolio in the country above $1 billion. Two resolutions introduced during the visit, S.Res. 704 and H.Res. 1254, recognize Kenya’s strategic importance to the United States and celebrate the 60th anniversary of bilateral relations. Congressional Research Service Kenya: In Brief Congressional Research Service link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 17 Kenya: In Brief

Contents
Overview ................................................................................................................................... 1
Politics ....................................................................................................................................... 2
The Economy ............................................................................................................................ 5
Humanitarian Issues .................................................................................................................. 6
Security Concerns ..................................................................................................................... 7
Selected Foreign Relations Issues ............................................................................................. 8
Wildlife and Environmental Conservation .............................................................................. 10
U.S. Relations and Assistance .................................................................................................. 11

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 13

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Kenya: In Brief

Overview
Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Kenya as an anchor state and strategic partner in Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Kenya as an anchor state and strategic partner in
East Africa, and as critical to counterterrorism efforts in the region. The country is sub-Saharan East Africa, and as critical to counterterrorism efforts in the region. The country is sub-Saharan
Africa’s fourth-largest economy and a regional hub for transportation and finance. It hosts the Africa’s fourth-largest economy and a regional hub for transportation and finance. It hosts the
U.N. headquarters in Africa, one of four major U.N. offices globally. A major tourism destination U.N. headquarters in Africa, one of four major U.N. offices globally. A major tourism destination
known for its biodiversity and conservation efforts, Kenya is known for its biodiversity and conservation efforts, Kenya is a regional leader in clean energy, regional leader in clean energy,
drawing over 90% of its electricity from renewable sources.1 The country has a vibrant tech scene drawing over 90% of its electricity from renewable sources.1 The country has a vibrant tech scene
that has been dubbed the “Silicon Savannah.” Kenya’s government has pursued opportunities to that has been dubbed the “Silicon Savannah.” Kenya’s government has pursued opportunities to
speak on behalf of Africa in global forums, including on climate change and debt relief. speak on behalf of Africa in global forums, including on climate change and debt relief.
Kenya hosts the largest U.S. embassy in sub-Saharan Africa as well as U.S. forces supporting Kenya hosts the largest U.S. embassy in sub-Saharan Africa as well as U.S. forces supporting
counterterrorism operations in the region. The country regularly ranks among the top U.S. foreign counterterrorism operations in the region. The country regularly ranks among the top U.S. foreign
aid recipients globally and is among the largest recipients of U.S. counterterrorism assistance in aid recipients globally and is among the largest recipients of U.S. counterterrorism assistance in
Africa. Health funding comprises the largest share of U.S. bilateral aid; the United States has Africa. Health funding comprises the largest share of U.S. bilateral aid; the United States has
provided over $provided over $6.57 billion in assistance to combat HIV/AIDS in Kenya since 2004. Congressional billion in assistance to combat HIV/AIDS in Kenya since 2004. Congressional
interests in Kenya are wide-ranginginterests in Kenya are wide-ranging, and it is a frequent destination for congressional travel; and it is a frequent destination for congressional travel;
legislative action has focused predominately on democracy, human rights, and terrorism concerns. legislative action has focused predominately on democracy, human rights, and terrorism concerns.
Economic frustration, historical land disputes, corruption, and police abuses have fueled domestic Economic frustration, historical land disputes, corruption, and police abuses have fueled domestic
grievances, and election-related violence has threatened Kenya’s reputation as an anchor state in a grievances, and election-related violence has threatened Kenya’s reputation as an anchor state in a
volatile region several times. Perceived impunity volatile region several times. Perceived impunity for state corruption and other abuses has been a trigger for protests and periodic has been a trigger for protests and periodic
violence and a source of tension with donors. Corruption has hindered economic development. violence and a source of tension with donors. Corruption has hindered economic development.
Freedom House ranks Kenya “Partly Free” in itsFreedom House ranks Kenya “Partly Free” in its Freedom in the World index, noting that despite index, noting that despite
regular multiparty elections, pervasive corruption and police brutality remain serious problems, regular multiparty elections, pervasive corruption and police brutality remain serious problems,
and while Kenya’s media and civil society are vibrant, journalists and human rights defenders and while Kenya’s media and civil society are vibrant, journalists and human rights defenders
face restrictive laws and intimidation. face restrictive laws and intimidation.
Kenya’s 2022 elections were the latest in a series of polls that have tested its democratic Kenya’s 2022 elections were the latest in a series of polls that have tested its democratic
institutions. With incumbent President Uhuru Kenyatta term limited, the race was a close contest institutions. With incumbent President Uhuru Kenyatta term limited, the race was a close contest
between his deputy, William Ruto, and longtime opposition leader and five-time presidential between his deputy, William Ruto, and longtime opposition leader and five-time presidential
candidate Raila Odinga. In a twist, Kenyatta backed his formal rival, Odinga, over Ruto. When candidate Raila Odinga. In a twist, Kenyatta backed his formal rival, Odinga, over Ruto. When
Ruto, who led a populist, anti-establishment campaign, was declared the winner with just over Ruto, who led a populist, anti-establishment campaign, was declared the winner with just over
50% of the vote, Odinga challenged the result, alleging fraud. The court upheld Ruto’s victory. 50% of the vote, Odinga challenged the result, alleging fraud. The court upheld Ruto’s victory.
Shadows from previous election-related violence and corruption allegations hang over Ruto, as Shadows from previous election-related violence and corruption allegations hang over Ruto, as
they did over Kenyattathey did over Kenyatta:; both once faced charges of crimes against humanity at the International both once faced charges of crimes against humanity at the International
Criminal Court (ICC)Criminal Court (ICC), and neither was acquitted.2 After Ruto took office, Kenyan courts dropped .2 After Ruto took office, Kenyan courts dropped
corruption cases against his running mate and several of his cabinet appointees at the request of corruption cases against his running mate and several of his cabinet appointees at the request of
the director of public prosecutions, whom Ruto later appointed as intelligence chief.3 the director of public prosecutions, whom Ruto later appointed as intelligence chief.3
President Ruto has sought to court President Ruto has sought to court internationalforeign investment and position Kenya as a global voice investment and position Kenya as a global voice
on climate change and an advocate, on Africa’s behalf, for climate finance and reforms to the on climate change and an advocate, on Africa’s behalf, for climate finance and reforms to the
international financial system.4 Politics at home, however, compete with his agenda. His international financial system.4 Politics at home, however, compete with his agenda. His

1 1 Washington Post, “Kenyan president aims to attract green investment during U.S. visit,” May 17, 2024. , “Kenyan president aims to attract green investment during U.S. visit,” May 17, 2024.
2 2 The Economist, “Who is William Ruto?,” August 16, 2022 and “Will William Ruto serve the people or himself and , “Who is William Ruto?,” August 16, 2022 and “Will William Ruto serve the people or himself and
his pals?” October 25, 2022; and his pals?” October 25, 2022; and The New York Review, “The Political Education of William Ruto,” March 8, 2023. , “The Political Education of William Ruto,” March 8, 2023.
3 On Kenyan civil society concerns, see, e.g., Kenya Human Rights Commission, “Nomination by President William 3 On Kenyan civil society concerns, see, e.g., Kenya Human Rights Commission, “Nomination by President William
Ruto of Mr. Noordin Haji for appointment of spy chief is an affront to the constitution of Kenya 2010,” May 21, 2023. Ruto of Mr. Noordin Haji for appointment of spy chief is an affront to the constitution of Kenya 2010,” May 21, 2023.
4 President of the Republic of Kenya, “Kenya will protect investors,” July 13, 2023; 4 President of the Republic of Kenya, “Kenya will protect investors,” July 13, 2023; Financial Times, “Kenyan leader , “Kenyan leader
says World Bank and IMF are ‘hostage’ to rich nations,” June 23, 2023; Jaysim Hanspal and Nicholas Norbrook, “Ruto says World Bank and IMF are ‘hostage’ to rich nations,” June 23, 2023; Jaysim Hanspal and Nicholas Norbrook, “Ruto
wants ‘fair conversation’ over climate finance for Africa,” wants ‘fair conversation’ over climate finance for Africa,” The Africa Report, June 20, 2023. , June 20, 2023.
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administration inherited major economic challenges, including a large debt burden, inflation, and administration inherited major economic challenges, including a large debt burden, inflation, and
high unemployment. high unemployment. Ruto promisedAfter promising to transform the economy and cut the cost of living to transform the economy and cut the cost of living. He, he
began his term with began his term with severalsome controversial controversial policy decisions, including cutting a costly fuel subsidy decisions, including cutting a costly fuel subsidy
that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) deemed unsustainable. The resulting spike in gas that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) deemed unsustainable. The resulting spike in gas
prices sparked public anger, prompting the government to partially reinstate the subsidy. prices sparked public anger, prompting the government to partially reinstate the subsidy. Ruto
also cut a subsidy on maize flour (a staple), but launched a fertilizer subsidy to boost production.
Inflation, tax hikesTax hikes, cost of living concerns, and discontent , and discontent have fueled anti-government protestsfueled anti-government protests in 2023, during which police
. Police reportedly killed reportedly killed at least 35 people during protests in 2023, prompting aat least 35 people.5 The state’s response and extrajudicial actions by police
prompted a civil society warning that Kenya risked becoming “a police state.” warning that Kenya risked becoming “a police state.”65 Ruto appeared to Ruto appeared to
mend ties with mend ties with Raila Odinga in early 2024 and is supporting Odinga in early 2024 and is supporting a bid for Odinga to becomeOdinga’s bid to be the next the next
chair of the African Union (AU) Commissionchair of the African Union (AU) Commission, which could enhance Kenya’s regional influence.
. The rapprochement between the politicians did not deter protests led by young people, dubbed “Gen-Z,” in June 2024 against legislation to impose new taxes, and the heavy police response again drew a media spotlight.6 Several court rulings against government initiatives have spurred tensions between Ruto’s Several court rulings against government initiatives have spurred tensions between Ruto’s
Administrationadministration and the judiciary.7 Among them was a ruling blocking the planned deployment of and the judiciary.7 Among them was a ruling blocking the planned deployment of
Kenyan police to lead a U.S.-backed, UN-authorized multinational security support mission in Kenyan police to lead a U.S.-backed, UN-authorized multinational security support mission in
Haiti. The government appealed the decision and worked to resolve the legal dispute. Kenya Haiti. The government appealed the decision and worked to resolve the legal dispute. Kenya
paused deployment planning in March 2024 after Haiti’s prime minister resigned, but the U.S. paused deployment planning in March 2024 after Haiti’s prime minister resigned, but the U.S.
and Kenyan governments have since moved and Kenyan governments have since moved forward with preparations.8ahead on the mission. The deployment of The deployment of
police to Haiti amidst competing domestic security concerns is controversial among Kenyans. police to Haiti amidst competing domestic security concerns is controversial among Kenyans.
Kenya—where 213 people were killed and over 4,000 injured in the 1998 bombing of the U.S. Kenya—where 213 people were killed and over 4,000 injured in the 1998 bombing of the U.S.
Embassy by Al Qaeda (AQ)—continues to grapple with terrorist threats, most notably from the Embassy by Al Qaeda (AQ)—continues to grapple with terrorist threats, most notably from the
Somalia-based AQ affiliate Al Shabaab. While attacks near the Somali border are more common, Somalia-based AQ affiliate Al Shabaab. While attacks near the Somali border are more common,
high-profile mass-casualty attacks in Nairobi—on the Westgate mall in 2013 and the DusitD2 high-profile mass-casualty attacks in Nairobi—on the Westgate mall in 2013 and the DusitD2
hotel in 2019—underscore Al Shabaab’s reach in Kenya. A U.S. citizen was among 21 people hotel in 2019—underscore Al Shabaab’s reach in Kenya. A U.S. citizen was among 21 people
killed in the Dusit attack; several Americans were wounded in the Westgate mall attack, in which killed in the Dusit attack; several Americans were wounded in the Westgate mall attack, in which
at least 67 people died. Al Shabaab killed a U.S. at least 67 people died. Al Shabaab killed a U.S. service memberservicemember and two U.S. contractors in a and two U.S. contractors in a
2020 attack on Manda Bay Airfield, a Kenyan base used by the U.S. military near the Somali 2020 attack on Manda Bay Airfield, a Kenyan base used by the U.S. military near the Somali
border. The United States has offered rewards for information on those responsible for the Dusit border. The United States has offered rewards for information on those responsible for the Dusit
and Manda Bay attacks through the Rewards for Justice program, and leaders of the attacks have and Manda Bay attacks through the Rewards for Justice program, and leaders of the attacks have
been designated for sanctions as Specially Designated Global Terrorists (SDGTs). been designated for sanctions as Specially Designated Global Terrorists (SDGTs).
Kenya contributes troops to the African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS), the UN-backed Kenya contributes troops to the African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS), the UN-backed
AU stabilization operation previously known as AMISOM. Al Shabaab says its attacks in Kenya AU stabilization operation previously known as AMISOM. Al Shabaab says its attacks in Kenya
are retaliation for Kenya’s military role in Somalia and characterizes U.S. and Kenyan operations are retaliation for Kenya’s military role in Somalia and characterizes U.S. and Kenyan operations
there as part of a Western crusade against Muslims. The group draws recruits from Kenya’s there as part of a Western crusade against Muslims. The group draws recruits from Kenya’s
minority Muslim population (Kenyans comprise Al Shabaab’s largest foreign fighter contingent); minority Muslim population (Kenyans comprise Al Shabaab’s largest foreign fighter contingent);
security force abuses have security force abuses have reportedly contributed to radicalization in parts of the country. contributed to radicalization in parts of the country.
Politics
Background. Kenya was essentially a one-party state from 1964 to 1991. After the transition to Kenya was essentially a one-party state from 1964 to 1991. After the transition to
a multiparty system, ethnic identity, rather than ideology, became the primary line of political a multiparty system, ethnic identity, rather than ideology, became the primary line of political
cleavage. No ethnic group in Kenya has a large enough voting bloc for its political leaders to gain cleavage. No ethnic group in Kenya has a large enough voting bloc for its political leaders to gain
or maintain power alone, however, so politicians form cross-ethnic alliances, which periodically or maintain power alone, however, so politicians form cross-ethnic alliances, which periodically
shift. This fluidity has helped fuel electoral violence and corruption. shift. This fluidity has helped fuel electoral violence and corruption.

