Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress

Changes from January 11, 2024 to February 6, 2024

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Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview,
~~January 11~~February 6, 2024 , 2024
U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress
Jim Zanotti
On October 7, 2023, the Palestinian Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated foreign On October 7, 2023, the Palestinian Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated foreign
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
terrorist organization, or FTO) led surprise attacks against Israel from the Gaza Strip. The terrorist organization, or FTO) led surprise attacks against Israel from the Gaza Strip. The
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
stunning nature, scope, and lethality of the attacks and apparent intelligence failures have become stunning nature, scope, and lethality of the attacks and apparent intelligence failures have become

a subject of analysis for Israeli and U.S. officials. Iran reportedly provides material support to a subject of analysis for Israeli and U.S. officials. Iran reportedly provides material support to
Jeremy M. Sharp
Hamas, and according to U.S. officials may be complicit in a broad sense, but President Joe Hamas, and according to U.S. officials may be complicit in a broad sense, but President Joe
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
Biden said in October “there is no evidence” that Iran helped plan the attack. Biden said in October “there is no evidence” that Iran helped plan the attack.
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs

In response to the October 7 attacks, Israel declared war on Hamas and launched aerial In response to the October 7 attacks, Israel declared war on Hamas and launched aerial
bombardment and ground operations in Gaza. Reportedly, more than 1,200 Israelis and foreign bombardment and ground operations in Gaza. Reportedly, more than 1,200 Israelis and foreign

nationals (including 35 U.S. citizens in Israel) and more than nationals (including 35 U.S. citizens in Israel) and more than 2327,000 Palestinians in Gaza have ,000 Palestinians in Gaza have
been killed as of been killed as of ~~January 10~~February 5, 2024. Hamas and other groups also seized around 240 hostages on October 7. Israel and Hamas , 2024. Hamas and other groups also seized around 240 hostages on October 7. Israel and Hamas
agreed to a multiday pause in fighting in late November. During the pause, 110 hostages held in Gaza and 250 Palestinian agreed to a multiday pause in fighting in late November. During the pause, 110 hostages held in Gaza and 250 Palestinian
prisoners held by Israel were released. Hamas and others reportedly hold some 130 persons, including about prisoners held by Israel were released. Hamas and others reportedly hold some 130 persons, including about ~~eight~~six Americans. Americans.
The United Nations has stated that the situation in Gaza, with an estimated 1.The United Nations has stated that the situation in Gaza, with an estimated 1.97 million Gazans displaced (out of a population million Gazans displaced (out of a population
of approximately 2.1 million people) constitutes a major humanitarian crisis—having already faced dire economic and of approximately 2.1 million people) constitutes a major humanitarian crisis—having already faced dire economic and
humanitarian conditions before the conflict. Some goods are entering Gaza via Egypt and Israel, and U.S. and U.N. officials humanitarian conditions before the conflict. Some goods are entering Gaza via Egypt and Israel, and U.S. and U.N. officials
have sought to boost this aid. More than 60% of the housing units in Gaza have reportedly been destroyed or damaged. have sought to boost this aid. More than 60% of the housing units in Gaza have reportedly been destroyed or damaged.
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu ~~initially announced that Israel’s military objectives were “To destroy the military~~
~~and governmental capabilities of Hamas and bring the hostages home.”~~has consistently articulated Israeli goals of securing the hostages’ return and destroying Hamas’s military and governing capabilities. As tens of thousands of troops have withdrawn and military operations have decreased somewhat in intensity in early 2024, Israeli leaders continue debating the level and type of military pressure to apply and the urgency of a hostage-return deal. As of early January, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) controls some areas above ground in northern Gaza ~~As of early January, the Israel Defense Forces (IDF)~~
~~seems to control much of northern Gaza above ground~~, while it engages in operations farther south , while it engages in operations farther south ~~targeting Hamas,~~
~~including~~in an effort to target Hamas and its top leaders. Hamas’s tunnels make urban warfare more challenging. its top leaders. Hamas’s tunnels make urban warfare more challenging. ~~Israeli officials reportedly have withdrawn~~
~~several thousand troops and seek to complete a transition to lower-intensity operations in Gaza by the end of January. The~~
The Biden Administration has stated that Israel has the right to defend itself, and has resisted calls from other international actors Biden Administration has stated that Israel has the right to defend itself, and has resisted calls from other international actors
for an indefinite cease-fire. However, U.S. leaders have urged Israel to minimize casualties and reduce the intensity of their for an indefinite cease-fire. However, U.S. leaders have urged Israel to minimize casualties and reduce the intensity of their
operations, amid debate regarding how the operations, amid debate regarding how the prosecution of the conflict may affect long-term outcomes. Differences between U.S., Israeli, and PA officials on post-conflict security and governance for Gaza may intensify the challenges involved. U.S. officials have expressed support for a resumption of PA administration in Gaza after the PA undertakes certain reforms, as part of efforts to move toward a two-state solution; PA and other Arab leaders insist on progress toward a Palestinian state for them to cooperate with this transition. Netanyahu openly opposes a PA return to power in Gaza, and has pledged to continue insisting that Israel have full security control of “all territory west of the Jordan River,” asserting that his stance has prevented the establishment of a Palestinian state. U.S. officials have sought to reduce risks that the conflict could expand geographically. In the West Bank~~prosecution of the conflict may affect long-term outcomes. While ultra-~~
~~nationalists in the Israeli government have advocated resettling Palestinians outside of Gaza, U.S. officials have said that~~
~~Palestinians “must not be pressed to leave Gaza” and “must be able to return home as soon as conditions allow.”~~
~~There are risks that the conflict could expand geographically, and U.S. officials have sought to reduce these risks. For~~
~~example, the Iran-backed Shia Islamist group Lebanese Hezbollah (another FTO) has exchanged fire with Israel and could~~
~~create a second front at the Israel-Lebanon border. U.S. officials are reportedly seeking to help facilitate the withdrawal of~~
~~Hezbollah forces from border areas to alleviate obstacles to the return of around 80,000 evacuated Israelis to their homes in~~
~~the north. Israeli officials have threatened possible military action if the issue is not resolved diplomatically. In the Red Sea,~~
~~the Iran-supported Houthi militia in Yemen has attacked commercial vessels transiting the Bab al Mandab strait, leading~~
~~several major shipping companies to suspend or reroute cargoes at considerable cost. To counter threats the Houthis pose, the~~
~~United States is reportedly considering various military options. Additionally~~, amid violence and tensions between , amid violence and tensions between
Palestinians and Israelis Palestinians and Israelis ~~in the West Bank~~ that could affect stability there, the Administration has imposed that could affect stability there, the Administration has imposed ~~visa bans~~sanctions on some on some
extremist Israeli settlers, delayed a firearms shipment to Israel, and made efforts to persuade Israel to ease or end measures extremist Israeli settlers, delayed a firearms shipment to Israel, and made efforts to persuade Israel to ease or end measures
that have precipitously decreased the revenues of the West Bank-based Palestinian Authority (PA).that have precipitously decreased the revenues of the West Bank-based Palestinian Authority (PA).
~~Differences between U.S., Israeli, and PA officials on post-conflict security and governance for Gaza may intensify the~~
~~challenges involved. Netanyahu has insisted that only Israel can demilitarize Gaza, and openly opposes a PA return to power~~
~~there. U.S.~~ Additionally, the Iran-backed Shia Islamist group Lebanese Hezbollah (another FTO) has exchanged fire with Israel and could create a second front at the Israel-Lebanon border. U.S. officials are reportedly seeking to help facilitate the withdrawal of Hezbollah forces from border areas to alleviate obstacles to the return of some 80,000 evacuated Israelis to their homes in the north. Israeli officials officials have threatened possible military action if the issue is not resolved diplomatically. As of early February, post-October 7 attacks by the Iran-supported Houthi militia in Yemen (targeting commercial vessels transiting the Bab al Mandab strait in the Red Sea) and by Iran-allied groups in Iraq and Syria (targeting U.S. forces in both countries and Jordan) have triggered strikes against these groups by the U.S. military. In an October 2023 supplemental budget request~~have expressed support for a resumption of PA administration in Gaza after the PA undertakes certain~~
~~reforms, as part of efforts to move toward a two-state solution; PA and other Arab leaders insist on progress toward a~~
~~Palestinian state for them to cooperate with this transition.~~
~~In October 2023~~, President Biden asked Congress to appropriate more than $, President Biden asked Congress to appropriate more than $~~8 billion in U.S. security assistance for Israel,~~
14 billion in Israel-related funding, and more than $9 billion in global humanitarian assistance amounts that could partly be allocated for Gaza, the West Bank, and more than $9 billion in global humanitarian assistance amounts that could partly be allocated for Gaza, the West Bank,
and Israel. Members of Congress have expressed differing views on the request and its various and Israel. Members of Congress have expressed differing views on the request and its various elements, with bills introduced in early February in both the House and the Senate~~elements, with the House~~
~~passing H.R. 6126 and the Senate Appropriations Committee introducing S.Amdt. 1371 to H.R. 815~~. .
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Conflict Overview
~~Background~~Initial Attacks, Ongoing Conflict, and Humanitarian Crisis
On October 7, 2023, the Palestinian Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated foreign On October 7, 2023, the Palestinian Sunni Islamist group Hamas (a U.S.-designated foreign
terrorist organization, or FTO) led a series of surprise attacks from the Gaza Strip terrorist organization, or FTO) led a series of surprise attacks from the Gaza Strip ~~by land, sea,~~
~~and air against Israel (see~~against Israel (see Figure 1). Palestine Islamic Jihad (or PIJ, another FTO) claimed that its . Palestine Islamic Jihad (or PIJ, another FTO) claimed that its
forces also participated in the attacks, and other militants outside of Hamas and PIJ may also have forces also participated in the attacks, and other militants outside of Hamas and PIJ may also have
joined. The assault targeted Israeli military bases and civilian areas during the final Jewish high joined. The assault targeted Israeli military bases and civilian areas during the final Jewish high
~~holiday, just over 50 years after the Egypt-Syria surprise attack on Israel that sparked the 1973~~
~~Yom Kippur War (known in the Arab world as the October War).~~ holiday. The October 7 attacks’ scope The October 7 attacks’ scope
and lethality and lethality ~~have~~had no precedent in the 16 years no precedent in the 16 years since Hamas seized control of ~~Hamas has controlled~~ Gaza. The nature of the Gaza. The nature of the
violence stunned Israelis and many others, and includes allegations of sexual violence.1 violence stunned Israelis and many others, and includes allegations of sexual violence.1
The apparent intelligence and operational failures in preventing the assault or limiting its impact The apparent intelligence and operational failures in preventing the assault or limiting its impact
have become a subject of debate in Israel and elsewhere. Some analysts have said that Israel may have become a subject of debate in Israel and elsewhere. Some analysts have said that Israel may
have missed signals, over-relied on technological solutions, and/or misread Hamas’s intentions.2 have missed signals, over-relied on technological solutions, and/or misread Hamas’s intentions.2
Whether or not Iran had a role in the attack remains a question. Iran reportedly provides material Whether or not Iran had a role in the attack remains a question. Iran reportedly provides material
support to Hamas, and according to U.S. officials may be complicit in a broad sense, but support to Hamas, and according to U.S. officials may be complicit in a broad sense, but
President Joe Biden said in October “there is no evidence” that Iran helped plan the attack.3 President Joe Biden said in October “there is no evidence” that Iran helped plan the attack.3
In response to the attacks, Israel’s cabinet In response to the attacks, Israel’s cabinet ~~formally~~ declared war on Hamas, and Prime Minister declared war on Hamas, and Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu formed an emergency unity government with Benjamin Netanyahu formed an emergency unity government with ~~one~~an opposition party. Israel opposition party. Israel
~~also~~ also initially halted supplies from Israeli territory to Gaza of electricity, food, and fuelhalted supplies from Israeli territory to Gaza of electricity, food, and fuel~~; it resumed some~~
~~shipments from the Kerem Shalom crossing in late December~~. Since the outbreak of conflict, . Since the outbreak of conflict,
~~Egypt,~~ Israel and Egypt—via consultations with U.S.via consultations with U.S.~~, Israeli,~~ and U.N. officials and U.N. officials~~, has~~—have coordinated the use of coordinated the use of ~~its~~Egypt’s Rafah Rafah
crossing with Gazacrossing with Gaza, and later also Israel’s Kerem Shalom crossing, to bring some international aid into the territory to bring some international aid into the territory, in a way that seeks to prevent in a way that seeks to prevent
diversion by Hamas. diversion by Hamas.
Israel’s military mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops, Israel’s military mobilized hundreds of thousands of troops, ~~and has conducted major air and~~
~~artillery bombardments in Gaza, and undertaken ground operations in both northern and southern~~
~~Gaza. Most Palestinians in Gaza~~has bombarded targets in Gaza from the air, and undertaken ground operations as well. About 1.7 million of Gaza’s roughly 2.1 million people have been displaced from their homes have been displaced from their homes ~~and~~(some multiple times) and most face profound face profound
humanitarian challenges (discussed humanitarian challenges (discussed ~~further~~ below). At various points in the conflict, Hamas and below). At various points in the conflict, Hamas and
other Gaza-based militants have fired rockets indiscriminately into Israel. As of early other Gaza-based militants have fired rockets indiscriminately into Israel. As of early ~~January,~~ February, the the
Israel Defense Forces (IDF) Israel Defense Forces (IDF) ~~seems to control much of northern Gaza above ground~~controls some areas above ground in northern Gaza, while it , while it
engages in operations farther south in an effort to target Hamas and its top leaders—including in engages in operations farther south in an effort to target Hamas and its top leaders—including in
Hamas’s vast network of tunnels. Reportedly as of Hamas’s vast network of tunnels. Reportedly as of ~~January 10~~February 5, 2024, more than 1,200 Israelis and , 2024, more than 1,200 Israelis and
foreign nationals (including 35 U.S. citizens in Israel) and more than 27,000 Palestinians in Gaza had been killed, and over 60% of Gaza’s housing units have been destroyed or damaged.4
1 Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “President Herzog reveals Hamas ‘Captive Taking Handbook’ in CNN interview,” 1 Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “President Herzog reveals Hamas ‘Captive Taking Handbook’ in CNN interview,”
October 15, 2023; “Blinken calls sexual violence inflicted by Hamas ‘beyond anything I’ve seen,’” CNN, December October 15, 2023; “Blinken calls sexual violence inflicted by Hamas ‘beyond anything I’ve seen,’” CNN, December
10, 2023. 10, 2023.
2 Ronen Bergman and Adam Goldman, “Israel Knew Hamas’s Attack Plan More Than a Year Ago,” 2 Ronen Bergman and Adam Goldman, “Israel Knew Hamas’s Attack Plan More Than a Year Ago,” New York Times, ,
November 30, 2023; Center for Strategic and International Studies, “Experts React: Assessing the Israeli Intelligence November 30, 2023; Center for Strategic and International Studies, “Experts React: Assessing the Israeli Intelligence
and Potential Policy Failure,” October 25, 2023. and Potential Policy Failure,” October 25, 2023.
3 Scott Pelley, “President Joe Biden: The 2023 60 Minutes interview transcript,” CBS News, October 15, 2023; White 3 Scott Pelley, “President Joe Biden: The 2023 60 Minutes interview transcript,” CBS News, October 15, 2023; White
House, “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre and National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan,” October House, “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre and National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan,” October
10, 2023. For more information on Hamas, its possible reasons for the attacks, and Iranian material support for Hamas, 10, 2023. For more information on Hamas, its possible reasons for the attacks, and Iranian material support for Hamas,
see CRS In Focus IF12549, see CRS In Focus IF12549, Hamas: Background, Current Status, and U.S. Policy, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
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~~Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress~~

