Military Tuition Assistance Program:
December 14, 2023
Background and Considerations for Congress
Kristy N. Kamarck

Military Tuition Assistance Program: Background and Issues

Updated June 11, 2025 (R47875) Jump to Main Text of Report

Contents

• Introduction
• Background
• Purpose
• Program Administration, Parameters, and Eligibility
• Covered Education Programs
• Funding Limitations
• Participant Eligibility
• Service Obligation
• Coordination with other Federal Education Benefits
• Eligibility for Participating Schools
• Program Funding and Outlays
• Program Costs by Institutional Control
• Considerations for Congress
• School Accountability
• Measuring Program Outcomes
• Impact on Recruiting, Retention, and Readiness
• Recruiting
• Retention
• Readiness

Figures

• Figure 1. Share of Tuition Assistance Costs by Institutional Control

Tables

• Table 1. Service Obligation for Acceptance of Tuition Assistance (TA)
• Table 2. Military Services Funding of Off-Duty and Voluntary Education Programs
• Table 3. Top Three Institutional Recipients of DOD TA by Service

Summary

Congress has provided authority to the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) to fund off-duty Congress has provided authority to the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) to fund off-duty
Specialist in Military
voluntary education for Active and Reserve Component servicemembers. Congress and DOD voluntary education for Active and Reserve Component servicemembers. Congress and DOD
Manpower
have conceived of tuition assistance (TA) as a quality-of-life benefit, force-shaping tool, and a have conceived of tuition assistance (TA) as a quality-of-life benefit, force-shaping tool, and a

mechanism for developing human capital in the Armed Forces. The TA program, authorized mechanism for developing human capital in the Armed Forces. The TA program, authorized
under 10 U.S.C. §2007 is one of several federal education incentive programs available to under 10 U.S.C. §2007 is one of several federal education incentive programs available to

servicemembers and veterans.servicemembers and veterans.
The program is funded through discretionary appropriations to the Operation and Maintenance accounts for the military The program is funded through discretionary appropriations to the Operation and Maintenance accounts for the military
departments. Servicemembers are allowed to use TA funds for undergraduate, graduate, vocational, licensure, certificate, and departments. Servicemembers are allowed to use TA funds for undergraduate, graduate, vocational, licensure, certificate, and
language courses, or to complete their high school education. The military service distributes funds directly to the educational language courses, or to complete their high school education. The military service distributes funds directly to the educational
institution on behalf of the student. Servicemembers must apply for TA and meet certain eligibility requirements to receive institution on behalf of the student. Servicemembers must apply for TA and meet certain eligibility requirements to receive
funding. In some cases, servicemembers must agree to serve additional time on active duty or in the Reserve Component funding. In some cases, servicemembers must agree to serve additional time on active duty or in the Reserve Component
upon receipt of the benefit. Funds may be subject to recoupment from the servicemember for failure to successfully complete upon receipt of the benefit. Funds may be subject to recoupment from the servicemember for failure to successfully complete
coursework.coursework.
Participating schools are required to enter into DODParticipating schools are required to enter into DOD’'s Voluntary Education Partnership memorandum of understanding s Voluntary Education Partnership memorandum of understanding
(MOU) which specifies certain standards and reporting obligations. Compliance with these and other performance (MOU) which specifies certain standards and reporting obligations. Compliance with these and other performance
requirements for schools in receipt of federal funding is jointly monitored by DOD, the U.S. Department of Education, the requirements for schools in receipt of federal funding is jointly monitored by DOD, the U.S. Department of Education, the
U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs and other federal agencies.U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs and other federal agencies.
Oversight considerations for Congress with respect to TA include school performance and accountability, servicemember Oversight considerations for Congress with respect to TA include school performance and accountability, servicemember
outcome measures, and the extent to which the program helps meet DOD objectives with respect to recruiting, retention, and outcome measures, and the extent to which the program helps meet DOD objectives with respect to recruiting, retention, and
readiness. Congress might also consider the funding balance and interactions between TA and other education incentive readiness. Congress might also consider the funding balance and interactions between TA and other education incentive
programs such as the Post-9/11 GI Bill and student loan forgiveness and repayment initiatives.
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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Background ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Program Administration, Parameters, and Eligibility ...................................................................... 2
Covered Education Programs .................................................................................................... 2
Funding Limitations .................................................................................................................. 3
Participant Eligibility ................................................................................................................ 3
Service Obligation ..................................................................................................................... 3
Coordination with other Federal Education Benefits ................................................................ 4
Eligibility for Participating Schools .......................................................................................... 5
Program Funding ............................................................................................................................. 5
Considerations for Congress............................................................................................................ 6
School Accountability ............................................................................................................... 7
Measuring Program Outcomes .................................................................................................. 8
Impact on Recruiting, Retention, and Readiness ...................................................................... 8
Recruiting ............................................................................................................................ 8
Retention ............................................................................................................................. 9
Readiness ........................................................................................................................... 11

Tables
Table 1. Service Obligation for Acceptance of TA .......................................................................... 4
Table 2. Military Services Funding of Tuition Assistance and Other Voluntary Education
Programs....................................................................................................................................... 6

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 13

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Military Tuition Assistance Program: Background and Issues

Introduction
programs such as the Post-9/11 GI Bill and student loan forgiveness and repayment initiatives.

Introduction

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) has broad authority to organize, train, and equip the The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) has broad authority to organize, train, and equip the
Armed Forces under Title 10 of the Armed Forces under Title 10 of the United States Code (U.S.C.). Several provisions under this . Several provisions under this
Title authorize DOD to expend funds for servicemember education and training. Congress has Title authorize DOD to expend funds for servicemember education and training. Congress has
provided a specific authority for payment of servicemembersprovided a specific authority for payment of servicemembers’' tuition for voluntary off-duty tuition for voluntary off-duty
training and education under 10 U.S.C. §2007. This benefit is commonly known as tuition training and education under 10 U.S.C. §2007. This benefit is commonly known as tuition
assistance, or TA. DOD policy defines TA as,assistance, or TA. DOD policy defines TA as,
Funds provided by the Military Services or U.S. Coast Guard to pay a percentage of the Funds provided by the Military Services or U.S. Coast Guard to pay a percentage of the
charges of an educational institution for the tuition of an active duty, Reserve, or National charges of an educational institution for the tuition of an active duty, Reserve, or National
Guard member of the Military Services, or Coast Guard member, enrolled in Guard member of the Military Services, or Coast Guard member, enrolled in approved approved
courses of study during off-duty time.courses of study during off-duty time.¹ 1
This report provides an overview of the TA program legislative history, parameters, and funding. This report provides an overview of the TA program legislative history, parameters, and funding.
It also provides a discussion of oversight issues for Congress with respect to TA.It also provides a discussion of oversight issues for Congress with respect to TA.
Background
Between Between 200100,000 and 300,000 military servicemembers participate in the TA program annually.,000 and 300,000 military servicemembers participate in the TA program annually.2
2 The authority for DOD to pay for voluntary education programs was first codified in 1984 as part The authority for DOD to pay for voluntary education programs was first codified in 1984 as part
of the Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1985. Previous TA authorizations appeared in of the Department of Defense Authorization Act, 1985. Previous TA authorizations appeared in
appropriations laws from as early as 1954. These laws specified appropriations laws from as early as 1954. These laws specified “limitations”"limitations" on the amount of on the amount of
off-duty educational expenses that could be paid by DOD.off-duty educational expenses that could be paid by DOD.33 As initially codified in 1984, the TA As initially codified in 1984, the TA
benefit was restricted to active-duty servicemembers under DOD. Over time, Congress expanded benefit was restricted to active-duty servicemembers under DOD. Over time, Congress expanded
the benefit to the reserve component and members of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) under the the benefit to the reserve component and members of the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) under the
U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS).U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS).⁴ 4
In 2000, as part of the Floyd D. Spence National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2001, In 2000, as part of the Floyd D. Spence National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2001,
Congress expanded the TA authority to allow (but not require) the Secretary of a military Congress expanded the TA authority to allow (but not require) the Secretary of a military
department to pay department to pay all tuition expenses, rather than capping the benefit for certain education tuition expenses, rather than capping the benefit for certain education
programs.programs.55 In practice, the military services have implemented annual per capita reimbursement In practice, the military services have implemented annual per capita reimbursement
ceilings/caps on TA rates and credit hours.6