5 BBC, “William Ruto: The ‘tax collector president sparking Kenyan anger,” December 13, 2023 5 BBC, “William Ruto: The ‘tax collector president sparking Kenyan anger,” December 13, 2023.
6 ; Kenya Human Rights Commission, “Kenya marching slowly into a police state,” July 21, 2023. Kenya Human Rights Commission, “Kenya marching slowly into a police state,” July 21, 2023.
7 Al Jazeera, “Why is President Ruto in a row with Kenya’s judiciary? A simple guide,” January 5, 2024.
8 New York Times, “Preparations ramp up for global security force to quell Haitian violence,” May 76 Al Jazeera, “At least 200 injured, 100 arrested in Kenya tax protests: Rights groups,” June 21, 2024. 7 Al Jazeera, “Why is President Ruto in a row with Kenya’s judiciary? A simple guide,” January 5, 2024. , 2024.
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For almost 40 years after independence, the ethnic groups of Kenya’s first and second presidents, For almost 40 years after independence, the ethnic groups of Kenya’s first and second presidents,
the Kikuyu and Kalenjin, were seen to benefit disproportionately from the allocation of state the Kikuyu and Kalenjin, were seen to benefit disproportionately from the allocation of state
resources, namely land, government jobs, and state contracts. The heartlands of these two groups resources, namely land, government jobs, and state contracts. The heartlands of these two groups
(the central highlands and adjacent central Rift Valley) received the greatest state investment in (the central highlands and adjacent central Rift Valley) received the greatest state investment in
schools, roads, and health services. Western Kenya (home to the country’s second and fourth schools, roads, and health services. Western Kenya (home to the country’s second and fourth
largest ethnic groups, the Luhya and Luo) and the predominantly Muslim coast and northeast largest ethnic groups, the Luhya and Luo) and the predominantly Muslim coast and northeast
remained comparatively underdeveloped. The perception of ethnic favoritism fostered divisions.remained comparatively underdeveloped. The perception of ethnic favoritism fostered divisions.98
Daniel arap Moi, Kenya’s long-ruling second president (1978-2002), dominated politics through Daniel arap Moi, Kenya’s long-ruling second president (1978-2002), dominated politics through
repression, patronage, and electoral manipulation until, under donor and domestic pressure, he repression, patronage, and electoral manipulation until, under donor and domestic pressure, he
retired. The country’s opposition parties came together, briefly, to defeat his chosen successor, retired. The country’s opposition parties came together, briefly, to defeat his chosen successor,
Uhuru Kenyatta (son of first president Jomo Kenyatta), in the 2002 elections. The crisis that Uhuru Kenyatta (son of first president Jomo Kenyatta), in the 2002 elections. The crisis that
followed the next elections, in 2007, remains important for understanding Kenyan politics today. followed the next elections, in 2007, remains important for understanding Kenyan politics today.
Political realignments prior to the 2007 polls created a particularly volatile ethnic dynamic, and Political realignments prior to the 2007 polls created a particularly volatile ethnic dynamic, and
when the incumbent president, Mwai Kibaki (a Kikuyu), was declared the winner of a close race when the incumbent president, Mwai Kibaki (a Kikuyu), was declared the winner of a close race
amid allegations of rigging, protests followed and violence ensued, largely along ethnic lines. amid allegations of rigging, protests followed and violence ensued, largely along ethnic lines.
Some of the worst violence was between Kikuyu and Kalenjin (Kalenjin political leaders backed Some of the worst violence was between Kikuyu and Kalenjin (Kalenjin political leaders backed
Kibaki’s main opponent, Odinga, a Luo). Over six weeks, some 1,300 people were killed and Kibaki’s main opponent, Odinga, a Luo). Over six weeks, some 1,300 people were killed and
600,000 displaced; over 100,000 private properties and almost 500 government properties were 600,000 displaced; over 100,000 private properties and almost 500 government properties were
destroyed. The crisis hit the economy hard. Kenya was effectively paralyzed for two months destroyed. The crisis hit the economy hard. Kenya was effectively paralyzed for two months
before Kibaki and Odinga reached a power-sharing deal brokered by former U.N. Secretary-before Kibaki and Odinga reached a power-sharing deal brokered by former U.N. Secretary-
General Kofi Annan, with U.S. support. Kibaki formed a coalition government with Odinga in a General Kofi Annan, with U.S. support. Kibaki formed a coalition government with Odinga in a
new prime minister post, agreeing to draft a new constitution and address sensitive land issues. new prime minister post, agreeing to draft a new constitution and address sensitive land issues.
The ICC cases
An international commission of inquiry concluded that some of the worst of the 2007-2008 post-election violence An international commission of inquiry concluded that some of the worst of the 2007-2008 post-election violence
was organized by politicians and was organized by politicians and businessmenbusiness leaders and called for a special tribunal to prosecute those crimes. When and called for a special tribunal to prosecute those crimes. When
Kenya’s parliament failed to create one, the commission gave a list of key suspects to Kofi Annan, who provided it Kenya’s parliament failed to create one, the commission gave a list of key suspects to Kofi Annan, who provided it
to the ICC Prosecutor. The ICC confirmed charges in 2012 against four people, including then-deputy Prime to the ICC Prosecutor. The ICC confirmed charges in 2012 against four people, including then-deputy Prime
Minister Uhuru Kenyatta and leading Kalenjin politician Wil iam Ruto—two former Moi protégés on opposing Minister Uhuru Kenyatta and leading Kalenjin politician Wil iam Ruto—two former Moi protégés on opposing
sides in 2007. Kenyatta and Ruto were accused of being criminally responsible for crimes against humanity. Among sides in 2007. Kenyatta and Ruto were accused of being criminally responsible for crimes against humanity. Among
other crimes, the Prosecutor accused Ruto of involvement in the burning of a church where hundreds of people, other crimes, the Prosecutor accused Ruto of involvement in the burning of a church where hundreds of people,
mostly Kikuyu, had sought refuge; at least 28 died in the attack. Kenya’s government mostly Kikuyu, had sought refuge; at least 28 died in the attack. Kenya’s government objected to the cases, despite
being an ICC state party(an ICC state party) objected to the cases. The cases were prominent in the 2013 elections, when Kenyatta and Ruto ran together . The cases were prominent in the 2013 elections, when Kenyatta and Ruto ran together
on a presidential ticket. They portrayed the cases as an international conspiracy and emblematic of racial bias by on a presidential ticket. They portrayed the cases as an international conspiracy and emblematic of racial bias by
the ICC. The race was extremely close: Kenyatta avoided a runoff against Odinga the ICC. The race was extremely close: Kenyatta avoided a runoff against Odinga withby less than 1% of votes. less than 1% of votes.
Political interference and witness intimidationPolitical interference and witness intimidation reportedly plagued the subsequent ICC trials. The plagued the subsequent ICC trials. The ICC Prosecutor withdrew the Prosecutor withdrew the
charges against Kenyatta in 2014, and the judges declared a mistrial in the Ruto case in 2016, citing witness charges against Kenyatta in 2014, and the judges declared a mistrial in the Ruto case in 2016, citing witness
intimidation and political meddling. “There was a relentless campaign to identify individuals who could serve as intimidation and political meddling. “There was a relentless campaign to identify individuals who could serve as
Prosecution witnesses in this case and ensure that they would not testify,” per the Prosecutor.Prosecution witnesses in this case and ensure that they would not testify,” per the Prosecutor.109 Neither Kenyatta Neither Kenyatta
nor Ruto were acquitted, leaving the possibility of future prosecution but allowing them to run for reelection in nor Ruto were acquitted, leaving the possibility of future prosecution but allowing them to run for reelection in
2017. The ICC opened a new trial in 2022 against a Kenyan lawyer accused of witness tampering “for the benefit, 2017. The ICC opened a new trial in 2022 against a Kenyan lawyer accused of witness tampering “for the benefit,
and in coordination with” Ruto; that case was closed when he died weeks after Ruto took office.and in coordination with” Ruto; that case was closed when he died weeks after Ruto took office.1110
The 2017 Election Overturned, Shifting Alliances. Violence, rigging allegations, and police Violence, rigging allegations, and police
brutality marred the Kenyatta-Odinga rematch in 2017. When Kenyatta was declared the winner, brutality marred the Kenyatta-Odinga rematch in 2017. When Kenyatta was declared the winner,
the opposition the opposition wentbrough a challenge to the Supreme Court, which nullified the presidential result in a landmark to the Supreme Court, which nullified the presidential result in a landmark
ruling, citing ruling, citing “irregularities and illegalities in the transmission of results that affected irregularities and illegalities in the transmission of results that affected the integrity