~~foreign nationals (including 35 U.S. citizens in Israel) and more than 23,000 Palestinians in Gaza~~
~~had been killed, and over 60% of Gaza’s housing units have been destroyed or damaged.4~~4 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel | Flash Update #111,” February 5, 2024; “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel - reported impact | Day 121,” (continued...) Congressional Research Service 1 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress
Figure 1. Israel and Gaza: Conflict Map

Hamas and other groups reportedly seized around 240 Israeli and foreign national hostages on Hamas and other groups reportedly seized around 240 Israeli and foreign national hostages on
October 7, including some Americans. Recovering hostages has been a major Israeli and U.S. October 7, including some Americans. Recovering hostages has been a major Israeli and U.S.
concern. Qatar, Egypt, and the United States facilitated a multiday pause in fighting between concern. Qatar, Egypt, and the United States facilitated a multiday pause in fighting between
Israel and Hamas in the final week of November. During the pause, 110 hostages held in Gaza Israel and Hamas in the final week of November. During the pause, 110 hostages held in Gaza
(including two U.S.-Israeli dual citizens) and 250 Palestinian prisoners held by Israel were (including two U.S.-Israeli dual citizens) and 250 Palestinian prisoners held by Israel were
released.5 Hamas and other groups reportedly still hold around 130 persons in Gaza, including released.5 Hamas and other groups reportedly still hold around 130 persons in Gaza, including
about about ~~eight~~six Americans, but reports suggest that some of these hostages could be dead.6 Americans, but reports suggest that some of these hostages could be dead.6 ~~As of early~~

~~4 United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and~~
~~Israel | Flash Update #89,” January 10, 2024; “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel - reported impact | Day 95,”~~
~~January 10~~ The conflict’s impact on civilians has generated a humanitarian crisis. As of early February, U.N. and World Health Organization officials have raised many public health concerns associated with overcrowding; acute water, food, and fuel shortages; poor sanitation; and challenges to hospitals’ safety and functionality.7 February 5, 2024; Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” Tel Aviv, Israel, , 2024; Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” Tel Aviv, Israel,
November 3, 2023. Palestinian casualty figures and housing damage figures come from the Hamas-controlled health November 3, 2023. Palestinian casualty figures and housing damage figures come from the Hamas-controlled health
ministry and government media office in Gaza, respectively. Additionally, Israel reported that the bodies of around ministry and government media office in Gaza, respectively. Additionally, Israel reported that the bodies of around
1,500 dead militants had been found as of October 10 in southern Israeli areas recaptured by its military. More than 1,500 dead militants had been found as of October 10 in southern Israeli areas recaptured by its military. More than ~~180~~220
Israeli soldiers have been killed since Israel’s military began ground operations in Gaza. Israeli soldiers have been killed since Israel’s military began ground operations in Gaza.
5 Erin Banco, “Gaza hostage talks hit roadblock, raising fears of prolonged captivity” 5 Erin Banco, “Gaza hostage talks hit roadblock, raising fears of prolonged captivity” Politico, December 7, 2023. Four , December 7, 2023. Four
hostages (including two Americans) were released before the late November pause. hostages (including two Americans) were released before the late November pause.
6 6 ~~“Israeli defense chief resists pressure to halt Gaza offensive, says campaign will ‘take time,’” Associated Press,~~
~~(continued...)~~
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~~January, negotiations are reportedly ongoing for more hostage-prisoner exchanges that could~~
~~pause the fighting. Hamas may be bargaining for a cessation of hostilities and full release of the~~
~~approximately 7,000 Palestinian prisoners in Israel’s custody.7 On January 2, senior Hamas~~
~~official Saleh al Arouri was assassinated in Beirut, reportedly by Israel; Qatari officials have~~
~~signaled that Arouri’s killing could make a new hostage-prisoner deal more difficult.8~~
~~The conflict’s impact on civilians has generated a humanitarian crisis. An estimated 1.9 million~~
~~Gazans (out of a population of approximately 2.1 million people)9 were reportedly displaced from~~
~~their homes as of January 8, many on multiple occasions.10 Roughly 1 million people reportedly~~
~~fled south after the IDF “call[ed] for” the evacuation of civilians in northern Gaza in mid-~~
~~October.11 As of early January, there is major overcrowding in Gaza’s Rafah governorate near the~~
~~Egyptian border because of IDF operations in other parts of southern Gaza.12~~
~~Observers debate how to apportion blame between Israel and Hamas for dangers to civilians and~~
~~the worsening of already dire humanitarian conditions in Gaza. While those faulting Israel argue~~
~~that Israeli actions have inflicted casualties and limited life-sustaining supplies, those blaming~~
~~Hamas assert that Hamas personnel in Gaza and other militants reportedly contribute to making~~
~~civilian areas and facilities unsafe by operating in or near them.13~~
~~Key Developments~~
~~Israel~~ ~~has formed an emergency unity government and “war management cabinet” that includes~~
~~key opposition figure Benny Gantz (a former defense minister and chief IDF commander)~~
~~alongside Prime Minister Netanyahu and Defense Minister Yoav Gallant.14 Netanyahu’s initial~~
~~stated objectives in Gaza were “To destroy the military and governmental capabilities of Hamas~~
~~and bring the hostages home.”15 The conflict may be moving toward a new phase: Israeli officials~~
~~reportedly have withdrawn tens of thousands of troops and seek to complete a transition to lower-~~
~~intensity operations in Gaza by the end of January.16 Netanyahu has reportedly said that Israel~~