1 DOD, DOD Instruction (DODI) 1322.25, Voluntary Education Programs, April 2, 2020, p. 61, at
https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodi/132225p.pdf.
2 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), DOD Education Benefits: Data on Officer Participation in and
Views on Proposed Changes to the Tuition Assistance Program, GAO-19-699R, September 16, 2019, p.3; and Daniel
Leeds, et al., Tracking Outcomes of Voluntary Military: A Data Analysis, CNA, April 2021, p. 15.
3 P.L. 98-525, §1401, October 19, 1984, 98 Stat. 2618. See for example, P.L. 98-212 §720, December 8, 1983, Stat.
1441, which states, “No appropriation contained in this Act shall be available for the payment of more than 75 per
centum of charges of educational institutions for tuition or expenses of off-duty training of military personnel.”
4 P.L. 99-661, §651, November 14, 1986, 100 Stat. 3887, as amended, expanded to officers of the Army Reserve and
National Guard; and P.L. 110-181 §521, January 28, 2008, 122 Stat. 100-102, expanded TA to the USCG.
5 P.L. 106-398, §1602, October 30, 2000, 114 Stat. 1654A-358. Over the course of the program’s history, DOD has
generally been authorized to fund 100% of the cost for approved high school completion programs, but caps have
existed for tuition on other voluntary education programs.
6 DODI 1322.25, p. 2.
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Military Tuition Assistance Program: Background and Issues

Purpose
ceilings/caps on TA rates and credit hours.⁶ Purpose Congress has referred to TA as Congress has referred to TA as “"an important retention tool,an important retention tool,”" and other observers have referred to and other observers have referred to
it as a it as a “"quality-of-lifequality-of-life”" benefit for servicemembers.7 benefit for servicemembers.7 Various DOD and service-level issuances Various DOD and service-level issuances
speak to the purpose of providing TA benefits as a way to develop human capital and bolster force speak to the purpose of providing TA benefits as a way to develop human capital and bolster force
management objectives such as recruitment and retention. The Army states that TA supports management objectives such as recruitment and retention. The Army states that TA supports
“"educational objectives of the Army and Soldierseducational objectives of the Army and Soldiers’' personal self-development goals, personal self-development goals,”" and and “"directly directly
contributes to retaining quality Soldiers, enhancing their career progression, improving Army contributes to retaining quality Soldiers, enhancing their career progression, improving Army
readiness, and preparing Soldiers for meaningful employment in the transition from military readiness, and preparing Soldiers for meaningful employment in the transition from military
service.service.”8"⁸ The Navy states that the voluntary education program supports The Navy states that the voluntary education program supports “"lifelong learning and lifelong learning and
professional and personal development,professional and personal development,”9"⁹ and the Marine Corps contends that it and the Marine Corps contends that it “"improves improves
recruitment and retention (higher education levels correlate to higher reenlistment rates) and recruitment and retention (higher education levels correlate to higher reenlistment rates) and
enhances readiness (reduces disciplinary problems, increases prospects for promotion, increases enhances readiness (reduces disciplinary problems, increases prospects for promotion, increases
Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) scores, and supports career Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) scores, and supports career
progression/retention.progression/retention.”10"¹⁰ Air Force documentation also refers to TA as a Air Force documentation also refers to TA as a “"recruiting, retention and recruiting, retention and
readiness tool.readiness tool.”11
"¹¹ Program Administration, Parameters, and Eligibility
The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness (OUSD (P&R)) is The Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness (OUSD (P&R)) is
responsible for overseeing the implementation of the TA program and establishes annual TA rates, responsible for overseeing the implementation of the TA program and establishes annual TA rates,
caps, and ceilings.caps, and ceilings.1212 The military services implement the program and disburse the funds. They The military services implement the program and disburse the funds. They
may establish service-specific TA policies and eligibility requirements within the parameters set may establish service-specific TA policies and eligibility requirements within the parameters set
by OUSD (P&R).by OUSD (P&R).
Covered Education Programs
Servicemembers are allowed to use TA funds for undergraduate, graduate, vocational, licensure, Servicemembers are allowed to use TA funds for undergraduate, graduate, vocational, licensure,
certificate, and language courses, or to complete their high school education. Funds may be used certificate, and language courses, or to complete their high school education. Funds may be used
for both classroom-based and distance learning. DOD policies also allow for, and encourage, for both classroom-based and distance learning. DOD policies also allow for, and encourage,
education institutions to provide degree programs on military installations.education institutions to provide degree programs on military installations.1313 Funding may be Funding may be
used to cover tuition and course-specific fees (e.g., laboratory fees), but cannot cover expenses used to cover tuition and course-specific fees (e.g., laboratory fees), but cannot cover expenses
like books, course materials, transportation, or room and board.

7 U.S. Congress, John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, Conference Report to
Accompany H.R. 5515, 115th Cong., 2nd sess., July 23, 2018, Report 115-863, p. 866. Jennie W. Wenger, Are Current
Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services? RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2017, p.
1, at https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1766/RAND_RR1766.pdf.
8 DOD, Department of the Army, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Justification of
Estimates, March 2023, p. 520; and Department of the Army, Army Continuing Education System, AR 621-5, October
28, 2019, p. 18.
9 DOD, Department of the Navy, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Navy, Justification
of Estimates, March 2023, p 532.
10 DOD, Department of the Navy, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Marine Corps,
Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 168.
11 DOD, Department of the Air Force, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Air Force,
Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 567.
12 DODI 1322.25, p. 8.
13 DODI 1322.25, p. 3.
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Funding Limitations
like books, course materials, transportation, or room and board. Funding Limitations DOD policy is to review TA funding caps and ceilings on an annual basis and apply them DOD policy is to review TA funding caps and ceilings on an annual basis and apply them
uniformly across the services.uniformly across the services.14 For 202314 In 2025, DOD caps on TA were $250 per semester credit hour, , DOD caps on TA were $250 per semester credit hour,
not to exceed $4,500 per fiscal year.not to exceed $4,500 per fiscal year.1515 Military students are responsible for the remainder of the Military students are responsible for the remainder of the
education costs not covered by TA and may supplement TA with certain other federal education education costs not covered by TA and may supplement TA with certain other federal education
funding (see the funding (see the section “section "Coordination with other Federal Education Benefits”)"). The military . The military
services pay tuition directly to the participating school, but may require a servicemember to pay services pay tuition directly to the participating school, but may require a servicemember to pay
back the TA if he or she fails to successfully complete a course. DOD policy defines successful back the TA if he or she fails to successfully complete a course. DOD policy defines successful
course completion as a grade of course completion as a grade of “C”"C" or higher for undergraduate courses, a or higher for undergraduate courses, a “B”"B" or higher for or higher for
graduate courses, and a graduate courses, and a “Pass”"Pass" for for “"Pass/FailPass/Fail”" grades. grades.1616 DOD policies also allow commanders to DOD policies also allow commanders to
deny requests for further TA funding if the servicemember fails to maintain a cumulative grade deny requests for further TA funding if the servicemember fails to maintain a cumulative grade
point average (GPA) of 2.0 or higher after completing 15 semester hours, or equivalent, in point average (GPA) of 2.0 or higher after completing 15 semester hours, or equivalent, in
undergraduate studies, or a GPA of 3.0 or higher after completing six semester hours, or undergraduate studies, or a GPA of 3.0 or higher after completing six semester hours, or
equivalent, in graduate studies, on a 4.0 grading scale.equivalent, in graduate studies, on a 4.0 grading scale.¹⁷17
Participant Eligibility
Officers and enlisted servicemembers in the Active Component and the Selected Reserve Officers and enlisted servicemembers in the Active Component and the Selected Reserve
(SELRES) are eligible to receive TA funds. While TA may be authorized for the (SELRES) are eligible to receive TA funds. While TA may be authorized for the InactiveIndividual Ready Ready
Reserve (IRR), by lawReserve (IRR), by law, this authority is only for IRR members who are in occupational specialties this authority is only for IRR members who are in occupational specialties
specifically designated by the Secretary concerned.specifically designated by the Secretary concerned.1818 The TA authority is discretionary and does The TA authority is discretionary and does
not create a servicemember entitlement for the benefit, nor does it require that the military not create a servicemember entitlement for the benefit, nor does it require that the military
services pay all of the education expenses incurred by the servicemember. In this regard, within services pay all of the education expenses incurred by the servicemember. In this regard, within
established DOD and service-level polices, military commanders have some latitude to decide established DOD and service-level polices, military commanders have some latitude to decide
whether to approve TA requests. whether to approve TA requests.
Eligibility may depend on time in service, job performance, and past academic qualifications Eligibility may depend on time in service, job performance, and past academic qualifications
(including ASVAB scores), among other factors as determined by the military service concerned. (including ASVAB scores), among other factors as determined by the military service concerned.
Approvals may also depend on the availability of appropriated funds to support TA.Approvals may also depend on the availability of appropriated funds to support TA.
Servicemembers must apply for TA and are typically required to undergo educational counseling Servicemembers must apply for TA and are typically required to undergo educational counseling
by a qualified professional to support decisionmaking about schools, courses, and degree by a qualified professional to support decisionmaking about schools, courses, and degree
programs.programs.1919 DOD operates a DOD operates a TA DECIDE website which provides an interactive tool for exploring website which provides an interactive tool for exploring
and comparing different education options.20and comparing different education options.20
Service Obligation
Law requires that commissioned officers incur a service obligation upon receipt of TA.Law requires that commissioned officers incur a service obligation upon receipt of TA.2121 Active- Active-
duty commissioned officers, by law, must agree to remain on active duty for a minimum of two-duty commissioned officers, by law, must agree to remain on active duty for a minimum of two-