9 8 For more see Michela Wrong, For more see Michela Wrong, It’s Our Turn to Eat: The Story of a Kenyan Whistle-Blower, Harper Perennial: 2010. , Harper Perennial: 2010.
109 Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Fatou Bensouda, regarding Trial Chamber’s Statement of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court (ICC), Fatou Bensouda, regarding Trial Chamber’s
decision to vacate charges against Messrs William Samoi Ruto and Joshua Arap Sangdecision to vacate charges against Messrs William Samoi Ruto and Joshua Arap Sang ... ,, April 6, 2016. April 6, 2016.
1110 The Prosecutor v. Paul Gicheru, Document Containing Charges, ICC-01/09-01/20-125-Conf-AnxA, March 12, 2021. The Prosecutor v. Paul Gicheru, Document Containing Charges, ICC-01/09-01/20-125-Conf-AnxA, March 12, 2021.
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the integrity of the poll.of the poll.” The court ordered a fresh election The court ordered a fresh election. The opposition boycotted the rerun, saying there
was no prospect of a credible election, and Kenyatta won with 98%. The, but the opposition boycotted it. After Kenyatta’s victory, the opposition contested opposition contested
Kenyatta’shis legitimacy legitimacy, and held a mock inauguration and held a mock inauguration for Odinga asto name Odinga “the people’s president.” The “the people’s president.” The
government declared it treasonous, shutting down media government declared it treasonous, shutting down media outlets outlets to limit coverage and arresting and arresting
opposition figures. Authorities ignored court orders over the crackdown, leading the chief justice opposition figures. Authorities ignored court orders over the crackdown, leading the chief justice
to warn that the government’s disregard for the judiciary threatened the rule of law.to warn that the government’s disregard for the judiciary threatened the rule of law.1211 Some Some
Members of Congress and former U.S. diplomats raised alarm.Members of Congress and former U.S. diplomats raised alarm.1312
When Kenyatta and Odinga announced a surprise deal—endorsed by the United States—to end When Kenyatta and Odinga announced a surprise deal—endorsed by the United States—to end
the standoff, Ruto treated it as a betrayal, and a major political reconfiguration followed.the standoff, Ruto treated it as a betrayal, and a major political reconfiguration followed.1413 Ruto’s Ruto’s
supporters characterized Kenyatta’s deal with Odinga (known as “the Handshake”) as intended to supporters characterized Kenyatta’s deal with Odinga (known as “the Handshake”) as intended to
prevent Ruto from succeeding him, and when Kenyatta launched an anti-corruption drive, Ruto’s prevent Ruto from succeeding him, and when Kenyatta launched an anti-corruption drive, Ruto’s
allies said it disproportionately targeted politicians linked to him.allies said it disproportionately targeted politicians linked to him.1514 Kenyatta and Odinga’s effort Kenyatta and Odinga’s effort
to make constitutional changes, ostensibly to make politics more inclusive, was blocked by the to make constitutional changes, ostensibly to make politics more inclusive, was blocked by the
judiciary. Ruto characterized the initiative as intended to extend Kenyatta’s power. judiciary. Ruto characterized the initiative as intended to extend Kenyatta’s power.
The 2022 Elections. The 2022 The 2022 electionspolls occurred amid public frustration with high living costs, occurred amid public frustration with high living costs,
disillusion with the political class, and fear of another post-election crisis. Veteran opposition disillusion with the political class, and fear of another post-election crisis. Veteran opposition
leader Odinga had leader Odinga had gained the support of the incumbent president, the support of the incumbent president, althoughbut that that backing alienated some alienated some
opposition opposition supporters.16voters.15 For some Kenyans, Kenyatta epitomized “the establishment.” Ruto For some Kenyans, Kenyatta epitomized “the establishment.” Ruto
capitalized on economic frustrations and, with a Kikuyu running mate and political allies, divided capitalized on economic frustrations and, with a Kikuyu running mate and political allies, divided
the Kikuyu vote.the Kikuyu vote.1716 Odinga also had a Kikuyu running mate—Kenya’s first female candidate on a Odinga also had a Kikuyu running mate—Kenya’s first female candidate on a
major ticket—and Kenyatta’s endorsement, but that support was not enough to secure victory. major ticket—and Kenyatta’s endorsement, but that support was not enough to secure victory.
While Ruto is reportedly among Kenya’s richest menRuto is reportedly among Kenya’s richest men, he and served for years in government, but he emphasized his humble upbringing emphasized his humble upbringing
during the race, casting himself as a champion for the poor during the race, casting himself as a champion for the poor andand as an outsider running against the an outsider running against the
establishment candidate, despite serving for ten years at the top of the Kenyatta government and
previously under Moi. He placed a strong emphasis on hisestablishment. He ran on a “bottom up” economic plan “bottom up” economic plan. An
evangelical Christian, Ruto also, and as an evangelical Christian, elevated religion in his campaign. elevated religion in his campaign. Ruto’sHis alleged role in alleged role in
organizing violence against Kikuyu after the 2007 elections appears not to have worked against organizing violence against Kikuyu after the 2007 elections appears not to have worked against
him him for with many Kikuyu voters. Kenyatta’s inability to deliver more Kikuyu votes to Odinga may many Kikuyu voters. Kenyatta’s inability to deliver more Kikuyu votes to Odinga may
reflect a combination of factors. Some analysts note that political leaders in Central Kenya had reflect a combination of factors. Some analysts note that political leaders in Central Kenya had
long branded Odinga as a destabilizing force, and some suggest that economic frustration and long branded Odinga as a destabilizing force, and some suggest that economic frustration and
grievances against the Kenyatta family may have factored into votes for Ruto.grievances against the Kenyatta family may have factored into votes for Ruto.1817
Ruto garnered 50.5% of the votes in the 2022 election, narrowly passing the threshold to avoid a Ruto garnered 50.5% of the votes in the 2022 election, narrowly passing the threshold to avoid a
runoff against Odinga, who gained 48.9%. Lower turnout hinted at voter apathy, particularly runoff against Odinga, who gained 48.9%. Lower turnout hinted at voter apathy, particularly
among young Kenyans. Reviews of the polls were mixed—observers described them as more among young Kenyans. Reviews of the polls were mixed—observers described them as more
peaceful and transparent than the three preceding, but like past processes they were marred by peaceful and transparent than the three preceding, but like past processes they were marred by
rigging allegations and other controversies. Beyond the tight presidential race, the elections were notable in other ways. A record number of women ran, and more women won parliamentary seats than ever before. Seven female governors were elected. The elections were reported to be among 11
12 The Nation, “Maraga defends Judiciary, says court orders must be obeyed,” February 7, 2018. , “Maraga defends Judiciary, says court orders must be obeyed,” February 7, 2018.
13 Senators12 Sen. Cory Booker and Chris Coons, “Statement on Current Political Situation in Kenya,” February 7, 2018; Cory Booker and Chris Coons, “Statement on Current Political Situation in Kenya,” February 7, 2018; and
Mark Mark Bellamy and Johnnie Carson, “How and why the US should intervene in Kenya,” African Arguments, FebruaryBellamy and Johnnie Carson, “How and why the US should intervene in Kenya,” African Arguments, February
27, 2018. 2018.
1413 Daily Nation, “Ruto: Handshake between Uhuru and Raila was a stab in the back,” March 6, 2022. , “Ruto: Handshake between Uhuru and Raila was a stab in the back,” March 6, 2022.
1514 Macharia Gaitho, “All you need to know about the clash between Kenyatta and Ruto,” Macharia Gaitho, “All you need to know about the clash between Kenyatta and Ruto,” Al Jazeera, August 18, 2019. , August 18, 2019.
1615 See, e.g., See, e.g., Deutsche Welle, “Kenya’s disillusioned youth shun election,” August 5, 2022; and Nanjala Nyabola, “The , “Kenya’s disillusioned youth shun election,” August 5, 2022; and Nanjala Nyabola, “The
Kenyan Kakistocracy,” Kenyan Kakistocracy,” The Nation, August 17, 2022. , August 17, 2022.
1716 Ruto’s running mate, Rigathi Gachagua, faced corruption and money laundering charges during the 2022 elections. Ruto’s running mate, Rigathi Gachagua, faced corruption and money laundering charges during the 2022 elections.
Before the polls, a court ordered him to forfeit $1.7 million in state funds it determined he had illicitly acquired. Before the polls, a court ordered him to forfeit $1.7 million in state funds it determined he had illicitly acquired.
1817 Eromo Egbejule, “Courting the Kikuyu: Kenyan politicians split biggest voting bloc,” Eromo Egbejule, “Courting the Kikuyu: Kenyan politicians split biggest voting bloc,” Al Jazeera, August 6, 2022; , August 6, 2022;
and Nic Cheeseman et al., “Three critical questions will determine the Kenyan election,” and Nic Cheeseman et al., “Three critical questions will determine the Kenyan election,” The Elephant, July 26, 2022. , July 26, 2022.
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rigging allegations and other controversies. Beyond the tight presidential race, the elections were
notable in other ways. A record number of women ran, and more women won parliamentary seats
than ever before. Seven female governors were elected. The elections were reported to be among
Africa’s most expensive, both in terms of campaign costs and election administration.Africa’s most expensive, both in terms of campaign costs and election administration.1918 Kenya Kenya
invested heavily in election technology, including a biometric registration system, to improve the invested heavily in election technology, including a biometric registration system, to improve the
credibility and transparency of the process; whether that improved public trust is debated.credibility and transparency of the process; whether that improved public trust is debated.2019
LGBTQ Rights. Some human rights groups assert that Kenya could follow Uganda in passing Some human rights groups assert that Kenya could follow Uganda in passing
strict anti-LGBTQ legislation.strict anti-LGBTQ legislation.2120 While a colonial-era law criminalizes “acts against the order of While a colonial-era law criminalizes “acts against the order of
nature,” Kenya has been a relative refuge for LGBTQ persons in East Africa fleeing persecution. nature,” Kenya has been a relative refuge for LGBTQ persons in East Africa fleeing persecution.
Its Supreme Court ruled in 2023 that the government’s refusal to register an LGBTQ rights group Its Supreme Court ruled in 2023 that the government’s refusal to register an LGBTQ rights group
discriminated against the community’s rights and was unconstitutional; the court later reaffirmed discriminated against the community’s rights and was unconstitutional; the court later reaffirmed
that the community has the freedom to associate. The rulings prompted a backlash, led by that the community has the freedom to associate. The rulings prompted a backlash, led by
conservative politicians and evangelical churches, and anti-gay protests.conservative politicians and evangelical churches, and anti-gay protests.2221 Ruto, who has said Ruto, who has said
there is “no room” for homosexuality in Kenya, expressed respect for the decision, but added, “it there is “no room” for homosexuality in Kenya, expressed respect for the decision, but added, “it
doesn’t mean we have to agree with it.”doesn’t mean we have to agree with it.”2322 The Family Protection Bill, introduced in 2023, echoes The Family Protection Bill, introduced in 2023, echoes
Uganda’s anti-LGBTQ law: it would criminalize “promoting” homosexuality and punish same Uganda’s anti-LGBTQ law: it would criminalize “promoting” homosexuality and punish same
sex relations with 10-50 years in jail and “aggravated homosexuality” (same sex relations with a sex relations with 10-50 years in jail and “aggravated homosexuality” (same sex relations with a
minor or disabled person or when a terminal disease is passed on) with the death penalty. minor or disabled person or when a terminal disease is passed on) with the death penalty.
The Economy
Kenya is East Africa’s second-largest economy and one of the fastest growing and most diverse in Kenya is East Africa’s second-largest economy and one of the fastest growing and most diverse in
Africa. Agriculture is the backbone of the economy, but manufacturing and real estate also drive Africa. Agriculture is the backbone of the economy, but manufacturing and real estate also drive
growth. The services sector leads in job creation. The telecommunications industry is a global growth. The services sector leads in job creation. The telecommunications industry is a global
pioneer in mobile banking technology. pioneer in mobile banking technology. With almost 40% of its population under age 14, a coming surge in the labor force will present both challenges and opportunities. Kenya ranks as a lower-middle income country, but a third Kenya ranks as a lower-middle income country, but a third
of the population lives in poverty, per the World Bankof the population lives in poverty, per the World Bank. With almost 40% of its population under
age 14, a coming surge in the labor force will present both challenges and opportunities.
A , and a COVID-19-related recession in 2020, Kenya’s first since the 1990s, caused COVID-19-related recession in 2020, Kenya’s first since the 1990s, caused added hardship. Efforts by hardship. Efforts by
the government to slow the pandemic’s spread, including a curfew, school closings, restrictions the government to slow the pandemic’s spread, including a curfew, school closings, restrictions
on movement, and social distancing measures, on movement, and social distancing measures, also had negative impacts on livelihoods. The economy had negative impacts on livelihoods. The economy
has rebounded, but many Kenyans are has rebounded, but many Kenyans are still struggling due to inflation. struggling due to inflation.
Former President Kenyatta sought to improve Kenya’s business environment and attract foreign Former President Kenyatta sought to improve Kenya’s business environment and attract foreign
investment. The People’s Republic of China (PRC, or China) financed and constructed major investment. The People’s Republic of China (PRC, or China) financed and constructed major
infrastructure projects, including a railway and a port near the coastal town of Lamu, a UNESCO infrastructure projects, including a railway and a port near the coastal town of Lamu, a UNESCO
World Heritage site.World Heritage site.2423 The railway cost a fifth of the national budget; 90% of it was funded with The railway cost a fifth of the national budget; 90% of it was funded with
loans from China’s Export-Import Bank.loans from China’s Export-Import Bank.2524 The port in Lamu is part of a large transport corridor The port in Lamu is part of a large transport corridor
project with South Sudan and Ethiopia that envisions a road network, railway, airports, resort project with South Sudan and Ethiopia that envisions a road network, railway, airports, resort
cities, an oil pipeline, and industrial areas. Environmentalists have expressed concerns with the project, and with plans for Kenya’s first coal-fired power plant. In 2019, a Kenyan court ruled 18
19 The East African, “Polls body on the spot as Kenyans prepare for region’s most expensive election,” May 6, 2022. , “Polls body on the spot as Kenyans prepare for region’s most expensive election,” May 6, 2022.
2019 Rose Mosero, “In Kenya’s 2022 elections, technology and data protection must go hand-in-hand,” Carnegie Rose Mosero, “In Kenya’s 2022 elections, technology and data protection must go hand-in-hand,” Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace, August 8, 2022; Gabrielle Lynch, “Kenya’s elections are proof of change since Endowment for International Peace, August 8, 2022; Gabrielle Lynch, “Kenya’s elections are proof of change since
2007 violence, but more reform is needed,” The Conversation, September 6, 2022. 2007 violence, but more reform is needed,” The Conversation, September 6, 2022.
2120 Reuters, “Kenya could follow Uganda as East African nations wage war on LGBTQ rights,” June 23, 2023. Reuters, “Kenya could follow Uganda as East African nations wage war on LGBTQ rights,” June 23, 2023.
2221 The Guardian, “Kenya’s LGBTQ community wins bittersweet victory in battle for rights,” March 3, 2023, “Kenya’s LGBTQ community wins bittersweet victory in battle for rights,” March 3, 2023. 22
23 Reuters, “’No room’ for gays in Kenya, says deputy president,” May 4, 2015; and Reuters, “For LGBTQ Kenyans, Reuters, “’No room’ for gays in Kenya, says deputy president,” May 4, 2015; and Reuters, “For LGBTQ Kenyans,
court win prompts backlash as threats escalate,” April 20, 2023. court win prompts backlash as threats escalate,” April 20, 2023.
2423 See, e.g., Abdi Latif Dahir, “The troubles of Kenya’s China-funded train,” See, e.g., Abdi Latif Dahir, “The troubles of Kenya’s China-funded train,” New York Times, August 9, 2022. August 9, 2022.
2524 Jonathan Kaiman, “’China has conquered Kenya’: Inside Beijing’s new strategy to win African hearts and minds,” Jonathan Kaiman, “’China has conquered Kenya’: Inside Beijing’s new strategy to win African hearts and minds,”
Los Angeles Times, August 7, 2017. August 7, 2017.
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cities, an oil pipeline, and industrial areas. Environmentalists have expressed concerns with the
project, and with plans for Kenya’s first coal-fired power plant. In 2019, a Kenyan court ruled
that authorities had failed to do a thorough environmental impact assessment and suspended the that authorities had failed to do a thorough environmental impact assessment and suspended the
coal project. Another Chinese-financed project, an offshore oil terminal, was completed in 2022. coal project. Another Chinese-financed project, an offshore oil terminal, was completed in 2022.
The IMF has warned Kenya to contain its debt, which stood at 68% of GDP when Ruto started his The IMF has warned Kenya to contain its debt, which stood at 68% of GDP when Ruto started his
term, up from 42% when Kenyatta took office.term, up from 42% when Kenyatta took office.2625 Ruto pledged to cut government spending and Ruto pledged to cut government spending and
signed up for a new IMF package to reduce debt risks. (The IMF has since offered additional signed up for a new IMF package to reduce debt risks. (The IMF has since offered additional
funding, bringing its total commitment to over $4.4 billion.) Ruto publicly promised greater funding, bringing its total commitment to over $4.4 billion.) Ruto publicly promised greater
transparency on loans from China.transparency on loans from China.2726 Kenya asked China for another $1 billion to finish stalled Kenya asked China for another $1 billion to finish stalled
road projects in late 2023, and for a slower repayment schedule. The IMF has lauded Ruto’s road projects in late 2023, and for a slower repayment schedule. The IMF has lauded Ruto’s
economic reforms, but his new taxes, intended to help avert debt distress, have been publicly economic reforms, but his new taxes, intended to help avert debt distress, have been publicly
unpopular.unpopular.2827 Ruto has been outspoken in calling for international finance system reforms, Ruto has been outspoken in calling for international finance system reforms,
asserting that African nations pay more on average to borrow than wealthier countries, and debt asserting that African nations pay more on average to borrow than wealthier countries, and debt
burdens leave many struggling to meet development goals and deal with climate change effects.burdens leave many struggling to meet development goals and deal with climate change effects.2928
Climate Change and “Green Growth.” Kenya generates most of its electricity from geothermal Kenya generates most of its electricity from geothermal
and hydroelectric sources. and hydroelectric sources. Ruto has pledged to increase clean energy and phase outThe country is developing its wind power capacity, with U.S. support, and is home to Africa’s largest wind farm. Ruto has pledged to phase out the use of fossil fuels fossil fuels
for electricity by 2030for electricity by 2030, and and he has urged other African leaders to embrace renewables.urged other African leaders to embrace renewables.3029 (Ruto has, meanwhile, continued to express support for mining Kenya’s coal deposits.30) As chair As chair
of the Committee of African Heads of State on Climate Change, he has led Africa’s negotiating of the Committee of African Heads of State on Climate Change, he has led Africa’s negotiating
group at the U.N. Climate Conference of the Parties (COP) talks, highlighting climate impacts group at the U.N. Climate Conference of the Parties (COP) talks, highlighting climate impacts
that he calls a “living nightmare for millions of Kenyans, and hundreds of millions of Africans.”31 that he calls a “living nightmare for millions of Kenyans, and hundreds of millions of Africans.”31
Kenya hosted a continental summit on climate action in 2023, and 17 African leaders signed the Kenya hosted a continental summit on climate action in 2023, and 17 African leaders signed the
Nairobi Declaration on Climate Change, Africa’s first joint position on the issue. Ruto is pushing Nairobi Declaration on Climate Change, Africa’s first joint position on the issue. Ruto is pushing
a new Africa Green Industrialization Initiative, seeking investment in renewable power projectsa new Africa Green Industrialization Initiative, seeking investment in renewable power projects.32
Kenya is developing its wind power generating capacity with U.S. support, and has plans to build
Africa’s biggest wind farm. The British firm Tullow discovered oil in northern Kenya over a
decade ago, but production has been delayed by a mix of challenges. Kenya announced
discoveries of coltan deposits (used in mobile phones and electric car batteries) in January 2024.
Humanitarian Issues
Drought, Floods and Food Insecurity. Recurrent drought and high food prices have driven
food insecurity in Kenya. Roughly 1.9 million people—12% of the population—were estimated
to be acutely food insecure in early 2024, and some 850,000 were acutely malnourished.33
, and he wants to attract investment from companies seeking to build factories powered by renewable energy to reduce their carbon footprint.32 Kenya is also developing carbon capture facilities. Humanitarian Issues Drought, Floods and Food Insecurity. Recurrent drought and high food prices have driven food insecurity in Kenya. Alongside Ethiopia and Somalia, Kenya suffered five successive below-average rainy seasons Alongside Ethiopia and Somalia, Kenya suffered five successive below-average rainy seasons
from 2020 through 2022. Pastoral communities were hit hard—almost three million livestock from 2020 through 2022. Pastoral communities were hit hard—almost three million livestock
died in Kenya’s prolonged droughtreportedly died, destroying livelihoods. Cattle raids in the north and Al, destroying livelihoods. Cattle raids in the north and Al Shabaab threats have also disrupted livelihoods and affected humanitarian access. El Niño-driven rains in 2024 are facilitating drought recovery, but they have also caused devastating flooding. Over 300 people have been killed by floods and mudslides, and government-ordered demolitions 25