~~December 11, 2023; “‘This Week’ Transcript 12-3-23: White House NSC Coordinator for Strategic Communications~~
~~John Kirby, Israeli Minister of Strategic Affairs Ron Dermer and Sen. James Lankford,” ABC News. “Gallant’s post-~~
~~war Gaza plan: Palestinians to run civil affairs with global task force,” Times of Israel, January 4, 2024. On December~~
~~15, Israeli forces killed three unarmed Israeli hostages who were attempting to surrender to them.~~
~~7 Rory Jones et al., “Hamas Leader Studied His Enemy,” Wall Street Journal, December 11, 2023.~~
~~8 Barak Ravid, “Scoop: Qatar tells hostages’ families that getting deal harder after Hamas leader’s killing,” Axios,~~
~~January 6, 2024.~~
~~9 Figures for Gaza’s total population per Central Intelligence Agency World Factbook.~~
~~10 UN-OCHA, “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel | Flash Update #89,” January 10, 2024.~~
~~11 Israel Defense Forces, “IDF Announcement Sent to the Civilians of Gaza City,” October 13, 2023; Isabel Kershner et~~
~~al., “Israel Vows to Keep Up the Fight in Gaza as a Third Month of War Concludes,” New York Times, January 8,~~
~~2024.~~
~~12 UN-OCHA, “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel | Flash Update #89,” January 10, 2024.~~
~~13 See, for example, Michael Crowley and Edward Wong, “Under Scrutiny Over Gaza, Israel Points to Civilian Toll of~~
~~U.S. Wars,” New York Times, November 7, 2023.~~
~~14 Barak Ravid, “Israel’s Netanyahu forms unity government with ex-Defense Minister Gantz,” Axios, October 11,~~
~~2023; and Jeremy Sharon, “Netanyahu, Gantz agree to form emergency unity government,” Times of Israel, October~~
~~11, 2023.~~
~~15 “Netanyahu says the Gaza war has entered a new stage and will be ‘long and difficult,’” Associated Press, October~~
~~28, 2023.~~
~~16 Gordon Fairclough, “Israeli Defense Chief Defends War Conduct,” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2024; Patrick~~
~~Kingsley et al., “Israel Says Its Military Is Starting to Shift to a More Targeted Gaza Campaign,” New York Times,~~
~~January 8, 2024.~~
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~~might accept the expulsion, rather than the killing or capture, of Hamas’s top leaders.17 Ultra-~~
~~nationalists in the Israeli government have advocated resettling Palestinians outside of Gaza amid~~
~~strong opposition from Arab states and U.S. officials; Secretary of State Antony Blinken has said~~
~~that displaced Palestinians “must not be pressed to leave Gaza” and “must be able to return home~~
~~as soon as conditions allow.”18~~
~~U.S. and U.N. officials have sought to increase the provision of international assistance into~~
~~Gaza. U.N. and World Health Organization officials have raised many public health concerns~~
~~associated with water, food, and fuel shortages, overcrowding, poor sanitation, and challenges to~~
~~hospitals’ safety and functionality. As of early January, some international and humanitarian~~
~~organizations have warned of “acute malnutrition and mortality breaching famine thresholds” in~~
~~Gaza amid “intense conflict and restricted humanitarian access.”19~~
~~Since the October 7 attacks, Israel has exchanged fire with the Iran-backed Shia Islamist group~~
Lebanese Hezbollah (an FTO) and Palestinian militants across Israel’s northern border with
~~Lebanon. If these clashes escalate, Hezbollah’s arsenal of some 150,000 missiles and rockets~~
~~could pose a grave threat to Israeli strategic sites and population centers.20 U.S. officials are~~
~~reportedly seeking to help facilitate the withdrawal of Hezbollah forces from border areas to~~
~~alleviate obstacles to the return of around 80,000 evacuated Israelis to their homes in the north.21~~
~~Israeli officials have threatened wider military action to address the issue absent a diplomatic~~
~~resolution, and the Arouri assassination and other January cross-border strikes by the two sides~~
~~could affect their calculations regarding whether or not to escalate.22~~
~~In the Red Sea, the Iran-supported Houthi militia in Yemen has fired several missiles and drones~~
~~toward Israel, and has carried out at least 26 attacks on shipping lanes that transit the Bab al~~
~~Mandab strait.23 Despite repeated international warnings, the Houthis have continued such~~
~~attacks, forcing, in many cases, the rerouting of commercial shipping around the Cape of Good~~
~~Hope and away from the Red Sea and Suez Canal.~~
~~Tensions and violence have continued between Palestinians and Israelis in the West Bank since~~
~~October 7. West Bank-based officials from the~~ ~~Palestinian Authority/Palestine Liberation~~
~~Organization (PA/PLO)~~ ~~appear to be in a difficult position. While they do not endorse Hamas,~~
~~they have refrained from publicly condemning it, perhaps because of a perceived spike in West~~
~~Bank Palestinian support for Hamas that may stem from Hamas’s military actions, the prisoner~~
~~releases it has secured, and civilian suffering in Gaza.24 U.S. officials and lawmakers have~~
~~signaled concerns related to Israeli actions in the West Bank that may affect stable living~~

~~17 Michael Horovitz, “Expulsion of Hamas leaders from Gaza on the table, PM said to tell hostage families,”~~ ~~Times of~~
~~Israel, January 3, 2024.~~
~~18 Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Qatari Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs~~
~~Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani at a Joint Press Availability,” January 7, 2024.~~
~~19 UN-OCHA, “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel | Flash Update #88,” January 9, 2024; UNICEF, “Intensifying~~
~~conflict, malnutrition and disease in the Gaza Strip creates a deadly cycle that threatens over 1.1 million children,”~~
~~January 5, 2024.~~
~~20 Yehoshua Kalisky, “Precision Missiles, UAVs, and Tens of Thousands of Fighters: Hezbollah’s Order of Battle,”~~
~~Institute for National Security Studies, October 19, 2023.~~
~~21 U.S. officials also have said they hope that an easing of tensions could allow a return of displaced people from~~
~~southern Lebanon (reportedly around 76,000) to their homes. Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a~~
~~Press Availability,” January 9, 2024.~~
~~22 Euan Ward et al., “Israel says it killed another Hezbollah commander after back-and-forth attacks,” New York Times,~~
~~January 9, 2024.~~
~~23 “US, UK forces repel ‘largest attack’ by Houthis in Red Sea,” Reuters, January 10, 2024.~~
~~24 Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research, “Public Opinion Poll No. 90,” published December 13, 2023.~~
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~~conditions for Palestinians. The Administration has imposed visa bans on some extremist Israeli~~
~~settlers,25 delayed a firearms shipment to Israel,26 and has called on Israel to ease or end measures~~
~~that have precipitously decreased PA revenues since October 7.27~~
~~As civilian casualties have mounted in Gaza, some regional actors have grown more publicly~~
~~critical of Israeli and U.S. policy. Popular sentiment in Arab states has placed pressure on their~~
Peter Saidel et al., “Hamas Took More Than 200 Hostages from Israel,” Wall Street Journal, January 24, 2024. On December 15, Israeli forces killed three unarmed Israeli hostages who were attempting to surrender to them. 7 UN-OCHA, “Hostilities in the Gaza Strip and Israel | Flash Update #111,” February 5, 2024. Congressional Research Service 2 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress Observers debate how to apportion blame between Israel and Hamas for dangers to civilians and the worsening of already dire humanitarian conditions in Gaza. While those faulting Israel argue that Israeli actions have inflicted casualties and limited life-sustaining supplies, those blaming Hamas assert that Hamas personnel in Gaza and other militants reportedly contribute to making civilian areas and facilities unsafe by operating in or near them.8 Areas of Possible Conflict Expansion Since the October 7 attacks, significant U.S. and international attention has focused on the extent to which conflict might expand in other areas of the region. West Bank. Tensions and violence have continued between Palestinians and Israelis. West Bank-based officials from the Palestinian Authority/Palestine Liberation Organization (PA/PLO) appear to be in a difficult position. While they do not endorse Hamas, they have refrained from publicly condemning it, perhaps because of a perceived spike in West Bank Palestinian support for Hamas that may stem from Hamas’s military actions, the prisoner releases it has secured, and civilian suffering in Gaza.9 U.S. officials and lawmakers have signaled concerns related to Israeli actions in the West Bank that may affect stable living conditions for Palestinians. The Administration has imposed visa bans on some extremist Israeli settlers,10 delayed a firearms shipment to Israel,11 and has called on Israel to ease or end measures that have precipitously decreased PA revenues since October 7.12 Additionally, in early February, President Biden issued an executive order authorizing “financial sanctions against those directing or participating in certain actions, including acts or threats of violence against civilians, intimidating civilians to cause them to leave their homes, destroying or seizing property, or engaging in terrorist activity in the West Bank”;13 and imposed sanctions on four individuals.14 Iran-backed actors elsewhere. Iran supports several non-state actors across the Middle East, and armed groups in Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, and Yemen expressing support for the October 7 attacks have attacked Israeli or U.S. positions. Israel has exchanged fire with the Shia Islamist group Lebanese Hezbollah (an FTO) and Palestinian militants across Israel’s northern border with Lebanon. If these clashes escalate, Hezbollah’s arsenal of some 150,000 missiles and rockets could pose a grave threat to Israeli strategic sites and population centers.15 U.S. officials are reportedly seeking to broker a withdrawal of Hezbollah forces from border areas to facilitate the 8 See, for example, Michael Crowley and Edward Wong, “Under Scrutiny Over Gaza, Israel Points to Civilian Toll of U.S. Wars,” New York Times, November 7, 2023. 9 Palestinian Center for Policy and Survey Research, “Public Opinion Poll No. 90,” published December 13, 2023. 10 Department of State, “Announcement of Visa Restriction Policy to Promote Peace, Security, and Stability in the West Bank,” December 5, 2023. 11 Nancy A. Youssef and Vivian Salama, “Washington Is Blocking Shipment of Rifles to Israel,” Wall Street Journal, December 14, 2023. 12 Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” January 9, 2024; Letter dated December 20, 2023 from 12 Senators to President Biden, available at https://www.heinrich.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/letter_to_potus_west_bank.pdf; “In ‘frustrating’ call, Biden said to tell PM to resolve Palestinian tax funds issue,” Times of Israel, December 29, 2023. 13 White House, “Statement from National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan on Action to Promote Peace, Security, and Stability in the West Bank,” and “Executive Order on Imposing Certain Sanctions on Persons Undermining Peace, Security, and Stability in the West Bank,” February 1, 2024. 14 Department of State, “Announcement of Further Measures to Promote Peace, Security, and Stability in the West Bank,” February 1, 2024. 15 Yehoshua Kalisky, “Precision Missiles, UAVs, and Tens of Thousands of Fighters: Hezbollah’s Order of Battle,” Institute for National Security Studies, October 19, 2023. Congressional Research Service 3 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress return of an estimated 80,000 evacuated Israelis to their homes in the north.16 Israeli officials have threatened wider military action to address the issue absent a diplomatic resolution.17 As of early 2024, post-October 7 attacks by the Houthi militia in Yemen have targeted shipping lanes that transit the Bab al Mandab strait—significantly disrupting maritime trade and triggering military responses from U.S. and United Kingdom forces.18 Groups in Iraq and Syria have attacked U.S. forces stationed in the region over 160 times, including a January 29 drone attack in Jordan that killed three U.S. soldiers and injured more than 40. In early February, U.S. forces conducted additional retaliatory strikes against Iranian and Iran-backed forces in Iraq and Syria.19 Political Developments Israel. Israel’s “war management cabinet” includes key opposition figure Benny Gantz (a former defense minister and chief IDF commander) alongside Prime Minister Netanyahu and Defense Minister Yoav Gallant.20 Netanyahu has consistently articulated Israeli goals of securing the hostages’ return and destroying Hamas’s military and governing capabilities.21 As tens of thousands of troops have withdrawn and military operations have decreased somewhat in intensity in early 2024, Israeli leaders have debated how to proceed. Reportedly, Netanyahu, Gallant, and top military commanders refuse to leave Hamas in control of Gaza, and argue that continued military pressure—perhaps for a year or more—may be necessary to obtain hostages’ release.22 Apparently Gantz and some non-voting observers in the war cabinet have expressed support for getting hostages released urgently given the dangers they face, even if it requires a lengthy cease-fire.23 Some analysts have questioned “whether Hamas can be toppled as Gaza’s governing and military power under the existing strategy.”24 While the IDF estimates that some 10,000 out of 30,000 Hamas fighters have been killed, Hamas’s unconventional tactics and tunnel network have helped its resilience and allowed its most senior leaders to elude Israel.25 Netanyahu has reportedly said that Israel might accept their expulsion, rather than their killing or capture.26 As of early February, negotiations are reportedly ongoing for a proposed hostage-prisoner exchange that could pause the fighting for several weeks or more. Israeli officials are apparently 16 “Warning of war, IDF says over 3,000 Hezbollah sites in Lebanon, Syria struck so far,” Times of Israel, February 4, 2024. U.S. officials also have said they hope that an easing of tensions could allow a return of displaced people from southern Lebanon (reportedly around 86,000) to their homes. Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” January 9, 2024; “Israel and Lebanon are prepping for a war neither wants, but many fear it’s becoming inevitable,” Associated Press, February 1, 2024. 17 Euan Ward et al., “Israel says it killed another Hezbollah commander after back-and-forth attacks,” New York Times, January 9, 2024. 18 CRS Insight IN12301, Houthi Attacks in the Red Sea: Issues for Congress, by Christopher M. Blanchard. 19 “U.S. launches strikes in Iraq, Syria, nearly 40 reported killed,” Reuters, February 3, 2024. 20 Barak Ravid, “Israel’s Netanyahu forms unity government with ex-Defense Minister Gantz,” Axios, October 11, 2023; and Jeremy Sharon, “Netanyahu, Gantz agree to form emergency unity government,” Times of Israel, October 11, 2023. 21 Israel Prime Minister’s Office, “Statement by PM Netanyahu,” January 18, 2024. 22 Neri Zilber, “Can Israel achieve its war goals in Gaza?” Financial Times, January 30, 2024. 23 Ibid.; “Eisenkot, Gantz said to urge hostage deal for long halt to war; PM, Gallant opposed,” Times of Israel, January 15, 2024. 24 Zilber, “Can Israel achieve its war goals in Gaza?” 25 Ibid. 26 Michael Horovitz, “Expulsion of Hamas leaders from Gaza on the table, PM said to tell hostage families,” Times of Israel, January 3, 2024. Congressional Research Service 4 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress debating the specifics of the proposed exchange and how it might affect Israeli military operations, while Hamas may be bargaining for a cessation of hostilities.27 Arab states. Popular sentiment has placed pressure on Arab governments to oppose Israeli actions in Gaza,28 even though many Arab leaders might welcome governments to oppose Israeli actions in Gaza,28 even though many Arab leaders might welcome
an end to Hamas rule there.29 Together with other members of the Organization of Islamic an end to Hamas rule there.29 Together with other members of the Organization of Islamic
Cooperation, Arab countries have called for an end to “Israeli aggression against Gaza,” more Cooperation, Arab countries have called for an end to “Israeli aggression against Gaza,” more
humanitarian aid, and a freeze on international arms exports to Israel.30 humanitarian aid, and a freeze on international arms exports to Israel.30
International organizations. On November 15, the On November 15, the U.N. Security Council adopted Resolution 2712, which called for “urgent adopted Resolution 2712, which called for “urgent
and extended humanitarian pauses” and the “immediate and unconditional release of all hostages and extended humanitarian pauses” and the “immediate and unconditional release of all hostages
held by Hamas and other groups,” and urged all parties to refrain from depriving civilians in Gaza held by Hamas and other groups,” and urged all parties to refrain from depriving civilians in Gaza
of “basic services and humanitarian assistance indispensable to their survival.” On December 22, of “basic services and humanitarian assistance indispensable to their survival.” On December 22,
the Security Council adopted Resolution 2720, which called for “urgent steps to immediately the Security Council adopted Resolution 2720, which called for “urgent steps to immediately
allow safe, unhindered, and expanded humanitarian access and to create the conditions for a allow safe, unhindered, and expanded humanitarian access and to create the conditions for a
sustainable cessation of hostilities.”sustainable cessation of hostilities.”
~~U.S. Policy~~
~~Israeli Military Operations and Pauses~~ The United States abstained from both resolutions. On January 26, the International Court of Justice found that it had jurisdiction over allegations by South Africa that Israel may have committed acts of genocide, and ordered Israel (among other provisional measures) to prevent the commission of or incitement to genocide, to “enable the provision of urgently needed basic services and humanitarian assistance” to Palestinians in Gaza, and to report on its compliance with the Court’s order one month later.31 U.S. Policy Israeli Military Operations
The U.S. government has stated its support for military operations by Israel to defend itself in line The U.S. government has stated its support for military operations by Israel to defend itself in line
with international law, including in Gaza. President Biden, Secretary of State Blinken, Secretary with international law, including in Gaza. President Biden, Secretary of State Blinken, Secretary
of Defense Lloyd Austin, and other Administration officials have visited Israel and other of Defense Lloyd Austin, and other Administration officials have visited Israel and other
countries in the region since the outbreak of conflict. U.S. officials have publicly opposed calls countries in the region since the outbreak of conflict. U.S. officials have publicly opposed calls
for an indefinite cease-fire, citing Israel’s right to defend itself.for an indefinite cease-fire, citing Israel’s right to defend itself.3132 Nevertheless, U.S. officials have Nevertheless, U.S. officials have
voiced support for “humanitarian pausesvoiced support for “humanitarian pauses,” and additional hostage-prisoner exchanges. ” and additional hostage-prisoner exchanges.
While President Biden appears to broadly support Israel’s stated objectives of ending Hamas rule While President Biden appears to broadly support Israel’s stated objectives of ending Hamas rule
in Gaza, he and Administration officials have sought to convince their Israeli counterparts to take in Gaza, he and Administration officials have sought to convince their Israeli counterparts to take
steps to minimize casualties, reduce the intensity of their operations, and step up humanitarian steps to minimize casualties, reduce the intensity of their operations, and step up humanitarian
aid.aid.33 In early January, a National Security Council spokesperson said the Israeli goal of 27 “Hamas said to insist on deal that will end war, withdraw IDF troops from Gaza,” Times of Israel, February 4, 2024. ~~In December, President Biden said, “We continue to provide military assistance to Israel …~~
~~until they get rid of Hamas,”32 while also warning that Israel has started to lose international~~