14 DODI 1322.25, p. 2.
15 DOD, Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support (DANTES), service-specific TA policies and
procedures at https://www.dantes.mil/mil-ta/.
16 DODI 1322.25, p. 16.
17 Ibid.
18 10 U.S.C. §2007(c)(2).
19 DODI 1322.25, p. 3.
20 DOD, Voluntary Education Partnership Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), Tuition Assistance (TA) Decide
website, at https://www.dodmou.com/tadecide/.
21 10 U.S.C. §2007.
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years following the completion of an education program using TA.22years following the completion of an education program using TA.²² The Secretary concerned The Secretary concerned
may waive this requirement under certain circumstances. Reserve component officers must agree may waive this requirement under certain circumstances. Reserve component officers must agree
to a minimum of four years of continued affiliation with the SELRES or IRR in return for TA.to a minimum of four years of continued affiliation with the SELRES or IRR in return for TA.23
23 Law does not Law does not require a service obligation for enlisted servicemembers. It does allow the Service a service obligation for enlisted servicemembers. It does allow the Service
Secretaries to impose up to a four-year obligation for enlisted SELRES or IRR servicemembers.Secretaries to impose up to a four-year obligation for enlisted SELRES or IRR servicemembers.24
24 Law does not prohibit the TA service obligations from being served concurrent to other service Law does not prohibit the TA service obligations from being served concurrent to other service
time owed by the member (see shaded text box in time owed by the member (see shaded text box in the “Retention” sectionthe "Retention" section below for further below for further
discussion).discussion).
Table 1. Service Obligation for Acceptance of TA

Active Component
Tuition Assistance (TA)

Active Component

Selected Reserve
Individual Ready Reservea
Enlisted
No requirement
Reserve^a

Enlisted

No requirement

No requirement, up to four-No requirement, up to four-
year obligation authorized No requirement, up to four-No requirement, up to four-
year obligation authorizedyear obligation authorized
year obligation authorized
Officer
Two-year minimum

Officer

Two-year minimum obligation^b Four-year minimum obligationFour-year minimum obligation
Four-year minimum Four-year minimum
obligation obligationb
obligation
Source: CRS analysis of existing law.CRS analysis of existing law.
Notes: a. :
a. Members of the Members of the IRR are only eligibleIndividual Ready Reserve are eligible only in occupational specialties designated by the in occupational specialties designated by the Secretarysecretary concerned. concerned.
b. The Secretary b. The secretary concerned may reduce or waive the active-duty service obligation under certain conditions. concerned may reduce or waive the active-duty service obligation under certain conditions.
Coordination with other Federal Education Benefits
DOD policies generally DOD policies generally prohibit TA funding in conjunction with other forms of military-funded TA funding in conjunction with other forms of military-funded
education benefits, such as Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) scholarships and advanced education benefits, such as Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) scholarships and advanced
civil schooling.civil schooling.2525 Servicemembers may receive other federal student aid loans and grants (e.g., Servicemembers may receive other federal student aid loans and grants (e.g.,
Pell Grants) concurrently.Pell Grants) concurrently.2626 In 2000, Congress authorized In 2000, Congress authorized tuition assistanceTA to be used in to be used in
conjunction with GI Bill programs administered by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). conjunction with GI Bill programs administered by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs (VA).
Concurrent use of these benefits is sometimes referred to as a Concurrent use of these benefits is sometimes referred to as a “"top-uptop-up”" option where certain GI option where certain GI
Bill funds are used to supplement costs not covered by the TA program (e.g., books and other Bill funds are used to supplement costs not covered by the TA program (e.g., books and other
fees).27 Military tuition assistancefees).²⁷ Military TA is available only to currently serving military personnel; GI Bill is available only to currently serving military personnel; GI Bill
funds (including the Montgomery GI Bill and the Post-9/11 GI Billfunds (including the Montgomery GI Bill and the Post-9/11 GI Bill [PGIB]) are available to both ) are available to both
qualified servicemembers and veterans.qualified servicemembers and veterans.²⁸ Eligibility for Participating Schools 28

22 10 U.S.C. §2007(b)(1).
23 10 U.S.C. §2007(c)(3).
24 DODI 1322.25, p. 15.
25 Ibid, p. 16. Advanced civil schooling is an Army program for officers to obtain a fully funded full-time (on-duty)
graduate degree; see https://myarmybenefits.us.army.mil/Benefit-Library/Federal-Benefits/Advanced-Civil-Schooling-
(ACS). The other military services have similar programs.
26 DODI 1322.25, p. 16.
27 P.L. 106-398 §1602, Oct. 30, 2000, 114 Stat. 1654A-358. See https://www.va.gov/education/about-gi-bill-
benefits/how-to-use-benefits/tuition-assistance-top-up/. Reserve component members can concurrently receive TA and
Montgomery GI Bill Selected Reserve (MGIB-SR) per 10 U.S.C. §16131(k) when enrolled at least half-time.
28 DOD, Military OneSource, How to Use the Military Tuition Assistance Program, at
https://www.militaryonesource.mil/-/how-to-use-the-military-tuition-assistance-program. For more information on the
GI Bill, please CRS Report R42785, Veterans’ Educational Assistance Programs and Benefits: A Primer, by
Cassandria Dortch.
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Eligibility for Participating Schools
Federal law requires DOD to maintain a publicly available online list of institutions of higher Federal law requires DOD to maintain a publicly available online list of institutions of higher
education that participate in the TA program.education that participate in the TA program.2929 Each institution of higher education must have and Each institution of higher education must have and
be in compliance with its Higher Education Act be in compliance with its Higher Education Act (HEA) Title IV program participation agreement with the Title IV program participation agreement with the
U.S. Department of EducationU.S. Department of Education.30 (ED).³⁰ Participating schools are required to sign DOD Participating schools are required to sign DOD’'s Voluntary s Voluntary
Education Partnership memorandum of understanding (MOU).Education Partnership memorandum of understanding (MOU).3131 The MOU requires schools to The MOU requires schools to
meet certain accreditation and certification standards. DOD is required to maintain a centralized meet certain accreditation and certification standards. DOD is required to maintain a centralized
online complaint system to track and respond to student complaints about schools receiving TA online complaint system to track and respond to student complaints about schools receiving TA
funds.funds.3232 The MOU also prohibits schools from using The MOU also prohibits schools from using “"unfair, deceptive, or abusive marketing unfair, deceptive, or abusive marketing
practices” and “practices" and "misleading advertising.misleading advertising.”33"³³ MOUs with schools may be terminated for failure to MOUs with schools may be terminated for failure to
comply with the terms, making them ineligible for TA funds.comply with the terms, making them ineligible for TA funds.³⁴ 34
Compliance with these requirements is monitored by DOD independent contractors, Compliance with these requirements is monitored by DOD independent contractors, the U.S.
Department of EducationED, and in some cases by independent auditors., and in some cases by independent auditors.3535 DOD may also refer DOD may also refer
student complaints to other government agencies, including the Federal Trade Commission student complaints to other government agencies, including the Federal Trade Commission
(FTC)(FTC)36,,³⁶ the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ), the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
(CFPB), and the VA (concurrently with oversight of GI Bill programs).(CFPB), and the VA (concurrently with oversight of GI Bill programs).³⁷37
Program Funding
Tuition assistanceand Outlays TA is funded by discretionary appropriations to the Operation and Maintenance is funded by discretionary appropriations to the Operation and Maintenance
accounts for the military departments (generally listed under the budget activity accounts for the military departments (generally listed under the budget activity “"Training and Training and
Recruiting”,Recruiting" and sub-activity group and sub-activity group “"Off Duty and Voluntary EducationOff Duty and Voluntary Education”"). The military services ). The military services
do not submit funding requests for education programs in a standardized way which can make it do not submit funding requests for education programs in a standardized way which can make it
difficult to analyze funding trends across the services (seedifficult to analyze funding trends across the services (see Table 2 notes).notes).
Funding provides tuition to schools and also supports TA program administration. DODFunding provides tuition to schools and also supports TA program administration. DOD’s
FY2024's FY2025 budget request included a combined total of $ budget request included a combined total of $757.060682.91 million for TA and other voluntary million for TA and other voluntary
education programseducation programs – $80.029—a decrease of $74.15 million ( million (12%) more than FY202310%) from FY2024 enacted levels ( enacted levels (seesee Table 2). Some of the reasons cited by the services in their budget justification documents for decreases in TA estimates included reduced end strength, policy changes, and analysis of projected needs.38 Table 2. Military Services Funding of Off-Duty and Voluntary Education Programs