26 Per the IMF’s 2023 Debt Sustainability Analysis, multilateral creditors account for 47% of Kenya’s external debt and Per the IMF’s 2023 Debt Sustainability Analysis, multilateral creditors account for 47% of Kenya’s external debt and
bilateral creditors 28%. Almost 65% of Kenya’s bilateral debt is to non-Paris Club members, mainly loans from China. bilateral creditors 28%. Almost 65% of Kenya’s bilateral debt is to non-Paris Club members, mainly loans from China.
2726 Reuters, “Kenya publishes loan documents for Chinese-built railway,” November 7, 2022. Reuters, “Kenya publishes loan documents for Chinese-built railway,” November 7, 2022.
2827 Deutsche Welle, “Kenya: Bumpy first year in office for William Ruto,” September 12, 2023. , “Kenya: Bumpy first year in office for William Ruto,” September 12, 2023.
2928 William Ruto, “If you want our countries to address climate change, first pause our debts,” William Ruto, “If you want our countries to address climate change, first pause our debts,” New York Times, October , October
8, 2023. 8, 2023.
3029 Antony Sguazzin, “Kenya’s Ruto breaks ranks, says Africa must leapfrog fossil fuel,” Bloomberg, October 4, 2022 Antony Sguazzin, “Kenya’s Ruto breaks ranks, says Africa must leapfrog fossil fuel,” Bloomberg, October 4, 2022; William Ruto, “Walking Our Talk on Climate Action,” Project Syndicate, May 2023. 30 Business Daily, “Treasury targets coal excise duty as President Ruto backs local mining plans,” January 1, 2024. .
31 For Ruto’s speech, see https://nation.africa/kenya/news/full-speech-read-ruto-s-stinging-message-at-cop27-4012092. 31 For Ruto’s speech, see https://nation.africa/kenya/news/full-speech-read-ruto-s-stinging-message-at-cop27-4012092.
32 President of the Republic of Kenya, “Green growth is the answer to climate change,” December 2, 2023; and 32 President of the Republic of Kenya, “Green growth is the answer to climate change,” December 2, 2023; and
Bloomberg, “Africa’s self-appointed climate champion makes the hard sell,” December 8, 2023Bloomberg, “Africa’s self-appointed climate champion makes the hard sell,” December 8, 2023.
33 Data in this section draws from IPC, “Kenya: IPC Acute Food Insecurity and Acute Malnutrition Analysis,” March
26, 2024 and, on livestock deaths, USAID, Kenya Assistance Overview, April 2023.
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Shabaab threats have also disrupted livelihoods and affected humanitarian access. El Niño-driven
rains in 2024 are facilitating drought recovery, but they have also caused devastating flooding.
Over 250 people have been killed by floods and mudslides, and government-ordered demolitions
; Katharine Houreld, Kenyan president aims to attract green investment during U.S. visit, Washington Post, May 17, 2024. Congressional Research Service 6 Kenya: In Brief of homes and businesses near river banks have caused additional hardship.of homes and businesses near river banks have caused additional hardship.3433 Some experts say Some experts say
poor urban planning and land management have contributed to the country’s flooding problems.poor urban planning and land management have contributed to the country’s flooding problems.3534
Refugee Issues. Kenya hosts over 770,000 refugees and asylum seekers, 86% of whom live in Kenya hosts over 770,000 refugees and asylum seekers, 86% of whom live in
camps.camps.3635 This total includes over 430,000 Somalis and over 180,000 South Sudanese. In 2016, the This total includes over 430,000 Somalis and over 180,000 South Sudanese. In 2016, the
Kenyatta government declared that Kenya would no longer host refugees, citing security Kenyatta government declared that Kenya would no longer host refugees, citing security
concerns. Officials later clarified that the aim was to close Dadaab, the largest camp complex, concerns. Officials later clarified that the aim was to close Dadaab, the largest camp complex,
which at the time hosted over 340,000 refugees, most from Somalia. Kenya’s High Court blocked which at the time hosted over 340,000 refugees, most from Somalia. Kenya’s High Court blocked
Dadaab’s closure, ruling it discriminatory and unconstitutional. Authorities again threatened to Dadaab’s closure, ruling it discriminatory and unconstitutional. Authorities again threatened to
close Dadaab in 2019 and in 2021 told the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that close Dadaab in 2019 and in 2021 told the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) that
camp residents would be expelled if UNHCR did not devise a plan to close the Dadaab and camp residents would be expelled if UNHCR did not devise a plan to close the Dadaab and
Kakuma complexes by 2022. UNHCR developed a plan, but humanitarian activists, arguing Kakuma complexes by 2022. UNHCR developed a plan, but humanitarian activists, arguing
returns to Somalia and South Sudan were not sustainable, urged the government to offer refugees returns to Somalia and South Sudan were not sustainable, urged the government to offer refugees
durable solutions within Kenya.durable solutions within Kenya.3736 The country has since adopted a law that provides new The country has since adopted a law that provides new
opportunities, rights, and protections for refugees within Kenya, but it has yet to be implementedopportunities, rights, and protections for refugees within Kenya, but it has yet to be implemented. Over 380,000 refugees reside in the Dadaab complex as of May 2024 UN reporting..
Security Concerns
Terrorist activity and conflict in neighboring countries have led Kenya to take an increasingly Terrorist activity and conflict in neighboring countries have led Kenya to take an increasingly
active role in regional securityactive role in regional security over the past fifteen years, but banditry, cattle rustling, poaching, , but banditry, cattle rustling, poaching,
urban crime, and communal disputes place competing domestic demands on Kenya’s security urban crime, and communal disputes place competing domestic demands on Kenya’s security
resources. Kenya has suffered multiple international terrorist attacks, and the concentration of resources. Kenya has suffered multiple international terrorist attacks, and the concentration of
potential international and domestic targets in Nairobi is a serious concern for Kenyan and potential international and domestic targets in Nairobi is a serious concern for Kenyan and
foreign security officials. foreign security officials.
Northeast Kenya faced a surge in Al Shabaab attacks in 2023, with 279 reported fatalities. Northeast Kenya faced a surge in Al Shabaab attacks in 2023, with 279 reported fatalities.3837 The The
uptick occurred in parallel with a Somali uptick occurred in parallel with a Somali government offensive against the group, and followed offensive against the group, and followed a
decision by Kenya and Somalia to reopen their shared borderKenya’s declaration that it would reopen its border with Somalia, which Kenya closed , which Kenya closed in 2011 when when
it launched operations in Somalia against Al Shabaabit launched operations in Somalia against Al Shabaab in 2011. Kenya has since postponed the reopening. Ruto has pledged to. Ruto has pledged that Kenya will, if
needed, maintain troops in Somalia after ATMIS’s planned withdrawal at the end of maintain troops in Somalia after ATMIS’s planned withdrawal at the end of 2024; Kenya
and other2024 if needed; ATMIS troop contributors ATMIS troop contributors and donors are discussing a are discussing a possible follow-onnew mission. mission. New Fresh tensions tensions
between Somalia and Ethiopia, which contributes the largest number of foreign forces to the fight between Somalia and Ethiopia, which contributes the largest number of foreign forces to the fight
against Al Shabaab, add to Kenya’s regional concerns, as does against Al Shabaab, add to Kenya’s regional concerns, as does ongoing instability in Ethiopiainstability in Ethiopia
(particularly the conflict in Ethiopia’s most populous region, Oromia, which borders Kenya).
Alongside persistent. Alongside terrorist threats, Kenya faces pastoralist militia activity in the northwest. terrorist threats, Kenya faces pastoralist militia activity in the northwest.39
38 Military operations to Military operations to addresscurb bandit attacks and stem bandit attacks and stem the proliferation of small arms reduced