~~25 Department of State, “Announcement of Visa Restriction Policy to Promote Peace, Security, and Stability in the~~
~~West Bank,” December 5, 2023.~~
~~26 Nancy A. Youssef and Vivian Salama, “Washington Is Blocking Shipment of Rifles to Israel,” Wall Street Journal,~~
~~December 14, 2023.~~
~~27 Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken at a Press Availability,” January 9, 2024; “In ‘frustrating’ call,~~
~~Biden said to tell PM to resolve Palestinian tax funds issue,” Times of Israel, December 29, 2023; Polina Ivanova and~~
~~James Shotter, “Israel is pushing Palestinian governance to ‘edge of the edge’, PM warns,” Financial Times, January 4,~~
~~2023.~~
28 Cathrin Schaer, “Gaza conflict: Arab attitudes are hardening against Israel,” Deutsche Welle, December 20, 2023. 28 Cathrin Schaer, “Gaza conflict: Arab attitudes are hardening against Israel,” Deutsche Welle, December 20, 2023.
29 “Many Arab governments would like to see Hamas gone,” 29 “Many Arab governments would like to see Hamas gone,” Economist, November 16, 2023. , November 16, 2023.
30 “Arab-Islamic summit adopts resolution on Israeli aggression against the Palestinian people,” 30 “Arab-Islamic summit adopts resolution on Israeli aggression against the Palestinian people,” Arab News, November , November
12, 2023. 12, 2023.
31 31 ICJ Order, Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel), January 26, 2024. 32 Biden, “The U.S. won’t back down from the challenge of Putin and Hamas.” Biden, “The U.S. won’t back down from the challenge of Putin and Hamas.”
3233 White House, “Remarks by President Biden at a Hanukkah Holiday Reception,” December 11, 2023 White House, “Remarks by President Biden at a Hanukkah Holiday Reception,” December 11, 2023; White House, “Remarks by President Biden at a Campaign Reception,” December 12, 2023..
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~~support “by the indiscriminate bombing that takes place.”33 In early January, a National Security~~
~~Council spokesperson said the Israeli goal of~~ degrading Hamas’s ability to carry out attacks inside degrading Hamas’s ability to carry out attacks inside
Israel is attainable, but it is unlikely that Israel can eliminate the group and its ideology.34 Israel is attainable, but it is unlikely that Israel can eliminate the group and its ideology.34
Potential Post-Conflict Scenarios
The Administration has been conferring with Israeli and PA officials on security and governance The Administration has been conferring with Israeli and PA officials on security and governance
for Gaza after conflict ends or abates. Tensions between supporting domestically legitimate for Gaza after conflict ends or abates. Tensions between supporting domestically legitimate
Palestinian self-rule and safeguarding Israel’s capacity to monitor and stifle potential threats may Palestinian self-rule and safeguarding Israel’s capacity to monitor and stifle potential threats may
intensify the challenges involved. In November, President Biden articulated the following intensify the challenges involved. In November, President Biden articulated the following
principles: principles:
To start, Gaza must never again be used as a platform for terrorism. There must be no To start, Gaza must never again be used as a platform for terrorism. There must be no
forcible displacement of Palestinians from Gaza, no reoccupation, no siege or blockade, forcible displacement of Palestinians from Gaza, no reoccupation, no siege or blockade,
and no reduction in territory…. As we strive for peace, Gaza and the West Bank should be and no reduction in territory…. As we strive for peace, Gaza and the West Bank should be
reunited under a single governance structure, ultimately under a revitalized Palestinian reunited under a single governance structure, ultimately under a revitalized Palestinian
Authority, as we all work toward a two-state solution…. The international community must Authority, as we all work toward a two-state solution…. The international community must
commit resources to support the people of Gaza in the immediate aftermath of this crisis, commit resources to support the people of Gaza in the immediate aftermath of this crisis,
including interim security measures, and establish a reconstruction mechanism to including interim security measures, and establish a reconstruction mechanism to
sustainably meet Gaza’s long-term needs.35 sustainably meet Gaza’s long-term needs.35
PA President Mahmoud Abbas has indicated that the PA would only govern Gaza—which Hamas PA President Mahmoud Abbas has indicated that the PA would only govern Gaza—which Hamas
forcibly seized from the PA in 2007—in the context of significant progress toward establishing a forcibly seized from the PA in 2007—in the context of significant progress toward establishing a
Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza, with a capital in East Jerusalem.36 Secretary Blinken Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza, with a capital in East Jerusalem.36 Secretary Blinken
has indicated that such progress is unlikely to be easy or “happen overnighthas indicated that such progress is unlikely to be easy or “happen overnight~~.”37~~ ,”37 and reportedly has tasked the State Department to evaluate options for implementing a two-state solution—with U.S. recognition of a Palestinian state as one possibility—“in a way that assures security for Israel.”38 U.S. and PA U.S. and PA
officials have reportedly discussed possible mechanisms for improving PA officials have reportedly discussed possible mechanisms for improving PA ~~institutions,~~
leadership, and domestic legitimacy. Some leading Palestinian figures argue that the PA cannot be leadership, and domestic legitimacy. Some leading Palestinian figures argue that the PA cannot be
strengthened via reforms without Israel granting it greater control over its revenues and security.strengthened via reforms without Israel granting it greater control over its revenues and security.3839
Prime Minister Netanyahu has insisted that only Israel can demilitarize Gaza, and openly opposes Prime Minister Netanyahu has insisted that only Israel can demilitarize Gaza, and openly opposes
the PA returning, purportedly because of rhetorical and financial supportthe PA returning, purportedly because of rhetorical and financial support he argues the PA provides for the PA provides for
~~terrorism.39 Netanyahu’s position may stem partly from concerns that a return to PA governance~~
~~in both the West Bank and Gaza could increase international pressure on Israel to accept a two-~~
~~state solution. He also may calculate that his opposition to PA rule~~terrorism.40 In January, after President Biden reiterated his commitment to an eventual two-state solution, Netanyahu pledged to continue insisting that Israel have full security control of “all territory west of the Jordan River,” and said that this stance has prevented the establishment of a Palestinian state.41 Netanyahu may calculate that opposition to a two-state solution and PA rule in Gaza might rally domestic support might rally domestic support
for him and the ultra-nationalist figures in his government. The significant dip in Netanyahu’s for him and the ultra-nationalist figures in his government. The significant dip in Netanyahu’s
~~public approval rating since the October 7 attack could lead to his government’s collapse and new~~
~~Knesset elections sometime in 2024.40 Some of Netanyahu’s advisers may be signaling openness~~
~~to the possibility of a future role in Gaza for a reformed PA.41 Prospects for any Hamas role in~~