FY2023-FY2025; dollars in millions

FY2023 Actual

FY2024 Requested

FY2025 Estimate

Army^a

$223.371

$260.235

$245.880

Navy^b

$68.982

$90.452

$77.223

Air Force^c

$234.248

$263.421

$255.673

Marine Corps^d

$51.882

$55.230

$50.000

Army Reserve^e

$21.100

$32.930

$15.422

Army National Guard^f

$49.346

$54.792

$38.484

Table 2).

29 P.L. 116-92, §560, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 1393. In addition, per 10 USC 2006a(a)(1), each institution of
higher education must have and be in compliance with its Higher Education Act Title IV program participation
agreement with the U.S. Department of Education. A list of schools is available on the TA DECIDE website, at
https://www.dodmou.com/tadecide/.
30 For information about the requirements of Title IV program participation agreements, see CRS Report R43159,
Institutional Eligibility for Participation in Title IV Student Financial Aid Programs, by Alexandra Hegji.
31 DODI 1322.25, p. 17.
32 See the DOD Postsecondary Education Complaint System (PECS) at
https://pecs.militaryonesource.mil/pecs/dodpecs.aspx.
33 DODI 1322.25, p. 22.
34 DODI 1322.25, p. 17.
35 GAO, DOD Education Benefits: Action is Needed to Ensure Evaluations of Postsecondary Schools Are Useful,
GAO-14-855, September 2014, pp. 5-6; and DOD Office of Inspector General, Audit of Controls at Military
Installations for Schools Participating in the DoD Tuition Assistance Program, September 10, 2019.
36 See for example, Federal Trade Commission, Operator of Colorado Technical University and American
InterContinental University Will Pay $30 Million to Settle FTC Charges it Used Deceptive Lead Generators to Market
its Schools, August 27, 2019.
37 DODI 1322.25, p. 3.
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Table 2. Military Services Funding of Tuition Assistance and Other Voluntary
Education Programs
FY2022 – FY2024; dollars in millions

FY2022 Actual
FY2023 Enacted
FY2024 Requested
Armya
$226.084
$235.282
$260.235
Navyb
$67.801
$86.471
$90.452
Air Forcec
$221.578
$250.196
$263.421
Marine Corpsd
$46.569
$51.882
$55.230
Army Reservee
$30.985
$15.583
$32.930
Army National Guardf
$51.000
$37.617
$54.792
Source: DOD budget justification documents (see specific references and links in notes). The amounts in the
tables Source: DOD budget justification documents (see specific references and links in notes). The amounts in the table reflect total funding reflect total funding for "off-duty and voluntary education programs," which may include other programs besides TA as authorized under 10 U.S.C. §2007. In cases where the military departments specifically listed funding figures for TA, this is noted below. CRS did not identify line items for this type of funding in the budget documents for voluntary education programs. In most cases, there are no specific line items in the
budget documents solely for TA as authorized under 10 U.S.C. §2007. CRS did not identify a TA line item for the for the
Space ForceSpace Force, or for or for other reserve components reserve components besidesother than the Army Reserve and Army National Guard. the Army Reserve and Army National Guard.
Notes: Coast Guard TA falls under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security appropriation and is not Coast Guard TA falls under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security appropriation and is not
included in DOD funding.included in DOD funding.
a. a. The ArmyThe Army’'s description of operations financed includes educational financial assistance programs under 10 s description of operations financed includes educational financial assistance programs under 10
U.S.C. §§2005, 2006, 2007, and 2015. The ArmyU.S.C. §§2005, 2006, 2007, and 2015. The Army’'s budget request includes a line item amount for TAs budget request includes a line item amount for TA – —for for
FY2024 the TA request was $170.867 mil ionFY2024 the amount was $174.422 million, and the FY2025 request was $167.475 million. Department of the Army, Department of the Army, FY2024FY2025 Budget Estimates, Volume I, , Volume I,
Operation and Maintenance, Army, Justification of Estimates, March Operation and Maintenance, Army, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 520-526.
b. The Navy’2024, pp. 535-536 & 542, https://www.asafm.army.mil/Portals/72/Documents/BudgetMaterial/2025/Base%20Budget/Operation%20and%20Maintenance/Regular%20Army%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Volume%201.pdf#page=540. b. The Navy's description of operations financed includes the Navy s description of operations financed includes the Navy Col egeCollege Program for Afloat Program for Afloat Col ege
College Education and Operations Support for TA programs. The NavyEducation and Operations Support for TA programs. The Navy’'s budget request includes a line item s budget request includes a line item
amount for TAamount for TA – —for FY2024 the TA request was $78.783 for FY2024 the TA request was $78.783 mil ionmillion, and the FY2025 request was $66.283 million. Department of the Navy, . Department of the Navy, FY2024FY2025 Budget
Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Navy, Justification of Estimates, March Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Navy, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, pp. 532-536.
c. The Air Force’2024, pp. 567, https://www.secnav.navy.mil/fmc/fmb/Documents/25pres/OMN_Book.pdf#page=567. c. The Air Force's description of operations financed includes Air Force Credentialing On-Line Opportunities s description of operations financed includes Air Force Credentialing On-Line Opportunities
programs as well as civilian pay, trainingprograms as well as civilian pay, training, and infrastructure. The Air Force budget and infrastructure. The Air Force budget request does not provide
line item funding for TAreports the FY2024 baseline funding for TA as $216.997 million with a projected decrease of $6.878 million in FY2025. Department of the Air Force, . Department of the Air Force, FY2024FY2025 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and
Maintenance, Air Force, Justification of Estimates, March Maintenance, Air Force, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 568.
d. Department of the Navy, FY20242024, pp. 9 & 555, https://www.saffm.hq.af.mil/Portals/84/documents/FY25/FY25%20Air%20Force%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Vol%20I.pdf?ver=GnaK__NUyQLIHwa-SWM8JA%3d%3d#page=13. d. Department of the Navy, FY2025 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Marine Corps, Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Marine Corps,
Justification of Estimates, March Justification of Estimates, March 2023, pp. 168-169.
e. The Army Reserve’2024, p. 167, https://www.secnav.navy.mil/fmc/fmb/Documents/25pres/OMMC_Book.pdf#page=167. e. The Army Reserve's funding for tuition assistance is a s funding for tuition assistance is a separate line item.specific line item. The above totals do not include "credentialling funding." Department of the Army, Department of the Army, FY2024
FY2025 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Army Reserve, Justification of Estimates, March Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Army Reserve, Justification of Estimates, March
2023, p 101.
f.
The Army National Guard’s funding for tuition assistance is a separate line item. Department of the Army,
FY20242024, p. 105, https://www.asafm.army.mil/Portals/72/Documents/BudgetMaterial/2025/Base%20Budget/Operation%20and%20Maintenance/Reserve%20Army-Operation%20and%20Maintenance.pdf#page=109. f. The Army National Guard's funding for tuition assistance is a specific line item. The above totals do not include "credentialling funding." Department of the Army, FY2025 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Army National Guard, Justification of Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Army National Guard, Justification of
Estimates, March Estimates, March 2023, p. 117.
Considerations for Congress
2024, p. 120, https://www.asafm.army.mil/Portals/72/Documents/BudgetMaterial/2025/Base%20Budget/Operation%20and%20Maintenance/National%20Guard%20Army%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance.pdf#page=124. Program Costs by Institutional Control The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 requires that DOD make publicly available a list of TA-participating institutions and the amount received by each.³⁹ DOD has also reported TA data by institutional control and disaggregates the data by military service. In FY2023, approximately 36% of TA costs were for courses at public institutions, compared with 25% for private, nonprofit institutions and 39% for private, for-profit institutions (see Figure 1). The average cost per course at private, for-profit institutions was the highest ($764), followed by private, nonprofit ($737) and then public ($675) institutions.