34small arms proliferation reduced banditry in 2023, but raids and resulting displacement remain an issue. Kenya’s Chief of Defense Forces, Gen. Francis Ogolla, died in an April 2024 helicopter crash while visiting troops deployed in the operation. 33 AP, “Poor Kenyans feel devastated by floods and brutalized by the government’s response,” May 11, 2024. AP, “Poor Kenyans feel devastated by floods and brutalized by the government’s response,” May 11, 2024.
3534 Sean Avery, “Kenya’s devastating floods expose decades of poor urban planning and bad land management,” The Sean Avery, “Kenya’s devastating floods expose decades of poor urban planning and bad land management,” The
Conversation, May 1, 2024. Conversation, May 1, 2024.
3635 UNHCR, UNHCR, Kenya: Registered Refugees and Asylum-Seekers, as of 30 April 2024. .
3736 Médecins Sans Frontières, Médecins Sans Frontières, In Search of Dignity: Refugees in Kenya Face a Reckoning, December 6, 2021. See also , December 6, 2021. See also
Joshua Craze, “Why the return of displaced people is such a thorny issue in South Sudan,” Joshua Craze, “Why the return of displaced people is such a thorny issue in South Sudan,” The New Humanitarian, ,
January 5, 2022. January 5, 2022.
3837 ACLED, “Assessing Al Shabaab’s threat to the region as Somalia joints the East Africa Community,” December 8, ACLED, “Assessing Al Shabaab’s threat to the region as Somalia joints the East Africa Community,” December 8,
2023 and “Kenya-Somalia border: Rising Al-Shabaab threat in the wake of ATMIS drawdown,” September 1, 2023. 2023 and “Kenya-Somalia border: Rising Al-Shabaab threat in the wake of ATMIS drawdown,” September 1, 2023.
3938 For more on pastoralist and ethnic militia activity, see, e.g., ACLED, “Increasing Security Challenges in Kenya,” For more on pastoralist and ethnic militia activity, see, e.g., ACLED, “Increasing Security Challenges in Kenya,”
March 2, 2023 and “Kenya: Government operation brings calm to North Rift region,” August 4, 2023. March 2, 2023 and “Kenya: Government operation brings calm to North Rift region,” August 4, 2023.
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banditry in 2023, but raids and resulting displacement remain an issue. Kenya’s Chief of Defense
Forces, General Francis Ogolla, died in an April 2024 helicopter crash while visiting troops
deployed in the operation. It was the latest in a series of helicopter crashes in the country.40
Police Abuses and Calls for Reform
Police abuses and extrajudicial kil ings (EJKs) in Kenya have repeatedly drawn an international spotlight, including in Police abuses and extrajudicial kil ings (EJKs) in Kenya have repeatedly drawn an international spotlight, including in
the context of anti-terrorism efforts. the context of anti-terrorism efforts.4139 The State Department’s 2023 human rights report lists security force The State Department’s 2023 human rights report lists security force
abuses, including torture, unlawful kil ings, and enforced disappearances among Kenya’s most serious human rights abuses, including torture, unlawful kil ings, and enforced disappearances among Kenya’s most serious human rights
problems, noting “numerous reports the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful kil ings. . problems, noting “numerous reports the government or its agents committed arbitrary or unlawful kil ings. .
particularly of antigovernment demonstrators in protests that took place between March and July.” The report particularly of antigovernment demonstrators in protests that took place between March and July.” The report
describes impunity as a problem “at all levels of government,” and as a serious problem across law enforcement describes impunity as a problem “at all levels of government,” and as a serious problem across law enforcement
agencies. Accountability mechanisms such as the Independent Police Oversight Authority have been criticized for agencies. Accountability mechanisms such as the Independent Police Oversight Authority have been criticized for
failing to prosecute misconduct. A Kenyan parliamentary report on EJKs and enforced disappearances in 2021 failing to prosecute misconduct. A Kenyan parliamentary report on EJKs and enforced disappearances in 2021
described the issue as a grave concern, noting the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights’ documentation described the issue as a grave concern, noting the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights’ documentation
of over 1,000 cases since 2013.of over 1,000 cases since 2013.4240 Missing Voices, a coalition that tracks police kil ings and disappearances, has Missing Voices, a coalition that tracks police kil ings and disappearances, has
documented over 800 cases from 2019-2023, including 118 kil ings and 10 enforced disappearances in 2023.documented over 800 cases from 2019-2023, including 118 kil ings and 10 enforced disappearances in 2023.4341
Police abuses around elections have been a recurrent problem; police were implicated in over 400 deaths after the Police abuses around elections have been a recurrent problem; police were implicated in over 400 deaths after the
2007 elections and over 100 deaths after the 2017 2007 elections and over 100 deaths after the 2017 electionspol s. Ruto pledged to end police abuse and enhance . Ruto pledged to end police abuse and enhance police
oversight duringoversight of the force in his campaign, and his campaign, and in late 2022,shortly after he took office, Kenyan prosecutors charged 12 police officers after he took office, Kenyan prosecutors charged 12 police officers
with crimes against humanity over the 2017 post-election violence.with crimes against humanity over the 2017 post-election violence.4442 In 2023, In 2023, however, police violence surged in
response to opposition protests, with at least 30 deaths attributed to police action during the protests. Senior
Ruto administration officials subsequently dismissed claims of excessive force and extrajudicial kil ings.45 A
taskforce directed by President Ruto to study police problems issued a report in late 2023 recommendingthough, when the opposition led protests, police responded with violence, which reportedly led to at least 30 deaths; senior Kenyan officials dismissed the allegations of excessive force.43 A taskforce directed by Ruto to study police problems has recommended far- far-
reaching changes to the police and prisons servicesreaching changes to the police and prisons services. The report identified, identifying underfunding, “endemic” corruption, underfunding, “endemic” corruption,
leadership gaps, and poor leadership gaps, and poor handling of human capital management human capital management and development as among the services’ primary
as key challenges.challenges.46 The task force acknowledged that the 44 The taskforce noted that police routinely police routinely rankedrank in pol s as the in pol s as the country’s most corrupt institutionmost corrupt institution
in the country, and assessed that the failure to address the problem was fueling a culture of impunity in the force, and assessed that the failure to address the problem was fueling a culture of impunity in the force.
; they also recommended raising police salaries. During the Ruto State Visit, the White House announced $7 mil ion in new aid to advance and strengthen the modernization and professionalization of Kenya’s National Police Service, as well as $2.2 mil ion to support prison service reforms. Selected Foreign Relations Issues
East Africa. Kenya has played a peacemaking role in the troubled region, hostingKenya has played a peacemaking role in the troubled region, hosting, for example,
the talks that led to Sudan’s 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the talks that led to Sudan’s 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, as well asand facilitating negotiations on negotiations on
conflicts in Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and South Sudan. With U.S. conflicts in Ethiopia, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and South Sudan. With U.S.
support and President Ruto’s approval, former support and President Ruto’s approval, former presidentPresident Kenyatta played a leading role in the Kenyatta played a leading role in the
AU-mediated ceasefire deal between Ethiopia’s government and AU-mediated ceasefire deal between Ethiopia’s government and Tigray authorities in authorities in Tigray in late
2022; a Kenyan general 2022; a Kenyan general has since ledleads the AU ceasefire monitoring team. Kenya deployed troops the AU ceasefire monitoring team. Kenya deployed troops
to eastern DRC in 2022 to lead an East African force to stabilize areas affected by a Rwandan-to eastern DRC in 2022 to lead an East African force to stabilize areas affected by a Rwandan-
backed rebellion; the force withdrew in late 2023 after DRC authorities complained that East backed rebellion; the force withdrew in late 2023 after DRC authorities complained that East
African troops were unwilling to confront the rebels aggressively.African troops were unwilling to confront the rebels aggressively. Ruto’s 2023 offer to mediate Ruto’s 2023 offer to mediate
between between theSudan’s warring parties warring parties in Sudan was rejected by its military government, which accused him was rejected by its military government, which accused him
of bias toward the insurgent Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Sudan recalled its ambassador from of bias toward the insurgent Rapid Support Forces (RSF). Sudan recalled its ambassador from