~~33 White House, “Remarks by President Biden at a Campaign Reception,” December 12, 2023.~~
public approval rating since the October 7 34 White House, “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre and NSC Coordinator for Strategic 34 White House, “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Karine Jean-Pierre and NSC Coordinator for Strategic
Communications John Kirby,” January 3, 2024. Communications John Kirby,” January 3, 2024.
35 Joe Biden, “The U.S. won’t back down from the challenge of Putin and Hamas,” 35 Joe Biden, “The U.S. won’t back down from the challenge of Putin and Hamas,” Washington Post, November 18, , November 18,
2023. 2023.
36 Additionally, PA Prime Minister Muhammad Shtayyeh has reportedly said that the PA would be prepared to govern 36 Additionally, PA Prime Minister Muhammad Shtayyeh has reportedly said that the PA would be prepared to govern
Gaza only if there is a complete Israeli military withdrawal. David S. Cloud, “Israel Eases Opposition to Palestinian Gaza only if there is a complete Israeli military withdrawal. David S. Cloud, “Israel Eases Opposition to Palestinian
Rule,” Rule,” Wall Street Journal, December 22, 2023. , December 22, 2023.
37 Department of State, “Secretary Blinken’s Remarks to the Press,” January 10, 37 Department of State, “Secretary Blinken’s Remarks to the Press,” January 10, ~~2023.~~
382024. 38 Barak Ravid, “Scoop: State Department reviewing options for possible recognition of Palestinian state,” Axios, January 31, 2024. 39 “US wants shakeup of Palestinian Authority to run Gaza after Hamas,” Reuters, December 16, 2023. “US wants shakeup of Palestinian Authority to run Gaza after Hamas,” Reuters, December 16, 2023.
3940 Benjamin Netanyahu, “Israel’s Three Prerequisites for Peace,” Benjamin Netanyahu, “Israel’s Three Prerequisites for Peace,” Wall Street Journal, December 26, 2023. , December 26, 2023.
~~40 See, for example, Anshel Pfeffer, “Israel Is at War, and Netanyahu Just Launched His Re-election Campaign,”~~
Haaretz, December 12, 2023.
~~41 Cloud, “Israel Eases Opposition to Palestinian Rule.”~~
41 Israel Prime Minister’s Office, “Statement by PM Netanyahu,” January 21, 2024. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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attack could lead to his government’s collapse and new Knesset elections sometime in 2024.42 Prospects for any Hamas role in post-conflict PA governance, which some leading PA figures appear to be discussing, would post-conflict PA governance, which some leading PA figures appear to be discussing, would
likely encounter U.S. and Israeli opposition.likely encounter U.S. and Israeli opposition.4243
Major U.S. policy issues related to post-conflict scenarios in Gaza could include the following: Major U.S. policy issues related to post-conflict scenarios in Gaza could include the following:
• • Resolving potential differences between U.S., Israeli, and PA officials. It is It is
unclear whether or not the parties can move from the starting points discussed unclear whether or not the parties can move from the starting points discussed
above to compromises on above to compromises on ~~fundamental~~ aspects of post-conflict governance and aspects of post-conflict governance and
~~security. In early January, Defense Minister Gallant proposed a plan for eventual~~
~~Palestinian civil administration in Gaza that would (1) maintain existing~~
~~Palestinian administrative mechanisms, with officials and local clans unaffiliated~~
~~with Hamas; (2) give Israel broad responsibility to prevent security threats~~
~~against Israel, including via coordination with Egypt at its border with Gaza; and~~
~~(3) empower a multinational task force (featuring the United States and some~~
~~European and Arab states) on aspects of civil affairs and economic recovery.43~~security.44
• • Role of PA security forces. Reportedly, “U.S. and Palestinian officials have Reportedly, “U.S. and Palestinian officials have
discussed a plan to retrain 1,000 former [PA] security forces officers in Gaza and discussed a plan to retrain 1,000 former [PA] security forces officers in Gaza and
a further 3,000 to 5,000 in the West Bank who would work in Gaza after the a further 3,000 to 5,000 in the West Bank who would work in Gaza after the
war,”war,”4445 with training presumably under the auspices of the U.S. Security with training presumably under the auspices of the U.S. Security
Coordinator for Israel and the Palestinian Authority (USSC).Coordinator for Israel and the Palestinian Authority (USSC).4546
• • Arab states’ role. Egypt, Jordan, and Arab Gulf states may be reluctant to help Egypt, Jordan, and Arab Gulf states may be reluctant to help
~~with efforts to~~ transition Gaza (by contributing troops, advisers, or funding) transition Gaza (by contributing troops, advisers, or funding)
toward PA self-rule or help with reconstruction if doing so might be perceived toward PA self-rule or help with reconstruction if doing so might be perceived
domestically and internationally as enabling indefinite Israeli occupation. Thus, domestically and internationally as enabling indefinite Israeli occupation. Thus,
Arab state participation may depend on diplomatic progress toward Palestinian Arab state participation may depend on diplomatic progress toward Palestinian
statehood.statehood.4647
U.S. Military Deployments
Since October 7, President Biden has positioned additional U.S. military assets and personnel to Since October 7, President Biden has positioned additional U.S. military assets and personnel to
the Middle East in an apparent effort to the Middle East in an apparent effort to ~~bolster Israel’s defense~~support Israel and Arab partners, deter Iran and Iranian-supported , deter Iran and Iranian-supported
groups from widening the war, groups from widening the war, ~~support select Arab partners,~~ and prepare for contingencies, such and prepare for contingencies, such
as an evacuation of as an evacuation of U.S. citizens. As of early February 2024, the guided-missile destroyers USS Carney and USS Gravely were positioned in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, where U.S. warships have been regularly intercepting Houthi missiles;~~U.S. citizens in Israel and Gaza. As of early January 2024,~~ the USS the USS Dwight D.
Eisenhower carrier strike group carrier strike group is was positioned in the Red Seapositioned in the Red Sea, ; and the USSand the USS Bataan Amphibious Amphibious
Ready Group (ARG) Ready Group (ARG) iswas positioned in the eastern Mediterranean. positioned in the eastern Mediterranean.~~47 The USS Gerald R. Ford~~
~~carrier strike group is returning home after eight months at sea, the last three of which were spent~~
~~positioned in the Middle East to deter Iranian-supported groups.~~

4248 U.S. Expedited Arms Deliveries to Israel Since October 7, the Biden Administration has expedited the provision of U.S. military and security assistance to Israel. As of late January 2024, one report indicated that since October 7, the United States had dispatched 280 transport planes and 40 ships to deliver 25,000 tons of 42 See, for example, James Shotter and Neri Zilber, “‘Benjamin Netanyahu — yes or no?’: the looming choice for Israeli voters,” Financial Times, February 1, 2024. 43 Benoit Faucon et al., “Hamas Starts Planning for End of Gaza War,” Benoit Faucon et al., “Hamas Starts Planning for End of Gaza War,” Wall Street Journal, December 20, 2023., December 20, 2023.
43 44 “Gallant’s post-war Gaza plan: Palestinians to run civil affairs with global task force,” “Gallant’s post-war Gaza plan: Palestinians to run civil affairs with global task force,” Times of Israel, January 4, , January 4,
2024. Israel and Egypt are reportedly negotiating the future parameters of their coordination at the Egypt-Gaza border, 2024. Israel and Egypt are reportedly negotiating the future parameters of their coordination at the Egypt-Gaza border,
based on Israeli allegations that this border has been the “main avenue” for Hamas to smuggle weapons and illicit based on Israeli allegations that this border has been the “main avenue” for Hamas to smuggle weapons and illicit
goods into Gaza. Summer Said and Carrie Keller-Lynn, “Israel Presses Egypt over Its Gaza Border,” goods into Gaza. Summer Said and Carrie Keller-Lynn, “Israel Presses Egypt over Its Gaza Border,” Wall Street
Journal, January 8, 2024. , January 8, 2024.
4445 Benoit Faucon et al., “U.S. Presses Palestinians to Plan for Postwar Security,” Benoit Faucon et al., “U.S. Presses Palestinians to Plan for Postwar Security,” Wall Street Journal, December 16, , December 16,
2023. 2023.
4546 For more on the USSC and U.S. security assistance for the PA, see archived CRS Report RL34074, For more on the USSC and U.S. security assistance for the PA, see archived CRS Report RL34074, The
Palestinians: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. , by Jim Zanotti.
4647 “US officials discuss post-war Gaza governance plans with Palestinian Authority and Arab nations,” CNN, “US officials discuss post-war Gaza governance plans with Palestinian Authority and Arab nations,” CNN,
December 8, 2023. December 8, 2023.
4748 “USNI News Fleet and Marine Tracker,” “USNI News Fleet and Marine Tracker,” USNI News, , ~~January 4~~February 5, 2024. Congressional Research Service 7 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress armaments and equipment to Israel.49 The same report noted that due to global shortages in certain types of armaments, the Israeli government had postponed certain defense export contracts in order to redirect resources for domestic combat operations.50 ~~, 2024.~~
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~~U.S. Military Response to Iranian-Supported Groups~~
~~Iran supports several proxy non-state actors across the Middle East, and armed groups in Iraq,~~
~~Syria, Lebanon, and Yemen have expressed support for the Hamas attacks. To date, attacks~~
~~against Israel have emanated from Lebanon, Syria, and Yemen, while Iran-supported groups in~~
~~Iraq and Syria have repeatedly targeted U.S. forces stationed there. Since mid-October, there have~~
~~been at least 120 attacks against U.S. forces stationed in Iraq and Syria. The United States has~~
~~conducted several air strikes in retaliation; in early January, a precision U.S. strike killed a senior~~
~~commander from the Iran-backed Harakat al Nujaba (HaN), a U.S. Specially Designated Global~~
~~Terrorist group based in Iraq.48~~
~~In response to Houthi attacks in the Red Sea, the U.S. Navy has positioned multiple warships to~~
~~intercept those attacks and formed “Operation Prosperity Guardian,” a multinational coalition to~~
~~safeguard freedom of navigation in the Red Sea area. On January 3, 2024, the White House, along~~
~~with various U.S. partners, issued a formal warning to the Houthis, stating that “The Houthis will~~
~~bear the responsibility of the consequences should they continue to threaten lives, the global~~
~~economy, and free flow of commerce in the region’s critical waterways.”49 Some Members of~~
~~Congress have called on the Biden Administration to redesignate the Houthis as an FTO.50~~
~~According to one report, the Administration is reviewing whether to do so.51~~
~~U.S. Expedited Arms Deliveries to Israel~~
~~Since October 7, the Biden Administration has expedited the provision of U.S. military and~~
~~security assistance to Israel. As of late December 2023, one report indicates that since October 7,~~
~~the United States has dispatched 240 transport planes and 20 ships to deliver more than 10,000~~
~~tons of armaments and equipment to Israel; the same report notes that Israel also has ordered $2.8~~
~~billion in additional purchases from the United States.52 Since early December 2023, U.S.~~
~~munition deliveries have included: about 15,000 bombs and 57,000 artillery shells.53~~
Emergency Arms Sale to Israel
In December, the Biden Administration notified Congress of proposed sales to Israel of tank cartridges ($106.5 In December, the Biden Administration notified Congress of proposed sales to Israel of tank cartridges ($106.5
mil ion on 12/8) and artil ery shells ($147.5 mil ion on 12/29). In both instances, the Administration said it was mil ion on 12/8) and artil ery shells ($147.5 mil ion on 12/29). In both instances, the Administration said it was
invoking emergency authorities codified in the Arms Export Control Act (22 U.S.C. 2776) that allow the President invoking emergency authorities codified in the Arms Export Control Act (22 U.S.C. 2776) that allow the President
to waive congressional review of an arms sale if the President states in a formal notification to Congress that “an to waive congressional review of an arms sale if the President states in a formal notification to Congress that “an
emergency exists” requiring an immediate sale “in the national security interests of the United States.”emergency exists” requiring an immediate sale “in the national security interests of the United States.”5451
According to the Department of Defense (DOD), both sales wil be from U.S. Army inventory or U.S. Army According to the Department of Defense (DOD), both sales wil be from U.S. Army inventory or U.S. Army
stock, a possible reference to the U.S.-maintained stockpile in Israel, known as War Reserve Stocks for Allies-stock, a possible reference to the U.S.-maintained stockpile in Israel, known as War Reserve Stocks for Allies-
Israel (WRSA-I). Amendments to the authorization of WRSA-I in a Senate-introduced version of the supplemental Israel (WRSA-I). Amendments to the authorization of WRSA-I in a Senate-introduced version of the supplemental
appropriations bil for Israel (see below) would waive congressional notification of sales to Israel from WRSA-I, by appropriations bil for Israel (see below) would waive congressional notification of sales to Israel from WRSA-I, by
replacing 30-day congressional notification with “or as far in advance of such transfer as is practicable as replacing 30-day congressional notification with “or as far in advance of such transfer as is practicable as