Figure 1. Share of Tuition Assistance Costs by Institutional Control

FY2023

Source: CRS analysis of 2023 DOD TA data at DOD, Voluntary Education Partnership Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), "Tuition Assistance (TA) Decide," dodmou.com/TADECIDE.

Notes: Data from 2023 are the most recent available.

Though 3,368 education institutions received TA funding in FY2023, usage appears to be higher among certain institutions (see Table 3). The American Public University System (private, for-profit) and the University of Maryland Global Campus (public) accounted for over one-third (37.5%) of all TA spending in FY2023 across DOD.⁴⁰ Both of these institutions provide course instruction primarily in an online, distance-education format.⁴¹ Table 3. Top Three Institutional Recipients of DOD TA by Service

FY2023

Service

Institution

Control

Amount

Air Force

American Public University System

Private, for-profit

$45.6 million

University of Maryland Global Campus

Public

$24.3 million

University of Arizona Global Campus

Private, for-profit

$14.6 million

Army

American Public University System

Private, for-profit

$48.8 million

University of Maryland Global Campus

Public

$21.6 million

Purdue University Global

Public

$13.3 million

Navy

American Public University System

Private, for-profit

$12.3 million

University of Maryland Global Campus

Public

$8.3 million

Southern New Hampshire University

Private, nonprofit

$2.8 million

Marine Corps

American Public University System

Private, for-profit

$13.0 million

University of Maryland Global Campus

Public

$9.4 million

Southern New Hampshire University

Private, nonprofit

$2.3 million

Source: CRS analysis of 2023 DOD TA data at DOD, Voluntary Education Partnership Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), "Tuition Assistance (TA) Decide," dodmou.com/TADECIDE.

Considerations for Congress There are several oversight considerations for Congress, including accountability for educational There are several oversight considerations for Congress, including accountability for educational
institutions that receive TA funds, program outcome metrics for both schools and institutions that receive TA funds, program outcome metrics for both schools and
servicemembers, and whether the TA program is meeting program goals with respect to servicemembers, and whether the TA program is meeting program goals with respect to
recruitment, retention, and readiness. Congress might also consider these factors in the context of recruitment, retention, and readiness. Congress might also consider these factors in the context of
other federal or military-specific education initiatives likeother federal or military-specific education initiatives like student loan forgiveness or repayment loan forgiveness or repayment
initiatives and GI Bill benefits.initiatives and GI Bill benefits.
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School Accountability
School Accountability The potential for waste, fraud, and abuse in funding for servicemember and veteran education has The potential for waste, fraud, and abuse in funding for servicemember and veteran education has
been an ongoingat times been a concern for the federal government. concern for the federal government.3842 A 2012 Executive Order from A 2012 Executive Order from then-President President
Obama noted that,Obama noted that,
there have been reports of aggressive and deceptive targeting of service members, veterans, there have been reports of aggressive and deceptive targeting of service members, veterans,
and their families by some educational institutions. For example, some institutions have and their families by some educational institutions. For example, some institutions have
recruited veterans with serious brain injuries and emotional vulnerabilities recruited veterans with serious brain injuries and emotional vulnerabilities without without
providing academic support and counseling; encouraged service members and veterans to providing academic support and counseling; encouraged service members and veterans to
take out costly institutional loans rather than encouraging them to apply for Federal student take out costly institutional loans rather than encouraging them to apply for Federal student
loans first; engaged in misleading recruiting practices on military installations; and failed loans first; engaged in misleading recruiting practices on military installations; and failed
to disclose meaningful information that allows potential students to determine whether the to disclose meaningful information that allows potential students to determine whether the
institution has a good record of graduating service members, veterans, and their families institution has a good record of graduating service members, veterans, and their families
and positioning them for success in the workforce.and positioning them for success in the workforce.39
43 In the explanatory statement to accompany the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2014 In the explanatory statement to accompany the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2014
(Division C of P.L. 113-76), Congress noted concerns about (Division C of P.L. 113-76), Congress noted concerns about “"abusive advertising and aggressive abusive advertising and aggressive
recruitment practicesrecruitment practices”" by schools that accept TA and a related education benefit for military by schools that accept TA and a related education benefit for military
spouses called My Career Advancement Account (MyCAA). The statement directed DOD to spouses called My Career Advancement Account (MyCAA). The statement directed DOD to
report on violations of the MOU between DOD and the school, and in particular violations of report on violations of the MOU between DOD and the school, and in particular violations of
provisions geared provisions geared towardstoward eliminating such aggressive marketing practices. eliminating such aggressive marketing practices. 4044 According to DOD According to DOD
policy, consequences for school failure to comply with an MOU might be a letter of warning, policy, consequences for school failure to comply with an MOU might be a letter of warning,
termination of the MOU, loss of eligibility for TA funds, loss of access to military installations termination of the MOU, loss of eligibility for TA funds, loss of access to military installations
(for schools providing courses at the installation), and a ban from establishing new programs.(for schools providing courses at the installation), and a ban from establishing new programs.41
45 In the context of concerns of false or predatory marketing or advertising practices on the part of In the context of concerns of false or predatory marketing or advertising practices on the part of
some proprietarysome for-profit institutions of higher education attempting to enroll GI Bill and DOD TA institutions of higher education attempting to enroll GI Bill and DOD TA
participants,participants,4246 the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARPA; P.L. 117-2 the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARPA; P.L. 117-2) amended the HEA to require) requires that private, that private,
for-profit institutions of higher education derive at least 10% of revenues from nonfederal for-profit institutions of higher education derive at least 10% of revenues from nonfederal
sources. Federal funding sourceseducation assistance funds for institutional fiscal years beginning on or after January 1, 2023. Federal education assistance funds include (but are not limited to) TA and GI Bill assistance. include (but are not limited to) TA and GI Bill assistance.
Institutions that fail Institutions that fail to meet the requirement for two consecutive years the requirement for two consecutive years are unablebecome ineligible to participate in to participate in HEA Title IV student student
aid programs administered by aid programs administered by the Department of Education (ED)ED. This change is commonly . This change is commonly
referred to as referred to as "closing the closing the so-called 90/10 loophole.90/10 loophole.43"⁴⁷ Congress might consider ongoing oversight of the implementation of ARPA provisions and any impacts on school eligibility for the TA program. Congress could also consider further amendments to the ARPA as it relates to military education programs.⁴⁸ Measuring Program Outcomes Congress might consider ongoing