40 On helicopter crashes, see, e.g., VOA, “Kenya mourns defense chief killed in helicopter crash,” April 19, 2024.
41Kenya in early 2024 to protest Ruto hosting a visit by RSF leader Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo, aka “Hemedti.” More recently, Kenya has sought to mediate between Ethiopia and Somalia to ease tensions over Somaliland. 39 See, e.g., See, e.g., New York Times, “Haiti, desperate for peace, turns to police notorious for violence,” October 4, 2023; , “Haiti, desperate for peace, turns to police notorious for violence,” October 4, 2023;
CNN, “Dozens ‘disappeared’ by security forces, rights group says,” July 19, 2016; Al Jazeera, “Killing Kenya,” CNN, “Dozens ‘disappeared’ by security forces, rights group says,” July 19, 2016; Al Jazeera, “Killing Kenya,”
September 23, 2015; and U.N. Development Program, September 23, 2015; and U.N. Development Program, Journey to Extremism in Africa, September 2017. September 2017.
4240 Standing Committee on Justice, Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Standing Committee on Justice, Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Report on the Inquiry into Extrajudicial Killings
and Enforced Disappearances in Kenya, Senate, Twelfth Parliament, Republic of Kenya, October 2021. , Senate, Twelfth Parliament, Republic of Kenya, October 2021.
4341 Missing Voices, Missing Voices, End Police Impunity – 2023 Annual Report, April 23, 2024. , April 23, 2024.
44 42 AFP, “Kenyan police charged with crimes against humanity over 2017 crackdown,” October 28, 2022. AFP, “Kenyan police charged with crimes against humanity over 2017 crackdown,” October 28, 2022.
4543 “Mudavadi says police brutality, use of excessive force do not happen in Kenya,” Citizen (Nairobi), February 15, “Mudavadi says police brutality, use of excessive force do not happen in Kenya,” Citizen (Nairobi), February 15,
2024; and David Njaaga, “Interior CS Indiki refutes claims of police brutality,” 2024; and David Njaaga, “Interior CS Indiki refutes claims of police brutality,” The Standard (Nairobi), July 25, 2023. (Nairobi), July 25, 2023.
4644 Report of the National Taskforce on Police Reforms, November 2023. , November 2023.
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Kenya in early 2024 in protest after President Ruto hosted talks with the RSF leader Mohamed
Hamdan Dagalo, aka “Hemedti.” (The State Department has implicated the RSF in war crimes,
crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing.) More recently, Kenya has reportedly sought to
facilitate a dialogue between Ethiopia and Somalia to ease tensions over Somaliland.
Haiti.47Haiti.45 In July 2023, Kenya responded to an appeal by the government of Haiti for In July 2023, Kenya responded to an appeal by the government of Haiti for international
help with rising gang violence, offering to lead a multinational force to assist Haitian police help with rising gang violence, offering to lead a multinational force to assist Haitian police to
restore order.48 The Ruto administration has proposed to deploy 1,000 police officers; other
countries have since also pledged forces. The U.N. Security Council authorized the Multinational
Security Support mission (MSS) in October 2023restore order.46 The UN. Security Council authorized the Multinational Security Support mission (MSS) in October 2023. The Ruto administration plans to deploy 1,000 police officers, with other countries contributing the remainder of the planned 2,000-person force. Kenya’s parliament approved the government’s . Kenya’s parliament approved the government’s
request to request to senddeploy police to Haiti in police to Haiti in November, but in January, late 2023, but Kenya’s High Court blocked the Kenya’s High Court blocked the
planned deploymentdeployment in January, ruling it unconstitutional. The , ruling it unconstitutional. The Kenyan opposition politician who brought the opposition politician who brought the
case to court case argued that Kenya needs to prioritize its own security challenges; other observers argued that Kenya needs to prioritize its own security challenges; other observers
have raised concerns about the human rights record of the Kenyan police.raised concerns about the human rights record of the Kenyan police.49 The47 Per the High Court High Court ruled
thatruling, a “reciprocal arrangement” with a “reciprocal arrangement” with thea host government host government wasis required for a police deployment. required for a police deployment.
Kenyan and Haitian officials signed Kenyan and Haitian officials signed such anthat agreement in agreement in early March, but when Haiti’s prime March, but when Haiti’s prime
minister subsequently resigned amid escalating gang violence, Kenyan officials minister subsequently resigned amid escalating gang violence, Kenyan officials said they were
pausing the deployment until a new Haitian government was in place. With a new transitional
council in Haiti formed in April, Kenyan police, trained in French, are expected to start
deploying.50 U.S. support is discussed below.
Israel/Gaza. Kenya has longstandingpaused the deployment. The formation of a new government in June has paved the way for the Kenyan police, trained in French, to deploy.48 Israel/Gaza. Kenya has long-standing ties with Israel, which Kenyan officials ties with Israel, which Kenyan officials have referred to as
call a “special partnership.”a “special partnership.”5149 Ruto expressed solidarity with Israel over the October 2023 attacks by Ruto expressed solidarity with Israel over the October 2023 attacks by
Hamas, but Hamas, but has facedfaces domestic pressure over Israel’s military operations in Gaza. domestic pressure over Israel’s military operations in Gaza.5250 Kenya often Kenya often
votes in support of Israeli positions at the United Nations, but it has votes in support of Israeli positions at the United Nations, but it has also voted in favor of full U.N. membership for Palestine. Kenya voted for resolutions calling for a humanitarian ceasefire in Gazavoted in favor of resolutions
calling for a humanitarian ceasefire in Gaza and in favor of full U.N. membership for Palestine. .
Russia/Ukraine. Kenya was a vocal critic of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 when it sat Kenya was a vocal critic of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022 when it sat
on the U.N. Security Council.on the U.N. Security Council.5351 The Ruto The Ruto Administrationadministration took a more ambiguous stance in early took a more ambiguous stance in early
2023, hosting the foreign ministers of Belarus and Russia and announcing plans for a trade pact 2023, hosting the foreign ministers of Belarus and Russia and announcing plans for a trade pact
with Russia. (Russia-Kenya trade is limited, particularly in comparison to U.S.-Kenya trade; with Russia. (Russia-Kenya trade is limited, particularly in comparison to U.S.-Kenya trade;
imports from Russia consist primarily of iron, wheat, and fertilizers; Kenya’s main export to imports from Russia consist primarily of iron, wheat, and fertilizers; Kenya’s main export to
Russia is tea.) Kenyan officials subsequently called Russia’s decision to exit the Black Sea Grain Russia is tea.) Kenyan officials subsequently called Russia’s decision to exit the Black Sea Grain
Initiative “a stab in the back” that would disproportionally harm the drought-affected Horn of Initiative “a stab in the back” that would disproportionally harm the drought-affected Horn of
Africa.Africa.5452 Ruto did not attend Russia’s 2023 Africa Summit, and in early 2024, Kenya joined the Ruto did not attend Russia’s 2023 Africa Summit, and in early 2024, Kenya joined the
Ukraine Defense Contact Group, an alliance of countries that supports the defense of Ukraine.Ukraine Defense Contact Group, an alliance of countries that supports the defense of Ukraine.
The European Union (EU), which seeks to counter Russian influence in Africa, has pursued an