~~48 Department of Defense, “Self-Defense Strike in Iraq Kills Terrorist Leader,” DOD News, January 4, 2024.~~
~~49 White House, “A Joint Statement from the Governments of the United States, Australia, Bahrain, Belgium, Canada,~~
~~Denmark, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Singapore, and the United Kingdom,”~~
~~January 3, 2024.~~
~~50 House Foreign Affairs Committee, “Chairman McCaul Issues Statement on Houthi Threat,” December 4, 2023.~~
~~51 Jennifer Jacobs, “US to Review Terrorist Label for Houthis After Ship Seized,” Bloomberg, November 21, 2023.~~
~~52 “244 US cargo planes, 20 ships deliver over 10,000 tons of military equipment to Israel — report,” Times of Israel,~~
~~December 25, 2023.~~
~~53 Jared Malsin and Nancy A. Youssef, “U.S. Provides Bunker-Buster Bombs to Israel—A surge in arms includes~~
~~15,000 bombs and 57,000 artillery shells,” Wall Street Journal, December 2, 2023.~~
~~54 Defense Security Cooperation Agency, “Israel—M830a1 120mm Tank Cartridges,” December 9, 2023.~~
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~~determined by the President on a case-by-case basis during extraordinary circumstances impacting the national~~
~~security of the United States.” The House version of a supplemental appropriations bil would shorten~~
~~congressional review to 15 days. Several Members of Congress have objected to the Administration’s use of~~
~~emergency authority to bypass congressional review.55~~determined by the President on a case-by-case basis during extraordinary circumstances impacting the national security of the United States.” The House version of a supplemental appropriations bil would shorten congressional review to 15 days. Several Members of Congress have objected to the Administration’s use of emergency authority to bypass congressional review.52 Possible New U.S. Sales of Combat Aircraft to Israel In January 2024, sources reported that the United States and Israel are in the process of finalizing up to three different sales of fixed-wing (25 F-35Is and 25 F-15IAs) and rotary-wing aircraft (12 Apache helicopters) to Israel.53 While the delivery of such items are likely years away, reports also note that Israel has been “accelerating acquisition of various kinds of aerial munitions,” worth “hundreds of millions of dollars.”54
Humanitarian Assistance for Palestinians
During President Biden’s October 18 visit to Israel, he announced $100 million in U.S. During President Biden’s October 18 visit to Israel, he announced $100 million in U.S.
humanitarian assistance for Gaza and the West Bank, to “help support over a million displaced humanitarian assistance for Gaza and the West Bank, to “help support over a million displaced
and conflict-affected people with clean water, food, hygiene support, medical care, and other and conflict-affected people with clean water, food, hygiene support, medical care, and other
essential needs” via “trusted partners including UN agencies and international NGOs.”essential needs” via “trusted partners including UN agencies and international NGOs.”5655
According to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), for FY2024According to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), for FY2024 as of mid-January, USAID’s , USAID’s
Bureau of Humanitarian Assistance Bureau of Humanitarian Assistance ~~has so far~~had committed $43.3 million in assistance for Gaza and committed $43.3 million in assistance for Gaza and
the West Bankthe West Bank,; and the Department of State’s Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration and the Department of State’s Bureau of Population, Refugees, and Migration ~~has~~
had committed $committed $6651 million for million for ~~the region~~Gaza and the West Bank via the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for via the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), and $18.2 million for the region via another implementing partner.56 The Department of State has announced a temporary 49 Yuval Sade, “Global Ammunition Shortage Forces Israel to Limit Bombing,” Ynet News, January 28, 2024. 50 Ibid. 51 Defense Security Cooperation Agency, “Israel—M830a1 120mm Tank Cartridges,” December 9, 2023. 52 Alex Gangitano, “Senate Democrats scoff at Biden’s Israel arms sale,” The Hill, January 3, 2024. See also, “Senator Risch Letter to Blinken,” Senate Foreign Relations Committee, January 26, 2024. 53 Amos Harel and Ben Samuels, “U.S. and Israel Finalize Major Military Aircraft Deals Amid Gaza War,” Haaretz, January 25, 2024. 54 Ibid. 55 White House, “U.S. Announcement of Humanitarian Assistance to the Palestinian People,” October 18, 2023. 56 USAID, Levant Complex Emergency Fact Sheet #3, January 16, 2024. Congressional Research Service 8 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress “pause” in unobligated U.S. funding to UNRWA, pending further review of allegations that 12 UNRWA employees were involved in the October 7 attacks ~~and another implementing partner~~.57 .57
Some lawmakers have sponsored legislation or written letters calling for a halt to humanitarian Some lawmakers have sponsored legislation or written letters calling for a halt to humanitarian
aid in Gaza and/or greater monitoring of whether or not any U.S. assistance to Gaza and the West aid in Gaza and/or greater monitoring of whether or not any U.S. assistance to Gaza and the West
Bank may previously have been diverted—or be at risk of future diversion—by Hamas or other Bank may previously have been diverted—or be at risk of future diversion—by Hamas or other
groups.58 Other lawmakers have called for additional humanitarian aid for the Palestinians.59 groups.58 Other lawmakers have called for additional humanitarian aid for the Palestinians.59
Also, lawmakers are debating the extent to which UNRWA or alternative implementing partners can provide humanitarian assistance while limiting the risks of misconduct.60 Supplemental Appropriations Legislation
In an October 19 Oval Office speech, President Biden announced an emergency supplemental In an October 19 Oval Office speech, President Biden announced an emergency supplemental
budget request to support U.S. partners, including Ukraine, Israel, and others, and address other budget request to support U.S. partners, including Ukraine, Israel, and others, and address other
domestic and global issues.domestic and global issues.6061 In sum, the President seeks over In sum, the President seeks over $14 billion in Israel-related in Israel-related
funding. funding. ~~On November 2, the House passed H.R. 6126, the Israel Security Supplemental~~
~~Appropriations Act, 2024, (by a vote of 226-196). The bill would provide $14.3 billion in Israel-~~
~~related supplemental appropriations, but would offset the proposed additional appropriations for~~
~~Israel by rescinding $14.3 billion for the Internal Revenue Service. The bill does not include~~
~~appropriations for Ukraine or humanitarian assistance.~~
~~In early December, the Senate Appropriations Committee released its version of the supplemental~~
~~bill in an amendment (S.Amdt. 1371 to H.R. 815). Like the House-passed bill and the President’s~~
~~request, the Senate-introduced base bill would provide:~~
• $5.4 billion ~~for~~For over three months, the House and Senate have considered respective versions of supplemental appropriations legislation, focused not just on Israel, but other foreign policy and domestic matters as well, such as assistance to Ukraine and Taiwan and reforming U.S. border and tax policies.62 In early February 2024, leadership in both the House and Senate announced revised supplemental appropriations legislation. On February 3, House leaders released a base text (H.R. 7217), which would provide the full amount requested by the President (with additional defense funds for artillery and munitions), while adding $2.5 billion in FY2024 Presidential Drawdown Authority (22 U.S.C. 2318(a)(1)) for Israel, which “shall not take effect” unless the Secretary of State determines and reports to Congress that the exercise of such authority is in response to the situation in Israel. The bill also would provide $3.3 billion in defense funds to the Department of the Department of Defense (DOD) for ongoing operations in the U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) area of operations. President Biden has said he would veto the stand-alone Israel aid bill.63 A day later, Senate leaders introduced a revised bill (the original Senate supplemental had been introduced in early December as S.Amdt. 1371 to H.R. 815) appropriating a total of $118.3 billion for a range of foreign and domestic issues. The bill has been introduced as a new 57 Department of State Press Briefing, January 30~~Defense (DOD)’s response to the Israel-~~
~~Hamas war in Gaza and related expenses, including (1) $4.4 billion that could be~~