38 See, for example, Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Testimony of Holly Petraeus: Improving Educational
Outcomes for Our Military and Veterans, Written Statement for the Record to the U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland
Security and Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information,
Federal Services and International Security, September 22, 2011; and United States Senate, Health, Education, Labor,
and Pensions Committee, Is the New GI Bill Working? For-Profit Colleges Increasing Veteran Enrollment and Federal
Funds, Majority Committee Staff Report, July 30, 2014.
39 Executive Order 13607, “Establishing Principles of Excellence for Educational Institutions Serving Service
Members, Veterans, Spouses, and Other Family Members,” April 27, 2012.
40 Explanatory statement to accompany the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2014 (Division C of P.L. 113-
76), as published in the House, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 160, no. 9—Book II, (January 15, 2014), p.
H574, at https://www.congress.gov/113/crec/2014/01/15/160/9/CREC-2014-01-15-pt2-PgH475-2.pdf. For more on
military spouse education benefits, see CRS Report R46498, Military Spouse Employment, by Kristy N. Kamarck,
Barbara L. Schwemle, and Sofia Plagakis.
41 DODI 1322.25, p. 33.
42 For example, see Michael Stratford, "For-Profit-College Marketer Settles Allegations of Predatory Practices,"
Chronicle of Higher Education, June 26, 2012; and Andy Thomason, “Defense Dept. Lifts Suspension of U. of Phoenix
from Tuition Assistance Program,” The Chronicle of Higher Education, January 15, 2016.
43 For more information, see CRS Report R47301, Veterans-Related Education Legislation Enacted in the 117th
Congress, by Cassandria Dortch.
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monitoring of the implementation of ARPA provisions and any impacts on school eligibility for
the TA program.
Measuring Program Outcomes
One related issue for congressional consideration is whether the schools in receipt of TA funds are One related issue for congressional consideration is whether the schools in receipt of TA funds are
delivering a quality education program to servicemembers. DOD, VA, and ED have collaborated delivering a quality education program to servicemembers. DOD, VA, and ED have collaborated
since 2012 to develop measures to evaluate school performance.since 2012 to develop measures to evaluate school performance.4449 These measures include These measures include
categories like graduation/program completion, course completion, transfer-out rates, number of categories like graduation/program completion, course completion, transfer-out rates, number of
degrees/certificates completed, and median federal student loan borrowing, among others. Not all degrees/certificates completed, and median federal student loan borrowing, among others. Not all
of these measures are directly applicable or comparable of these measures are directly applicable or comparable forto the DOD TA program the DOD TA program, due in part to due in part to
part-time participation of students and incongruent methods for data collection across agencies.part-time participation of students and incongruent methods for data collection across agencies.45
50 Nevertheless, Congress might consider ongoing monitoring of these interagency efforts to Nevertheless, Congress might consider ongoing monitoring of these interagency efforts to
develop reliable metrics.develop reliable metrics.
There is limited publicly available analysis of individual servicemember outcomes with respect to There is limited publicly available analysis of individual servicemember outcomes with respect to
TA usage.TA usage.4651 Data from 2014 and 2015 analyzed by an independent research organization, the Data from 2014 and 2015 analyzed by an independent research organization, the
Center for Naval Analyses (CNA), showed an average course completion rate of about 90%, with Center for Naval Analyses (CNA), showed an average course completion rate of about 90%, with
the Air Force having the highest course completion rate among the services.the Air Force having the highest course completion rate among the services.4752 Graduation and Graduation and
degree-earning rates through the TA program in any given year are observed to be substantially degree-earning rates through the TA program in any given year are observed to be substantially
lower, due mainly to the part-time nature of the course worklower, due mainly to the part-time nature of the course work – —with the average military TA with the average military TA
student completing between two or three courses per annum.student completing between two or three courses per annum.4853 Congress might consider periodic Congress might consider periodic
updates to this study to monitor individual outcomes or to determine whether these individual updates to this study to monitor individual outcomes or to determine whether these individual
outcomes vary by degree program, military service, or other factors (e.g., for-profit status of the outcomes vary by degree program, military service, or other factors (e.g., for-profit status of the
education institution, in-person education institution, in-person vvs. virtual education).. virtual education).
Impact on Recruiting, Retention, and Readiness
Research in the civilian sector generally points to a positive return on investment for employer-
sponsored education programs by offering recruiting incentives, reducing turnover, increasing
productivity and career advancement prospects, and improving morale. As Congress deliberates
DOD’s annual budget requests, one consideration might be returns on the investment from TA
over similar categories. Military personnel benefits are generally structured to support recruiting,
retention, and/or individual readiness. It may therefore be worth examining how DOD’s tuition
assistance program might contribute to these objectives.
Recruiting
Several observers have raised concerns about some of the military services’ failure to meet
recruiting targets in 2022 and 2023.49 According to DOD data, for FY2023, the Army, Navy, and

44 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Postsecondary Education Outcome Measures: ED, DOD, and VA,
at https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/outcomemeasures/.
45 Ibid., see “Developing Comparable Outcome Measures across ED, VA, and DOD: Overarching Measurement
Issues.”
46 National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Postsecondary Education Outcome Measures: ED, DOD, and VA,
https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/outcomemeasures/.
47 CNA, April 2021, Tables 37-41, pp. 56-60.
48 CNA, April 2021, Tables 35 and 43-47, pp. 64-68.
49 See, for example, Lara Seligman, Paul McCleary, and Lee Hudson, “Lawmakers press Pentagon for answers as
(continued...)
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Air Force missed their active component goals; the Navy also missed its quality goals.50
Education benefits such as TA and the Post-9/11 GI Bill (PGIB)

Given that a significant portion of military TA funding appears to go to distance education programs, there may also be questions about servicemember outcomes under virtual versus in-person instruction. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, many education institutions have broadened their virtual course offerings and digital infrastructure.⁵⁴ Online learning may also be a more flexible option for servicemembers, given operational time constraints and frequent moves, allowing a larger cohort to take advantage of the TA benefit. Research on the relative merits of the two methods of instruction yields mixed results and may be sensitive to the quality of the program in terms of course material and instructor qualification. Some studies have shown moderate negative relationships with student persistence, motivation, and study habits in virtual environments.⁵⁵ The Biden Administration, in January 2025, took some regulatory action to define "distance education course" and expand ED information gathering by "requiring institutions to report their students' distance education status."⁵⁶ It is not clear whether the Trump Administration will continue this requirement. Congress may consider whether additional data or studies could support decisions about TA spending on virtual or hybrid courses.

Impact on Recruiting, Retention, and Readiness

Research in the civilian sector generally points to a positive return on investment for employer-sponsored education programs by offering recruiting incentives, reducing turnover, increasing productivity and career advancement prospects, and improving morale. As Congress deliberates DOD's annual budget requests, one consideration might be returns on the investment from TA compared to similar categories. Military personnel benefits are generally structured to support recruiting, retention, and/or individual readiness. It may therefore be worth examining how DOD's TA program might contribute to these objectives.

Recruiting Education benefits such as TA and the PGIB have historically been considered have historically been considered
as a recruiting incentive. DOD youth surveys have consistently found that as a recruiting incentive. DOD youth surveys have consistently found that “"pay for future pay for future
education”education" is in the top is in the top ten10 reasons for joining the military, with 44% of respondents citing this reasons for joining the military, with 44% of respondents citing this in
the 2022 poll.51as one of their top 2 reasons in a 2024 poll.⁵⁷ Nevertheless, a 2017 RAND study utilizing focus groups of new recruits found Nevertheless, a 2017 RAND study utilizing focus groups of new recruits found
that that “"generally, new recruits had limited awareness or knowledge of the TA program and generally, new recruits had limited awareness or knowledge of the TA program and
associated parameters. Across all focus groups, less than a quarter of recruits were familiar with associated parameters. Across all focus groups, less than a quarter of recruits were familiar with
the TA program.the TA program.”52"⁵⁸ New recruits had relatively higher awareness of the PGIB and details of the New recruits had relatively higher awareness of the PGIB and details of the
benefit. The PGIB benefits are more generous than the TA program; enactment of the PGIB has benefit. The PGIB benefits are more generous than the TA program; enactment of the PGIB has
also been associated with small, positive effects on quality of enlistees.also been associated with small, positive effects on quality of enlistees.5359 While TA has lower While TA has lower
costs for the government relative to PGIB,costs for the government relative to PGIB,5460 there is little evidence of recruiting impacts. there is little evidence of recruiting impacts.
Congress might consider other ways to structure education benefits to incentivize recruits or Congress might consider other ways to structure education benefits to incentivize recruits or
consider rebalancing funding between education benefit programs. consider rebalancing funding between education benefit programs. For example, inIn the 2017 the 2017
RAND study, researchers found that RAND study, researchers found that “"[i]n five of our focus groups, recruits mentioned that they [i]n five of our focus groups, recruits mentioned that they
had already incurred college-related debt prior to enlistment, and questions were raised in two of had already incurred college-related debt prior to enlistment, and questions were raised in two of
the focus groups about whether loan repayment programs were still in place.the focus groups about whether loan repayment programs were still in place.”55"⁶¹ The Armed The Armed
Forces have some student loan repayment programs for enlisted members on active duty and for Forces have some student loan repayment programs for enlisted members on active duty and for
servicemembers in specified occupations.servicemembers in specified occupations. Congress could consider increasing funding or Congress could consider increasing funding or
otherwise amending these programs to help meet recruitment goals.otherwise amending these programs to help meet recruitment goals.5662 Other federal Other federal student loan loan
forgiveness programs, like the Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) program, take military forgiveness programs, like the Public Service Loan Forgiveness (PSLF) program, take military
service into account for eligibility, and Congress could consider revising or expanding the service into account for eligibility, and Congress could consider revising or expanding the
parameters for these programs.parameters for these programs.57
63 Retention
While recruiting has posed a challenge, all of the military services reported strong retention
figures during FY2023.58 While TA has been viewed by some as a retention incentive, there is