47 China. China is Kenya’s largest trading partner, and PRC loans—reportedly totaling $8 billion—account for roughly 64% of its bilateral external debt and 17% of total external debt (the World Bank is Kenya’s largest external creditor).53 While Ruto has sought to strengthen U.S. ties, he has also sought to maintain a “robust friendship” with China, despite anti-China rhetoric during his campaign.54 He attended China’s 2023 Belt and Road Forum. When Ruto was Kenyatta’s deputy, 45 For more on the situation in Haiti and the proposed mission, see CRS Insight IN12331, For more on the situation in Haiti and the proposed mission, see CRS Insight IN12331, Haiti in Crisis: What Role for
a Multinational Security Support Mission? and CRS Report R47394, and CRS Report R47394, Haiti: Recent Developments and U.S. Policy.. See
also International Crisis Group, “Kenya and the Chaos in Haiti,” Podcast, March 7, 2024.
48 46 Foreign Minister Alfred Mutua (@DrAlfredMutua), X Post, July 29, 2023. Foreign Minister Alfred Mutua (@DrAlfredMutua), X Post, July 29, 2023.
49 “47 BBC, BBC, "Kenya court blocks police deployment to Haiti,” January 26, 2024; Luke Taylor, “Kenya’s offer to send Kenya court blocks police deployment to Haiti,” January 26, 2024; Luke Taylor, “Kenya’s offer to send
police to Haiti sparks human rights concerns,” police to Haiti sparks human rights concerns,” The Guardian, August 5, 2023; , August 5, 2023; New York Times, “Haiti, desperate for , “Haiti, desperate for
peace, turns to police notorious for violence,” October 4, 2023. peace, turns to police notorious for violence,” October 4, 2023.
5048 Abdi Latif Dahir, “Kenya rallies police officers ahead of Haiti deployment,” Abdi Latif Dahir, “Kenya rallies police officers ahead of Haiti deployment,” New York Times, May 14, 2024. , May 14, 2024.
5149 The East African, “Kenya, Israel agree to enhance cooperation on health and security,” July 29, 2021. , “Kenya, Israel agree to enhance cooperation on health and security,” July 29, 2021.
5250 The Star (Nairobi), “Kenya stands with Israel, Ruto says amidst war with Palestine,” October 8, 2023; President “Kenya stands with Israel, Ruto says amidst war with Palestine,” October 8, 2023; President
William Ruto (@WilliamsRuto), X Post, February 1, 2024. William Ruto (@WilliamsRuto), X Post, February 1, 2024.
5351 NPR, “Kenyan U.N. Ambassador compares Ukraine’s plight to colonial legacy in Africa,” February 22, 2022. NPR, “Kenyan U.N. Ambassador compares Ukraine’s plight to colonial legacy in Africa,” February 22, 2022.
5452 BBC, “Russia’s grain deal exit is a stab in the back – Kenya,” July 18, 2023. 53 Fergus Kell, “Kenya’s debt struggles go far deeper than Chinese loans,” Chatham House, May 31, 2023. 54 During his campaign, Ruto pledged to deport Chinese nationals doing jobs that could be done by Kenyans. On his post-election shift, see, e.g., VOA, “After anti-China campaign, Kenya’s Ruto does about-face,” September 29, 2022. Congressional Research Service 9 Kenya: In Brief BBC, “Russia’s grain deal exit is a stab in the back – Kenya,” July 18, 2023.
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Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with Kenya, through which the EU, one of Kenya’s
biggest export markets, would give the country access to its market without tariffs or quotas.55
China. China is Kenya’s largest trading partner, and PRC loans—reportedly totaling $8 billion—
account for roughly 64% of Kenya’s bilateral external debt and 17% of total external debt (the
World Bank is Kenya’s largest external creditor).56 While Ruto has sought to reset perceptions
and strengthen U.S. ties, he has also sought to maintain a “robust friendship” with China, despite
anti-China rhetoric during his campaign.57 Ruto attended China’s 2023 Belt and Road Forum.
When Ruto was Kenyatta’s deputy, their coalition cultivated ties with the Communist Party of their coalition cultivated ties with the Communist Party of
China, an effort Ruto’s party has continued. After meeting China’s ambassador to KenyaChina, an effort Ruto’s party has continued. After meeting China’s ambassador to Kenya in 2023, Deputy , Deputy
President Rigathi Gachagua said, “The United Democratic Alliance is the younger brother of President Rigathi Gachagua said, “The United Democratic Alliance is the younger brother of
CPC, but it is the party of the future. We want to develop it like CPC.”CPC, but it is the party of the future. We want to develop it like CPC.”58
55 In polls, Kenyans express greater support for the United States as a model than the PRC, but a majority of Kenyans view China positively.56 Wildlife and Environmental Conservation
Heavily reliant on tourism for foreign exchange earnings, Kenya has implemented measures to Heavily reliant on tourism for foreign exchange earnings, Kenya has implemented measures to
conserve its wildlife resources and is recognized as a leader in conserve its wildlife resources and is recognized as a leader in efforts to combatcountering wildlife wildlife
trafficking in Africa. trafficking in Africa. The countryIt has a stringent regulatory and legislative environment around has a stringent regulatory and legislative environment around
wildlife poaching, trafficking, and smuggling, and itpoaching and trafficking, and has enjoyed a dramatic drop in elephant and has enjoyed a dramatic drop in elephant and
rhino poaching in the past decade.rhino poaching in the past decade.5957 Many anti-trafficking initiatives are implemented through the Many anti-trafficking initiatives are implemented through the
Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), which enforces wildlife laws and regulations and manages Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), which enforces wildlife laws and regulations and manages
Kenya’sthe national parks and reserves. Despite its efforts to curb national parks and reserves. Despite its efforts to curb poaching and wildlife trafficking,
the illicit wildlife trade, though, Kenya remains a transit countryKenya remains a transit country for the illicit wildlife trade. Corruption and weaknesses in . Corruption and weaknesses in
enforcement and prosecution of trafficking laws enforcement and prosecution of trafficking laws make traffickingare an ongoing concern. an ongoing concern.
The U.S. government has long partnered with Kenya’s government and civil society to address The U.S. government has long partnered with Kenya’s government and civil society to address
these issuesthese issues, and and to support other conservation efforts. The United States has provided training support other conservation efforts. The United States has provided training
and equipment to the KWS and supports programs to protect the country’s parks and animals. and equipment to the KWS and supports programs to protect the country’s parks and animals.
Roughly 65% of Kenya’s famous wildlife live outside its KWS-protected parks, and conservation Roughly 65% of Kenya’s famous wildlife live outside its KWS-protected parks, and conservation
groups have worked with communities to establish over 200 community conservancies groups have worked with communities to establish over 200 community conservancies forto protect
wildlife wildlife protection and toand promote sustainable land use. The United States has supported these promote sustainable land use. The United States has supported these
conservancies, which protect over conservancies, which protect over seven7 million hectares of land. Tourism, much of it wildlife- million hectares of land. Tourism, much of it wildlife-
related, is an important source of revenue ($related, is an important source of revenue ($1.52.7 billion in billion in 2019) and jobs (over 1.5 million), and
COVID-19 cost Kenya an estimated $1 billion in lost revenue.60 The drop 2023) and jobs.58 Kenya lost an estimated $1 billion in tourism-related in tourism-related
revenue and jobs and the related economic slump contributed to increased bushmeat hunting.
The Ruto Administrationrevenue during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Ruto administration directed an end to Kenya’s six-year-old logging ban in 2023, ostensibly directed an end to Kenya’s six-year-old logging ban in 2023, ostensibly
to create jobsto create jobs. Kenya’s Environment and Land Court subsequently, but a Kenyan court suspended the decision, suspended the decision,
leaving the leaving the logging ban in place. Deforestation ban in place. Deforestation is a long-standingis a longstanding concern, and environmentalists concern, and environmentalists
have warned that lifting the ban have warned that lifting the ban risks reversingwould risk reversing the gains Kenya has made to improve gains Kenya has made to improve the country’s
its tree cover, tree cover, despiteregardless of Ruto’s proposal to Ruto’s proposal to plant 15 billion trees over 10 years.59 Kenya’s Wangari Maathai, the first African woman to win the Nobel Prize in 2004, was recognized for her tree-planting campaign and her broader contributions to sustainable development, democracy, and peace. Kenya has sought to stem plastic pollution, including by banning plastic bags and single-use plastics in 2017. With stiff penalties, the law was initially successful, but the smuggling of bags from neighboring countries presents enforcement challenges.60 Kenya is part of USAID’s Save Our Seas Initiative, which supports sustainable waste management and recycling on the coast. 55plant 15 billion trees over 10 years.61

55 European Commission, “The EU-Kenya agreement explained,” at https://policy.trade.ec.europa.eu/.
56 Fergus Kell, “Kenya’s debt struggles go far deeper than Chinese loans,” Chatham House, May 31, 2023.
57 During his campaign, Ruto pledged to deport Chinese nationals doing jobs that could be done by Kenyans. On his
post-election shift, see, e.g., VOA, “After anti-China campaign, Kenya’s Ruto does about-face,” September 29, 2022.
58 CapitalFM, “Kenya: UDA seeks support of Communist Party of China to Strengthen Structures,” August 17, 2023. CapitalFM, “Kenya: UDA seeks support of Communist Party of China to Strengthen Structures,” August 17, 2023.
59 Andres Schipani, “How Kenya turned the tide against ivory poachers,” Financial Times, April 27, 2021.
60 Rasna Warah, “‘We are on our knees’: COVID’s impact on Kenya’s tourism,” ONE Campaign, August 12, 2021.
6156 Afrobarometer, “Africans welcome China’s influence but maintain democratic aspirations,” November 15, 2021; Pew Research Center, China’s approach to foreign policy gets largely negative reviews in 24-country survey,” July 27, 2023; Gallup, “U.S. loses soft power edge in Africa,” April 26, 2024. 57 Andres Schipani, “How Kenya turned the tide against ivory poachers,” Financial Times, April 27, 2021. 58 Bloomberg, “Kenya tourism earnings jump 32% to surpass pre-pandemic level,” March 30, 2024. 59 Lisa Fuchs, “Kenya’s logging ban has been lifted – it’s a political decision and a likely setback for conservation,” Lisa Fuchs, “Kenya’s logging ban has been lifted – it’s a political decision and a likely setback for conservation,”
July 22, 2023. July 22, 2023.
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Kenya has taken steps to stem plastic pollution, including by banning plastic bags and single use
plastics in 2017. With stiff penalties, the law was initially successful, but the smuggling of bags
from neighboring countries presents enforcement challenges.62 Kenya is part of USAID’s Save
Our Seas Initiative, which supports sustainable waste management and recycling on the coast.60 NPR, “The toughest plastic bag ban is failing: A tale of smugglers, dumps and dying goats,” August 9, 2023. Congressional Research Service 10 Kenya: In Brief
U.S. Relations and Assistance
The United States and Kenya have historically close tiesThe United States and Kenya have historically close ties, and the U.S. Embassy describes
deepening the partnership as its overarching goal.63. Over 100,000 Americans live in or visit Over 100,000 Americans live in or visit
Kenya every year, per the U.S. Embassy; the country is a popular destination in Africa for U.S. Kenya every year, per the U.S. Embassy; the country is a popular destination in Africa for U.S.
tourists. U.S. Embassy Nairobi is designated a high-threat, high-risk post, given terrorism tourists. U.S. Embassy Nairobi is designated a high-threat, high-risk post, given terrorism
concerns. Over 600 U.S. concerns. Over 600 U.S. service membersservicemembers, civilians, and contractors are in Kenya to support , civilians, and contractors are in Kenya to support
counterterrorism (CT) efforts in the region. counterterrorism (CT) efforts in the region. Located atSome are deployed to Cooperative Security Location (CSL) Cooperative Security Location (CSL)
Camp Simba, a U.S. “base within a base” on the coast near the Somali borderCamp Simba, a U.S. “base within a base” on the coast near the Somali border, the 475th
Expeditionary Air Base Squadron provides base operations and communications support for
missions in Kenya and Somalia. .
Governance, human rights, and corruption concerns in Kenya sometimes complicate the bilateral Governance, human rights, and corruption concerns in Kenya sometimes complicate the bilateral
relationship, and relationship, and reported abuses by Kenyan security forces have posed challenges at times for abuses by Kenyan security forces have posed challenges at times for
security cooperation. Successive U.S. Administrations have pushed for greater accountability for security cooperation. Successive U.S. Administrations have pushed for greater accountability for
political violence and unresolved corruption cases. In political violence and unresolved corruption cases. In early 2024, the Financial Action Task Force 2024, the Financial Action Task Force
(FATF), of which the United States is a member, added Kenya to its “grey list” of countries (FATF), of which the United States is a member, added Kenya to its “grey list” of countries
subject to increased monitoring for money laundering and terrorism financing. subject to increased monitoring for money laundering and terrorism financing.
Bilateral relations have fluctuated in the past fifteen years. The ICC cases caused friction The ICC cases caused friction duringwith the Obama Administration, and Kenyatta’s government the Obama Administration, and Kenyatta’s government
looked to other international partners, such as China, for diplomatic and economic support. looked to other international partners, such as China, for diplomatic and economic support. After
the contentious 2017 elections, Kenyatta welcomed Chinese Communist Party officials to Nairobi
and announced a deal to deepen collaboration with his party. Shortly thereafterDuring the tense period after the 2017 elections, the , the U.S. ambassadorU.S.
ambassador reportedly played a role in played a role in pressingfacilitating Kenyatta and Odinga Kenyatta and Odinga into the dialogue that led to
their’s rapprochement, rapprochement, illustrating suggesting continued U.S. influence despite strains in the relationship.continued U.S. influence despite strains in the relationship.64
The Trump and Kenyatta administrations took steps to improve ties, and The Trump and Kenyatta administrations took steps to improve ties, and in 2018, when President
Trump received Kenyatta at the White House, they announced a “Strategic Partnership.” CT and
economic cooperation were areas of focus, and commercial deals worth nearly $900 millionannounced a Strategic Partnership when Kenyatta visited the White House in 2018. Nearly $900 million in commercial deals were were
announced during the visitannounced during the visit. Direct, and direct flights, flights, previouslyonce blocked over U.S. security concerns, started blocked over U.S. security concerns, started
later that year. later that year. AThe Trump Administration launched a Bilateral Strategic Dialogue Bilateral Strategic Dialogue was launchedwith Kenya in 2019 and free trade agreement (FTA) negotiations in 2020 in 2019. .
Kenya was the opening stop on Antony Blinken’s first trip to sub-Saharan Africa as Secretary of Kenya was the opening stop on Antony Blinken’s first trip to sub-Saharan Africa as Secretary of
StateState, in late 2021. He in 2021, when he attended the Bilateral Strategic Dialogue attended the Bilateral Strategic Dialogue, during which officials discussed
shared interests on the U.N. Security Council (Kenya was a member in 2021/2022), including
regional security concerns in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. Blinken. He stressed the importance of stressed the importance of
the strategic partnership and Kenya’s regional peacemaking role during the 2022 U.S.-Africa the strategic partnership and Kenya’s regional peacemaking role during the 2022 U.S.-Africa
Leaders Summit, Leaders Summit, whereand a memorandum of understanding on civil nuclear cooperation was a memorandum of understanding on civil nuclear cooperation was
signed. First Lady Jill Biden visited Kenya signed. First Lady Jill Biden visited Kenya on her first official trip to Africa in early 2023. in early 2023.
Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin also traveledwent to Kenya on his first sub-Saharan Africa tour to Kenya on his first sub-Saharan Africa tour, in
September in 2023, during which he signed a 2023, during which he signed a five-year Framework for Defense CooperationFramework for Defense Cooperation for the next five
years. Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Director William Burns visited in Director William Burns visited in Januaryearly 2024. The Biden Administration has expressed support for a range of Kenyan initiatives, including on climate action and renewable energy. During Ruto’s 2024 State Visit, the two governments made commitments on democracy, human rights, public health, security, and countering corruption, among other issues.61 They announced new initiatives on education, sustainable development, climate action, clean energy, and carbon management, and they unveiled a new partnership on semiconductor manufacturing in Kenya to strengthen the global supply chain. They launched the Nairobi-Washington Vision, which calls on the international community to help developing countries manage debt while investing in economic growth. The White House pledged new funds for police professionalization, prison reforms, health, education, agriculture, and civil society. Two resolutions introduced during the visit, S.Res. 704 and H.Res. 1254, recognize Kenya’s strategic importance to the United States and celebrate the 60th anniversary of bilateral ties. U.S. Ambassador to Kenya Meg Whitman has focused on pitching Kenya to U.S. businesses and investors; trade and investment were top priorities for Kenya during Ruto’s State Visit.62 61 White House, Fact Sheet: Kenya State Visit to the United States, May 23, 2024. 62 Nahal Toosi, “Meg Whitman’s trying to be a different kind of US ambassador. Washington is noticing,” POLITICO, May 22, 2024 2024.