~~55 Alex Gangitano, “Senate Democrats scoff at Biden’s Israel arms sale,” The Hill, January 3, 2024.~~
~~56 White House, “U.S. Announcement of Humanitarian Assistance to the Palestinian People,” October 18, 2023.~~
~~57 USAID, Levant Complex Emergency Fact Sheet #2, December 7, 2023.~~
, 2024. According to this source, total U.S. funding for UNRWA (which provides services to refugees in Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria, in addition to those in Gaza and the West Bank) in FY2024 has been $121 million. 58 Text of October 24 letter from 24 Representatives to USAID Director Samantha Power available at 58 Text of October 24 letter from 24 Representatives to USAID Director Samantha Power available at
https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/24080806-23-10-23-letter-to-usaid-re-gaza-west-bank-funding-copy. https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/24080806-23-10-23-letter-to-usaid-re-gaza-west-bank-funding-copy.
Lawmakers in both chambers have introduced bills during the 118th Lawmakers in both chambers have introduced bills during the 118th ~~Congress~~Cong. that would prohibit any U.S. funding for that would prohibit any U.S. funding for
Palestinians in Gaza absent a presidential certification that (among other things) the assistance would not benefit Palestinians in Gaza absent a presidential certification that (among other things) the assistance would not benefit
Hamas or other terrorist organizations or affiliates. Senate version: S. 489; House version: H.R. 5996. Hamas or other terrorist organizations or affiliates. Senate version: S. 489; House version: H.R. 5996.
59 Text of November 8 letter from 26 Senators to President Biden available at https://www.vanhollen.senate.gov/imo/ 59 Text of November 8 letter from 26 Senators to President Biden available at https://www.vanhollen.senate.gov/imo/
media/doc/letter_to_president_biden_on_gaza.pdf. media/doc/letter_to_president_biden_on_gaza.pdf.
60 60 ~~The request is available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Letter-regarding-critical-~~
~~national-security-funding-needs-for-FY-2024.pdf.~~
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~~transferred among several defense appropriations accounts for various purposes~~
~~(including the replenishment of U.S. defense equipment; reimbursement of DOD~~
~~for defense services provided to Israel; expansion of munitions production; and~~
~~production of unspecified critical defense articles); (2) $801.4 million for~~
~~ammunition procurement; and (3) $198.6 million “to mitigate industrial base~~
~~constraints” through Defense Production Act purchases.~~
~~• $4 billion in DOD funding for Iron Dome and David’s Sling defense systems.~~
~~• $3.5 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF), all of which may be made~~
~~available for Israel to spend in-country in local currency (known as off-shore~~
~~procurement). The bill also would waive congressional notification for any FMF~~
~~funds appropriated in the bill for Israel if the President~~CRS Insight IN12316, The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA): Overview and the U.S. Funding Pause, by Rhoda Margesson and Jim Zanotti. 61 The request is available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Letter-regarding-critical-national-security-funding-needs-for-FY-2024.pdf. 62 The only bill to receive a vote to date is H.R. 6126, the Israel Security Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2024, which the House passed on November 2, 2023 (by a vote of 226-196). That bill would provide $14.3 billion in Israel-related supplemental appropriations, but would offset the proposed additional appropriations for Israel by rescinding $14.3 billion for the Internal Revenue Service. 63 See https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/H.R.-7217-Israel-Security-Supplemental-Appropriations-Act-2024-SAP.pdf. Congressional Research Service 9 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress substitute amendment to H.R. 815.64 Among other things, this bill would provide $14.1 billion in Israel-related supplemental appropriations, including: • $4.4 billion for DOD’s response to the Israel-Hamas war in Gaza and related expenses; • $801.4 million for U.S. Army ammunition procurement to respond to the situation in Israel; • $4 billion in DOD funding for Iron Dome and David’s Sling defense systems; • $3.5 billion in Foreign Military Financing (FMF), $769.3 million of which is specified for Off-Shore Procurement (OSP), though that figure “may be exceeded, if agreed by the United States and Israel, following consultation with the Committees on Appropriations.” The Senate bill also would authorize the Secretary of State to waive congressional notification on the FMF funds provided in the bill “if the Secretary of State determines that to do so is determines that to do so is
in the national security interest of the United Statesin the national security interest of the United States.
”; • • $1.2 billion in DOD funding for the Iron Beam laser-based defense system being in DOD funding for the Iron Beam laser-based defense system being
developed by Israel developed by Israel; and • $100 million to the Department of State for Worldwide Security Protection and the response to the situation in Israel. In addition, the revised Senate bill, like its House counterpart.
~~In addition, and like the House bill~~ and the President’s request, and the President’s request, ~~the Senate-introduced base bill~~
also includes proposed provisions that would amend the Department of Defense Appropriations also includes proposed provisions that would amend the Department of Defense Appropriations
Act, 2005 (P.L. 108-287, §12001)Act, 2005 (P.L. 108-287, §12001) to permit the transfer of previously prohibited categories of to permit the transfer of previously prohibited categories of
defense articles to the Government of Israel, and temporarily waive limitations on the total value defense articles to the Government of Israel, and temporarily waive limitations on the total value
of defense stockpiles located in Israel and set aside for Israel’s use per 22 U.S.C. §2321h(b). As of defense stockpiles located in Israel and set aside for Israel’s use per 22 U.S.C. §2321h(b). As
previously mentioned, previously mentioned, ~~H.R. 6126~~the House bill would shorten the congressional review period for such would shorten the congressional review period for such
transfers to 15 days; the Senate-introduced bill specifies that congressional review take place “as transfers to 15 days; the Senate-introduced bill specifies that congressional review take place “as
far in advance of such transfer as is practicable as determined by the President on a case-by-case far in advance of such transfer as is practicable as determined by the President on a case-by-case
basis during extraordinary circumstances impacting the national security of the United States.” basis during extraordinary circumstances impacting the national security of the United States.”
There are several other differences between the House There are several other differences between the House- and Senate-introduced Israel-related and Senate-introduced Israel-related
supplemental appropriations bills. supplemental appropriations bills. ~~In addition to aid to Israel, the President also requested over~~
~~$9 billion~~ ~~in funding~~ The Senate bill authorizes $7.8 billion in Presidential Drawdown Authority for FY2024 without specifying a foreign recipient. In addition to providing Israel-related funding, the Senate-introduced bill would match the President’s request by appropriating over $9 billion via global humanitarian accounts that could be partly allocated to address via global humanitarian accounts that could be partly allocated to address
the needs of those affected by the crisis in Gaza and Israel (including in neighboring countries): the needs of those affected by the crisis in Gaza and Israel (including in neighboring countries):
$5.65 billion in International Disaster Assistance (IDA) and in International Disaster Assistance (IDA) and $3.495 billion in Migration and in Migration and
Refugee Assistance (MRA). The House bill does not include these funds.Refugee Assistance (MRA). The House bill does not include these funds. ~~The Senate~~ The House-introduced -introduced
~~bill would increase funding levels beyond the President’s request to a total of $10 billion ($5.65~~
~~billion in IDA and $4.34 billion in MRA).~~
~~The House bill mandates a reporting requirement~~bill would mandate a report describing all security assistance provided to describing all security assistance provided to
Israel since the October 7 attacks; the Senate-introduced bill Israel since the October 7 attacks; the Senate-introduced bill ~~does~~would not. The Senate-introduced bill not. The Senate-introduced bill
includes $includes $~~120~~85 million in additional appropriations for other entities, including $75 million in million in additional appropriations for other entities, including $75 million in
International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE) funding for International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE) funding for ~~Jordan and Lebanon~~
~~to enhance border security; $10 million in INCLE for programs administered by the USSC;~~assistance to the Middle East and $10 $10
million in Peace Keeping Operations (PKO) for a U.S. contribution to the Multinational Force million in Peace Keeping Operations (PKO) for a U.S. contribution to the Multinational Force
and Observers mission in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula to enhance force protection and Observers mission in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula to enhance force protection ~~capabilities; and~~
~~$25 million in Economic Support Funds (ESF) for reconciliation programs in the Middle East,~~
~~including between Israelis and Palestinians.~~
~~13 Senators Announce Amendment to Supplemental Appropriations Bill for Israel~~
~~On December 7, 13 Senators~~ capabilities. Finally, the Senate-introduced bill would provide $2.44 billion to replace combat expenditures for weapons in the Red Sea and CENTCOM’s other areas of operations. 64 Senate Appropriations Committee, “Murray Releases Text of Bipartisan National Security Supplemental,” February 4, 2024. Congressional Research Service 10 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress Since the Senate-introduced bill includes global humanitarian assistance funds, some of which may be used to support the Palestinians, appropriators added new restrictions in the February 2024 revised bill, explicitly prohibiting funds (notwithstanding any other provision of law) appropriated in the bill (and prior acts) for contributions to UNRWA. The bill also requires the Secretary of State to certify and report to Congress (no later than March 1, 2024) on U.S. oversight policies and procedures for monitoring assistance in Gaza. Possible Senate Amendments to the Supplemental Appropriations Bill for Israel Since the initial release of the Senate draft supplemental appropriations bil in December 2023, several Senators have announced amendments, some of which may be re-introduced as the Senate considers its latest bil . On December 7, 13 Senators (currently 18 co-sponsors65) published a “discussion draft” of an amendment to H.R. 815 that would (1) require published a “discussion draft” of an amendment to H.R. 815 that would (1) require
that the weapons received by any country under this bil are used in accordance with U.S. law, international that the weapons received by any country under this bil are used in accordance with U.S. law, international
humanitarian law, and the law of armed conflict; (2) require that, per existing law (Section 620i(a) of the Foreign humanitarian law, and the law of armed conflict; (2) require that, per existing law (Section 620i(a) of the Foreign
Assistance Act), the President obtain assurances that any country receiving weapons via this bil cooperate ful y Assistance Act), the President obtain assurances that any country receiving weapons via this bil cooperate ful y
with U.S.-supported efforts to provide humanitarian assistance to those in need; and (3) with U.S.-supported efforts to provide humanitarian assistance to those in need; and (3) require that the President ~~require that the President~~
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report to the Congress within 30 days on whether each country receiving U.S. security assistance through this bil report to the Congress within 30 days on whether each country receiving U.S. security assistance through this bil
is, among other things, using U.S.-funded military equipment in accordance with their is, among other things, using U.S.-funded military equipment in accordance with their intended purposes.66 In January 2024, Senator Tim Kaine announced that he had filed an amendment to “strike a provision in the proposed national security supplemental funding bil that waives oversight requirements for U.S. funding for Israel under the Foreign Military Financing Program.”67 Senator Schatz also has announced that he is planning to file an amendment (with 48 co-sponsors) reaffirming U.S. support for a “negotiated comprehensive solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict resulting in two states with Israelis and Palestinians living side by side in peace, security, dignity, and mutual recognition.”68 Possible Options for Congress Additional U.S. Assistance for Israel and Possible Conditions Lawmakers may consider whether to increase, maintain, decrease, or condition existing U.S. support for Israel. In December 2023, Senator Bernie Sanders ~~intended purposes.61~~
~~Possible Options for Congress~~
~~Additional U.S. Assistance for Israel and Possible Conditions~~
~~Lawmakers may consider whether to increase, maintain, decrease, or condition existing U.S.~~
~~support for Israel. Some (see text box above) have publicly signaled their support for specific~~
~~legislative language that would potentially condition U.S. security assistance.62 Other Members~~
~~have voiced opposition to efforts to “tie the hands of Israel” or condition assistance.63 One report~~
~~suggests that some lawmakers object to the Administration’s proposed elimination of~~
~~congressional reporting requirements on the use of FMF for Israel and that the Administration~~
~~may have to accept more oversight.64~~
~~Senator Bernie Sanders has~~ introduced S.Res. 504, a privileged introduced S.Res. 504, a privileged resolution, which would have mandated that~~resolution, which, if passed by the~~
~~Senate by a simple majority vote, would mandate that within 30 days of passage, the State~~
~~Department must~~ the State Department provide Congress with information on Israel’s human rights practices provide Congress with information on Israel’s human rights practices within 30 days of passage, pursuant pursuant
~~to section~~ to Section 502B(c) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. After receiving the report, Congress, by 502B(c) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961. After receiving the report, Congress, by
joint joint resolution, may act to terminate, restrict, or continue security assistance to Israel. On January 16, 2024, the Senate voted 72-11 to table a motion to discharge S.Res. 504 from the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.69 One report, which the White House has denied,70 has suggested that the White House is considering whether to slow or pause U.S. munitions deliveries to Israel as 65 Liz Goodwin and Yasmeen Abutaleb, “Growing number of Senate Democrats question Biden’s Israel strategy,” Washington Post, January 19, 2024. 66 Sen. Chris Van Hollen, “Van Hollen, Durbin, Kaine, Schatz & Colleagues Announce Amendment Requiring that Use of U.S. Supplemental Aid Comply with U.S., International Law,” December 7, 2023. 67 Sen. Tim Kaine, “Kaine to File Amendment to Maintain Congressional Oversight of Foreign Military Assistance,” January 9, 2024. 68 Rachel Oswald, “Schatz says two-state solution amendment has 48 co-sponsors,” Roll Call, January 24, 2024. 69 Roll Call Vote 118th Congress - 2nd Session, available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/senate-resolution/504/actions?s=1&r=1&q=%7B%22search%22%3A%22s.res.504%22%7D 70 “White House rejects report US considering slowing weapons sales to Israel,” Jerusalem Post, January 28, 2024~~resolution, may act to terminate, restrict, or continue security assistance to Israel.~~
~~Humanitarian Assistance for Palestinians and Israel~~
~~As mentioned above, the President’s October supplemental budget request includes more than~~ $9
~~billion~~ ~~in humanitarian assistance potentially usable for needs in and around Gaza, the West~~
~~Bank, and Israel from the MRA and IDA accounts. In a separate October request, the President~~
~~asked for $1.05 billion in “Food for Peace” grants for global emergency food needs via the~~
~~Department of Agriculture.65 Members of Congress are debating the scope and conditions under~~
~~which humanitarian assistance should be appropriated or allocated. Some strongly support~~
~~boosting humanitarian aid for Palestinians and facilitating its provision,66 while others have~~
~~expressed concerns that Hamas or other militants could divert aid shipments for their own use.67~~