military recruiting crisis deepens,” Politico, July 26, 2022; and David Barno and Nora Bensahel, “Addressing the
Military Recruiting Crisis,” War on the Rocks, March 10, 2023.
50 DOD, Department of Defense Announces Recruiting and Retention Numbers for Fiscal Year 2023,
https://prhome.defense.gov/Portals/52/Documents/MRA_Docs/MPP/pressreleases/2023/TAB%20A%20-
%20Press%20Release%20EOM%20SEP%2023%20Recruiting%20and%20Retention%20Report.pdf?ver=gpvHB3zH
MMC5iupFfwqV3Q%3d%3d.
51 DOD Office of People Analytics, Spring 2022 Propensity Update, 23-S-1224, February 23, 2023, Slide 13, at
https://jamrs.defense.gov/Portals/20/Documents/YP52Spring2022PUBLICRELEASEPropensityUpdate.pdf. Data is
from the DOD Youth Poll which surveys United States youth ages 16-21.
52 Jennie W. Wenger et al., Are Current Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services?, RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2017, p. 15,
https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1766/RAND_RR1766.pdf.
53 Ibid., p. 58.
54 See Table 3 in CRS Report R42755, The Post-9/11 GI Bill: A Primer, by Cassandria Dortch.
55 Jennie W. Wenger et al., Are Current Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services?, RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2017, p. 14.
56 See, for example, Chapter 109 of Title 10, United States Code, “Educational Loan Repayment Programs.”
57 PSLF is authorized under 20 U.S.C. §1087e(m). For more information on loan repayment programs, see Table 1 in
CRS Report R47837, Service-Contingent Federal Student Loan Forgiveness and Loan Repayment Programs, by
Alexandra Hegji, Elayne J. Heisler, and Sylvia L. Bryan.
58 DOD, Department of Defense Announces Recruiting and Retention Numbers for Fiscal Year 2023,
https://prhome.defense.gov/Portals/52/Documents/MRA_Docs/MPP/pressreleases/2023/TAB%20A%20-
%20Press%20Release%20EOM%20SEP%2023%20Recruiting%20and%20Retention%20Report.pdf?ver=gpvHB3zH
MMC5iupFfwqV3Q%3d%3d.
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While TA has been viewed by some as a retention incentive, there is limited evidence tying TA program participation directly to increased retention for officers or limited evidence tying TA program participation directly to increased retention for officers or
enlisted servicemembers. However, the provision of TA could have an indirect positive effect on enlisted servicemembers. However, the provision of TA could have an indirect positive effect on
retention by improving morale. Some have considered TA a quality-of-life benefit, allowing retention by improving morale. Some have considered TA a quality-of-life benefit, allowing
servicemembers to pursue individual education goals while in service. Another way that TA may servicemembers to pursue individual education goals while in service. Another way that TA may
indirectly affect retention is through career mobilityindirectly affect retention is through career mobility – —by improving the servicememberby improving the servicemember’s
's competitiveness for promotion, assignments, or advanced training.competitiveness for promotion, assignments, or advanced training.
The TA program may directly affect officer retention through the requirement to complete four The TA program may directly affect officer retention through the requirement to complete four
years of obligated service. However, this obligation may be served concurrently with other years of obligated service. However, this obligation may be served concurrently with other
service obligations, potentially reducing the impact on retention. For example, a military service service obligations, potentially reducing the impact on retention. For example, a military service
academy graduate may incur a five-year active-duty service obligation upon commissioning. That academy graduate may incur a five-year active-duty service obligation upon commissioning. That
officer could apply for TA funds to earn graduate school credits and complete the TA service officer could apply for TA funds to earn graduate school credits and complete the TA service
obligation concurrent with their service academy obligation. In this instance, there would not be a obligation concurrent with their service academy obligation. In this instance, there would not be a
direct retention effect, as the officer could separate from active duty after the five years already direct retention effect, as the officer could separate from active duty after the five years already
owed. Congress has previously considered changes to allowing officers to meet service owed. Congress has previously considered changes to allowing officers to meet service
obligations concurrently (see shaded text box below). Congress has not acted to change the obligations concurrently (see shaded text box below). Congress has not acted to change the
concurrent nature of the service obligation for TA. concurrent nature of the service obligation for TA. Options for changing the policyShould Congress choose to pursue changes to the policy, options could include could include
a shorter obligated service requirement to be served consecutively, prohibitions on accessing TA a shorter obligated service requirement to be served consecutively, prohibitions on accessing TA
in the first period of obligated service (in the first period of obligated service (4-6four to six years), or providing a specific discretionary authority years), or providing a specific discretionary authority
to the military services to require consecutive service obligations as a force-shaping tool to be to the military services to require consecutive service obligations as a force-shaping tool to be
used as needed.used as needed.
A 2002 RAND report on retention effects of TA on first-term enlistees in the Navy and Marine A 2002 RAND report on retention effects of TA on first-term enlistees in the Navy and Marine
Corps found that use of TA had a Corps found that use of TA had a negative effect on reenlistment. effect on reenlistment.5964 Researchers speculated that Researchers speculated that
those who choose to participate in TA have an those who choose to participate in TA have an “"eye to education or work after they leave the eye to education or work after they leave the
service,service,”" and anticipate being able to use GI Bill benefits to more quickly complete full-time and anticipate being able to use GI Bill benefits to more quickly complete full-time
education as a civilian.education as a civilian.60
65 In 2008, Congress passed the Post-9/11 Veterans' Educational Assistance Act of 2008 (PGIB), which provides a more generous education benefit.⁶⁶ Consideration of a Consecutive Service Obligation
A ful A full military career is generally considered to be 20 years of servicemilitary career is generally considered to be 20 years of service, when a member becomes eligible for when a member becomes eligible for
retirement pay. Continuation rates for officers tend to decline rapidly retirement pay. Continuation rates for officers tend to decline rapidly fol owingfollowing the initial term of service (typically the initial term of service (typically
4-6 years) through 8-10 years of service and then these rates levels out as the 4-6 years) through 8-10 years of service and then these rates levels out as the “pul ”"pull" of the 20-year retirement of the 20-year retirement
benefit creates a retention incentive.benefit creates a retention incentive.6167 A requirement for a sequential duty obligation for TA might bring officers A requirement for a sequential duty obligation for TA might bring officers
beyond the 10-year point and have a positive effect on retention.beyond the 10-year point and have a positive effect on retention.
A Senate amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 would have required that A Senate amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019 would have required that
military officers in receipt of TA serve their active-duty service obligation military officers in receipt of TA serve their active-duty service obligation (ADSO) consecutively (vice consecutively (vice
concurrently) with any other service obligation already incurred.concurrently) with any other service obligation already incurred.6268 The provision was not adopted, and instead the The provision was not adopted, and instead the
conferees directed the conferees directed the Comptrol erComptroller General to conduct a review of retention data on officers who accept TA General to conduct a review of retention data on officers who accept TA
payments.payments.63
69 Information provided to the Armed Services Committees in 2019 by the Government Accountability Office Information provided to the Armed Services Committees in 2019 by the Government Accountability Office
(GAO) showed that active-duty officers comprise about 7% of (GAO) showed that active-duty officers comprise about 7% of enrol eesenrollees in the program. There is broad variation in the program. There is broad variation