62 NPR, “The toughest plastic bag ban is failing: A tale of smugglers, dumps and dying goats,” August 9, 2023.
63 State Department, Kenya Integrated Country Strategy, March 23, 2022.
64 Daily Nation, “US envoy Godec exits Kenya proud despite criticism,” July 3, 2020. .
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The Biden Administration has expressed support for a range of Kenyan initiatives, including with
respect to the environment, climate change, and renewable energyMicrosoft and Coca Cola, among other U.S. businesses, announced major private sector deals around the visit. The U.S. International . The U.S. International
Development Finance Corporation (DFC), which has Development Finance Corporation (DFC), which has facilitated investments in renewable energy, e-mobility, digital connectivity, and infrastructure in Kenya, revealed new commitments during the State Visit that bring its Kenya portfolio to over $1 billion. The DFC plans to open an office in Nairobi in 2025facilitated investments in windfarms and
other renewable projects in Kenya, plans to open an office in Nairobi in 2025.
Trade and investment are top priorities for Kenya in the May 2024 State Visit. The United States
and Kenya began free trade agreement (FTA) negotiations in 2020, under the Trump
Administration. The Biden Administration, instead of continuing the FTA negotiations, . The Biden Administration, instead of continuing the FTA negotiations, has
pursuedis pursuing a Strategic Trade and Investment Partnership (STIP) with Kenya a Strategic Trade and Investment Partnership (STIP) with Kenya. The, which the U.S. Trade U.S. Trade
Representative describesRepresentative describes the STIP as an “ambitious roadmap for enhanced cooperation.” For as an “ambitious roadmap for enhanced cooperation.” For
more on U.S.-Kenya trademore, see CRS In Focus IF11526, , see CRS In Focus IF11526, U.S.-Kenya Trade Negotiations..
U.S. Assistance. Kenya is routinely among the top recipients of U.S. foreign aid in sub-Saharan Kenya is routinely among the top recipients of U.S. foreign aid in sub-Saharan
Africa. The United States allocated roughly $477 million in FY2023 bilateral aid, largely focused Africa. The United States allocated roughly $477 million in FY2023 bilateral aid, largely focused
on HIV/AIDS and other health programs, for Kenya, which also received over $250 million in on HIV/AIDS and other health programs, for Kenya, which also received over $250 million in
FY2023 humanitarian aid and additional Food for Peace and refugee response assistance.FY2023 humanitarian aid and additional Food for Peace and refugee response assistance.6563 The The
Administration’s FY2025 request of over $496 million for Kenya is lower than the FY2024 Administration’s FY2025 request of over $496 million for Kenya is lower than the FY2024
request of over $511 million. The decrease reflects reduced democracy and governance funding. request of over $511 million. The decrease reflects reduced democracy and governance funding.
The United States is the largest donor to Kenya’s health sector, which saw child mortality drop by The United States is the largest donor to Kenya’s health sector, which saw child mortality drop by
more than half and life expectancy rise by over 15 years from 2000-2020.more than half and life expectancy rise by over 15 years from 2000-2020.6664 The United States The United States
donated over 12 million COVID-19 vaccine doses to Kenyadonated over 12 million COVID-19 vaccine doses to Kenya. It has and has cumulatively invested over $8 billion there invested over $8 billion there
under the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)under the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) since 2003. The U.S. Embassy . The U.S. Embassy
has describedsays Kenya, which has Kenya, which has an estimatedsome 1.4 million people living with HIV-AIDS, 1.4 million people living with HIV-AIDS, asis on the on the
verge of achieving the UNAIDS 95-95-95 targets (95% of people with HIV diagnosed, 95% of verge of achieving the UNAIDS 95-95-95 targets (95% of people with HIV diagnosed, 95% of
people who know they have HIV on anti-retroviral therapy, and 95% of those on treatment virally people who know they have HIV on anti-retroviral therapy, and 95% of those on treatment virally
suppressed).suppressed).6765 Kenya’s Kenya’s reported prevalence rate has nearly halved in the past 20 years, to 3.7% in 2023, prevalence rate has nearly halved in the past 20 years, to 3.7% in 2023,
per UNAIDSper UNAIDS data; new infections are down by 78% and related deaths by 68% since 2013. The ; new infections are down by 78% and related deaths by 68% since 2013. The
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Walter Reed Army Institute of U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Walter Reed Army Institute of
Research-Africa have Research-Africa have longstandinglong-standing partnerships with Kenya, including on disease surveillance. partnerships with Kenya, including on disease surveillance.
The United States has supported an array of efforts to help build Kenya’s capacity to counter The United States has supported an array of efforts to help build Kenya’s capacity to counter
terrorist attacksterrorist attacks and secure its borders. Kenya is the largest sub-Saharan African recipient of State Department-. Kenya is the largest sub-Saharan African recipient of State Department-
administered anti-terrorism assistance for law enforcement. News reports suggest that administered anti-terrorism assistance for law enforcement. News reports suggest that U.S.
training and training and assistanceaid via the U.S. Special Program for Embassy Augmentation and Response via the U.S. Special Program for Embassy Augmentation and Response
(SPEAR) helped an elite Kenyan unit respond rapidly to the 2019 DusitD2 hotel attack in (SPEAR) helped an elite Kenyan unit respond rapidly to the 2019 DusitD2 hotel attack in
Nairobi, significantly limiting the loss of life.Nairobi, significantly limiting the loss of life.6866 Separately, the Department of Defense (DOD) has Separately, the Department of Defense (DOD) has
notified Congress of over $400 million in CT “train and equip” support to Kenya in the past notified Congress of over $400 million in CT “train and equip” support to Kenya in the past
decade, including to support its role as a major troop contributor in the AU mission in Somalia. decade, including to support its role as a major troop contributor in the AU mission in Somalia.
The Massachusetts National Guard is paired with Kenya in the State Partnership Program. The Biden Administration has been a leading The Biden Administration has been a leading proponent ofadvocate for the MSS mission the MSS mission forin Haiti and Haiti and
Kenya’s role in it. To date, the State Department and DOD have Kenya’s role in it. To date, the State Department and DOD have allocatedpledged over $380 million in over $380 million in
support for the mission to facilitate training, equipment, logistics and life support services, and support for the mission to facilitate training, equipment, logistics and life support services, and
salary support for participating officers. salary support for participating officers. How that support will be allocated among Kenya and
other countries contributing forces to the mission is not yet clear.

65Some Members of Congress have expressed reservations about the mission; the State Department obligated $109 million in late June, despite congressional holds, for equipment to enable the Kenyan deployment.67 63 USAID, USAID, Kenya Assistance Overview, April 2024. , April 2024.
6664 State Department, “The United States and Kenya: Strategic Partners,” November 16, 2021. State Department, “The United States and Kenya: Strategic Partners,” November 16, 2021.
6765 U.S. Embassy Nairobi, “PEPFAR in Kenya,” August 10, 2023, available at https://ke.usembassy.gov/pepfar/. U.S. Embassy Nairobi, “PEPFAR in Kenya,” August 10, 2023, available at https://ke.usembassy.gov/pepfar/.
6866 Reuters, “After Westgate Debacle, Quick End to Latest Kenyan Attack Shows Progress,” January 20, 2019. Reuters, “After Westgate Debacle, Quick End to Latest Kenyan Attack Shows Progress,” January 20, 2019.
67 Senate Foreign Relations Committee, “Risch on Biden Admin’s Decision to Override Congress on Haiti MSS Funding,” June 20, 2024. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Kenya: In Brief


Author Information

Lauren Ploch Blanchard Lauren Ploch Blanchard

Specialist in African Affairs Specialist in African Affairs



Disclaimer
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Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
R48072 R48072 · VERSION 1 · NEW3 · UPDATED
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