~~61 Senator Chris Van Hollen, “Van Hollen, Durbin, Kaine, Schatz & Colleagues Announce Amendment Requiring that~~
~~Use of U.S. Supplemental Aid Comply with U.S., International Law,” December 7, 2023.~~
~~62 For example, see Sarah Fortinsky, “Turner says ‘conditional aid’ to Israel ‘accurately’ reflects US policy,” The Hill,~~
~~November 26, 2023; “Sen. Murphy open to placing conditions on aid to Israel, calls civilian death toll in Gaza~~
~~‘unacceptable,’” CNN, November 26, 2023.~~
~~63 Senate Minority Leader, Congressional Record, November 28, 2023; Adrian Adragna, “Senate Foreign Relations~~
~~chair does not support conditions on U.S. aid to Israel,” Politico, November 27, 2023.~~
~~64 Rachel Oswald, “Push to arm Israel reveals more Democrats urging conditions,” CQ News, December 4, 2023.~~
~~65 See https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Summary-of-Funding-Request-to-Meet-Critical-~~
~~Needs.pdf.~~
~~66 See text of October 18 letter from 33 Senators to Secretary Blinken at https://www.murphy.senate.gov/imo/media/~~
~~doc/un_humanitarian_appeal.pdf; and text of October 20 letter from 130 Representatives to President Biden at~~
~~https://connolly.house.gov/uploadedfiles/letter_to_president_biden_on_israel.pdf.~~
~~67 Jeff Stein and Jacob Bogage, “GOP targets Gaza’s biggest relief group, clashing with the White House,”~~ ~~Washington~~
~~Post, November 11, 2023; Marc Rod, “Republicans signal concerns about aid to Palestinians, Ukraine in Israel funding~~
~~request,” Jewish Insider, October 23, 2023.~~
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~~Monitoring U.S. Security Assistance for Human Rights Purposes~~
~~Since the IDF began its operations in Gaza, some critics have accused Israel of causing excessive~~
~~civilian casualties and possible misuse of U.S. defense equipment.68 Biden Administration~~
~~officials also have become more vocal in their call for Israeli attentiveness to civilian casualties.69~~
~~In an early January press conference, a State Department spokesperson remarked that while the~~
~~United States has seen Israel “take additional measures to deconflict sites,” the “results continue~~
~~to be – to not match where the Israeli intentions are.”70 In mid-December 2023, CNN reported~~
~~that a U.S. intelligence assessment compiled by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence~~
~~concluded that “40-45% of the 29,000 air-to-ground munitions Israel has used [in Gaza since~~
~~October 7] have been unguided.”71 A Wall Street Journal report from late December investigating~~
~~a bombing in which Israel killed a senior Hamas commander and 126 other individuals,~~
~~concluded that while Israeli commanders attempted to limit collateral damage, the bombing of~~
~~underground tunnels also brought down buildings standing above.72 In a December video, Israel~~
~~Air Force (IAF) Chief of Staff Brig. Gen. Omer Tischler described the principles IAF officers are~~
~~instructed to follow when planning potential air strikes.73~~
~~Congress may debate end-use monitoring (EUM) requirements for U.S. defense articles in the~~
~~context of the conflict. U.S. aid and arms sales—including to Israel—are subject to laws such as~~
~~the Arms Export Control Act (AECA) and Foreign Assistance Act (FAA). The AECA requires the~~
~~Departments of State and Defense to conduct EUM to ensure that recipients of U.S. defense~~
~~articles use such items solely for their intended purposes.74 In addition, in February 2023, the~~
~~Administration revised the U.S. Conventional Arms Transfer Policy, which states:~~
~~United States foreign policy and national security objectives are best advanced by~~
~~facilitating arms transfers to trusted actors who will use them responsibly and who share~~
~~United States interests. This policy recognizes that, when not employed responsibly,~~
~~defense materiel can be used to violate human rights and international humanitarian law,~~
~~increase the risk of civilian harm, and otherwise damage United States interests.75~~. Congressional Research Service 11 Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress leverage for achieving specific U.S. requests, such as Israeli cooperation in providing more aid to Palestinian civilians.71 Humanitarian Assistance for Palestinians and Israel As mentioned above, the President’s October supplemental budget request includes more than $9 billion in humanitarian assistance potentially usable for needs in and around Gaza, the West Bank, and Israel from the MRA and IDA accounts. Members of Congress are debating the scope and conditions under which humanitarian assistance should be appropriated or allocated, including with respect to UNRWA.72 In early February 2024, 25 Senators wrote a letter to President Biden urging his Administration to work with Israel to increase humanitarian aid access to Gaza and to investigate employee wrongdoing at UNRWA “so that the resumption of U.S. assistance through UNRWA, when appropriate, remains possible.”73 Monitoring U.S. Security Assistance for Human Rights Purposes Since the IDF began its operations in Gaza, some critics have accused Israel of causing excessive civilian casualties and possible misuse of U.S. defense equipment.74 Biden Administration officials also have become more vocal in their call for Israeli attentiveness to civilian casualties.75 U.S. officials also have asserted that Israel is making efforts to reduce the number of civilian casualties. According to White House National Security Spokesperson John Kirby, “They’ve [the Israelis] relied less on air power, structured their ground operations in such a way, to try to be more targeted and precise. I get this all the time that they’re ignoring us, that they’re not listening to us, and frankly, the facts just don’t bear that out.”76 According to one report, the United States and Israel have set up a bilateral channel to investigate reports of civilian harm, noting: Through the channel, which has been active for the last few weeks, Washington raises with the Israelis “every specific incident of concern” related to Israel's military campaign in Gaza, another U.S. official said. The Israelis investigate and provide feedback to the Americans. In some instances, the Israelis have conveyed additional information that sheds light on an incident while in others, they admitted they “made a mistake,” the officials said, without specifying which ones.77
One report from mid-December indicated that the Biden Administration is withholding the One report from mid-December indicated that the Biden Administration is withholding the
delivery of 27,000 M4 and M16 rifles for Israel’s national police due to concerns that such delivery of 27,000 M4 and M16 rifles for Israel’s national police due to concerns that such
armaments may be transferred to civilians under an initiative led by Israel’s ultra-nationalist armaments may be transferred to civilians under an initiative led by Israel’s ultra-nationalist
National Security Minister Itamar Ben Gvir.National Security Minister Itamar Ben Gvir.76

~~68 See, for example, Brian Finucane, “Is Washington Responsible for What Israel Does with American Weapons?”~~
Foreign Affairs, November 17, 2023.
~~69 Department of Defense, “‘A Time for American Leadership’: Remarks by Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III at~~
~~the Reagan National Defense Forum (As Delivered),” Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III, December 2, 2023.~~
~~70 Department of State Press Briefing, January 4, 2024.~~
~~71 Natasha Bertrand and Katie Bo Lillis, “US intelligence assessment finds nearly half of Israeli munitions dropped on~~
~~Gaza are imprecise ‘dumb bombs,’” CNN, December 13, 2023.~~
~~72 David S. Cloud, Dov Lieber and Omar Abdel-Baqui, “How an Israeli Airstrike on a Hamas Commander Also Killed~~
~~Scores of Civilians,” Wall Street Journal, December 28, 2023.~~
~~73 Emanuel Fabian, “IAF: Gaza strikes precise, there’s no indiscriminate bombing, but mistakes can happen,”~~ ~~Times of~~
~~Israel, December 28, 2023.~~
~~74 CRS In Focus IF11197, U.S. Arms Sales and Human Rights: Legislative Basis and Frequently Asked Questions, by~~
~~Paul K. Kerr and Michael A. Weber; CRS Report R46814,~~ ~~The U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control~~
~~Reform Act of 2018, by Paul K. Kerr and Christopher A. Casey.~~
~~75 White House, Memorandum on United States Conventional Arms Transfer Policy, February 23, 2023.~~
7678 71 Carol E. Lee and Courtney Kube, “Biden administration discussing slowing some weaponry deliveries to Israel to pressure Netanyahu,” NBC News, January 28, 2024. 72 CRS Insight IN12316, The United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA): Overview and the U.S. Funding Pause, by Rhoda Margesson and Jim Zanotti. 73 Senator Chris Murphy, “Murphy, Van Hollen, Coons, Merkley, 21 Colleagues Urge Biden Administration to Work with Israel to Take 5 Steps to Get More Humanitarian Aid into Gaza,” February 2, 2024. 74 See, for example, Brian Finucane, “Is Washington Responsible for What Israel Does with American Weapons?” Foreign Affairs, November 17, 2023. 75 Department of Defense, “‘A Time for American Leadership’: Remarks by Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III at the Reagan National Defense Forum (As Delivered),” Secretary of Defense Lloyd J. Austin III, December 2, 2023. 76 “White House spokesman: Israel is relying less on its Air Force in Gaza,” Israel National News, January 30, 2024. 77 “Gaza: US sets up channel with Israel seeking answers on civilian casualties,” Reuters, January 25, 2024. 78 Nancy A. Youssef and Vivian Salama, “Washington Is Blocking Shipment of Rifles to Israel,” Nancy A. Youssef and Vivian Salama, “Washington Is Blocking Shipment of Rifles to Israel,” Wall Street Journal, ,
December 14, 2023. December 14, 2023.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Israel and Hamas Conflict In Brief: Overview, U.S. Policy, and Options for Congress

Author Information

Jim Zanotti Jim Zanotti
Jeremy M. Sharp Jeremy M. Sharp
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

Acknowledgments
Former Research Assistant Michael H. Memari, CRS Geospatial Information Systems Analysts Molly Cox Former Research Assistant Michael H. Memari, CRS Geospatial Information Systems Analysts Molly Cox
and Cassandra Higgins, and Visual Information Specialists Amber Wilhelm and Brion Long contributed to and Cassandra Higgins, and Visual Information Specialists Amber Wilhelm and Brion Long contributed to
this report. this report.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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