59 Richard Buddin and Kanika Kapur, Tuition Assistance Usage and First-Term Military Retention, RAND
Corporation, 2002.
60 Ibid., p. xiv.
61 Report of the Military Compensation and Retirement Modernization Commission, Final Report, January
2015.MCRMC, pp. 21-22, at https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA625626.pdf
62 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, The John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 2019, committee print, prepared by Report to Accompany S. 2987, 115th Cong., 2nd sess., S.Rept. 115-
262, p. 184.
63 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, The John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 2019, committee print, prepared by Report to Accompany S. 2987, 115th Cong., 2nd sess., S.Rept. 115-
262, p. 218.
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in use of TA across military services, with higher usage in the Army and Air Force relative to the Navy and Marine in use of TA across military services, with higher usage in the Army and Air Force relative to the Navy and Marine
Corps.Corps.6470 GAO found that the median total commissioned service GAO found that the median total commissioned service fol owingfollowing last use of last use of tuition assistanceTA ranged ranged
from 11.00 years to 13.75 years. Army and Air Force officers tended to access TA earlier in their careers, from 11.00 years to 13.75 years. Army and Air Force officers tended to access TA earlier in their careers, butand also also
tended to stay on active-duty service longer tended to stay on active-duty service longer fol owingfollowing last use of TA. The GAO study did not compare last use of TA. The GAO study did not compare
continuation rates for those officers not in receipt of TA over the same time period.continuation rates for those officers not in receipt of TA over the same time period.65
71 As part of the study, GAO conducted discussions with military service officials, education counselors, and active-As part of the study, GAO conducted discussions with military service officials, education counselors, and active-
duty officers to garner feedback on proposals for a sequential service obligation. In general, discussants felt that duty officers to garner feedback on proposals for a sequential service obligation. In general, discussants felt that
this policy change would discourage participation in the TA program and negatively affect morale.this policy change would discourage participation in the TA program and negatively affect morale.
Readiness
In terms of individual readiness, the provision of TA could have positive or negative effects. To In terms of individual readiness, the provision of TA could have positive or negative effects. To
the extent that TA helps servicemembers develop additional knowledge or competencies that the extent that TA helps servicemembers develop additional knowledge or competencies that
support on-the-job effectiveness, the program could have a positive impact. There is some support on-the-job effectiveness, the program could have a positive impact. There is some
evidence that use of TA is correlated with an increase in promotion rates.evidence that use of TA is correlated with an increase in promotion rates.6672 This suggests This suggests
servicemembers who use TA are building human capital that supports better job performance. servicemembers who use TA are building human capital that supports better job performance.
Because military commanders have some discretion for approving TA, this correlation could also Because military commanders have some discretion for approving TA, this correlation could also
be an indication that commanders are using TA as an incentive for already high-performing be an indication that commanders are using TA as an incentive for already high-performing
individuals.individuals.
On the other hand, servicemembers are not required to take courses that relate to their On the other hand, servicemembers are not required to take courses that relate to their
occupational specialty, thus the knowledge gained may not have a direct impact on work occupational specialty, thus the knowledge gained may not have a direct impact on work
performance. DOD could, under existing authorities, restrict TA to coursework that directly performance. DOD could, under existing authorities, restrict TA to coursework that directly
relates to servicemember occupational specialties. Congress could also amend these authorities to relates to servicemember occupational specialties. Congress could also amend these authorities to
condition funding on courses that directly relate to military occupations.condition funding on courses that directly relate to military occupations.
While TA is intended for off-duty education, it might be stressful for some servicemembers to While TA is intended for off-duty education, it might be stressful for some servicemembers to
take on additional obligations, take on additional obligations, whichand this stress could interfere with job performance and individual could interfere with job performance and individual
readiness. In discussions with servicemembers as part of a 2002 RAND study, researchers found readiness. In discussions with servicemembers as part of a 2002 RAND study, researchers found
that servicemembers were frustrated with TA benefits because that servicemembers were frustrated with TA benefits because “"Work schedules were often Work schedules were often
unpredictable, so members would miss classes and would fall behind in their studies. In addition, unpredictable, so members would miss classes and would fall behind in their studies. In addition,
many members have families and struggle to attend classes and meet family responsibilities.many members have families and struggle to attend classes and meet family responsibilities.”67
"⁷³ Managing the work-school-family balanceManaging the work-school-family balance, particularly with the sometimes arduous and unpredictable nature of military service, could make it could make it more difficult for members to complete difficult for members to complete
courses or maintain the minimum grade standards for continued TA eligibility. Recoupment of TA courses or maintain the minimum grade standards for continued TA eligibility. Recoupment of TA
for failure to successfully complete coursework could also have negative readiness implications if for failure to successfully complete coursework could also have negative readiness implications if
it leads to financial hardships for servicemembers and their families.it leads to financial hardships for servicemembers and their families.6874 There is some evidence There is some evidence

64that servicemembers may struggle to meet financial commitments for TA. An interviewee in the 2017 RAND study mentioned that "some students are unaware that TA does not cover fees, and are in for a 'rude awakening' when they enroll in college and learn that they will receive a bill."⁷⁵ DOD reports from FY2014 and FY2015 tallied 628 complaints across the two-year period with the top three types recorded as financial issues (e.g., tuition and fees charges), quality of education, and refund or collection issues.⁷⁶ The financial counseling portion of the TA program is intended to help servicemembers consider the obligations they might incur with acceptance of TA funds.

In its oversight role, Congress might consider the effectiveness of this financial counseling program in preparing servicemembers to take on education obligations. Congress could also consider authorizing coverage for additional education fees or increasing overall funding to cover a larger portion of the total costs of the education program.

Footnotes

1.

Department of Defense (DOD), DOD Instruction (DODI) 1322.25, Voluntary Education Programs, April 2, 2020, p. 61, https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodi/132225p.pdf.

2. U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), (GAO), DOD Education Benefits: Data on Officer Participation in and Views on Proposed Changes to the Tuition
Assistance Program, GAO-19-699R, September 16, 2019, p. , GAO-19-699R, September 16, 2019, p. 20.
65 Ibid, p. 31.
66 Jennie W. Wenger et al., Are Current Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services?, RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2017, p. 58.
67 Richard Buddin and Kanika Kapur, Tuition Assistance Usage and First-Term Military Retention, RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2002, p. 3, at
https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1295.pdf.
68 Servicemembers who report financial management challenges are more likely to express dissatisfaction with military
compensation, coworkers, and the overall military way of life. Serious financial issues, like over-indebtedness or
bankruptcy, can lead to loss of security clearance, administrative sanctions, or even involuntary discharge from the
military. For more on military financial readiness, see CRS Report R46983, Military Families and Financial
Readiness, by Kristy N. Kamarck
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that servicemembers may struggle to meet financial commitments for TA. An interviewee in the
2017 RAND study mentioned that “some students are unaware that TA does not cover fees, and
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Military Tuition Assistance Program: Background and Issues

are in for a ‘rude awakening’ when they enroll in college and learn that they will receive a bill.”69
DOD reports from FY2014 and FY2015 tallied 628 complaints across the two-year period with
the top three types recorded as financial issues (e.g., tuition and fees charges), quality of
education, and refund or collection issues.70 The financial counseling portion of the TA program
is intended to help servicemembers consider the obligations they might incur with acceptance of
TA funds.
In its oversight role, Congress might consider the effectiveness of this financial counseling
program in preparing servicemembers to take on education obligations. Congress could also
consider authorizing coverage for additional education fees or increasing overall funding to cover
a larger portion of the total costs of the education program.




Author Information

Kristy N. Kamarck

Specialist in Military Manpower



Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
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its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.


69 Jennie W. Wenger et al., Are Current Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services?, RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2017, p. 23.
70 DOD, Military OneSource, Postsecondary Education Complaint System; Fiscal Year 2014, at
3, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-19-699r; Daniel Leeds et al., Tracking Outcomes of Voluntary Military Education Programs: A Data Analysis, Center for Naval Analyses (CNA), April 2021, p. 15, https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/trecms/pdf/AD1181584.pdf#page=29; and DOD tuition assistance (TA) data available at DOD, Voluntary Education Partnership Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), "Tuition Assistance (TA) Decide," https://www.dodmou.com/tadecide/. 3.

P.L. 98-525, §1401, October 19, 1984, 98 Stat. 2618. See, for example, P.L. 98-212 §720, December 8, 1983, 97 Stat. 1441, which states, "No appropriation contained in this Act shall be available for the payment of more than 75 per centum of charges of educational institutions for tuition or expenses of off-duty training of military personnel."

4.

P.L. 99-661, §651, November 14, 1986, 100 Stat. 3887, as amended, expanded to officers of the Army Reserve and National Guard; and P.L. 110-181 §521, January 28, 2008, 122 Stat. 100-102, expanded TA to the U.S. Coast Guard.

5.

P.L. 106-398, §1602, October 30, 2000, 114 Stat. 1654A-358. Over the course of the program's history, DOD has generally been authorized to fund 100% of the cost for approved high school completion programs, but caps have existed for tuition on other voluntary education programs.

6.

DODI 1322.25, p. 2.

7.

U.S. Congress, John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, conference report to accompany H.R. 5515, 115^th Cong., 2^nd sess., July 23, 2018, Report 115-863, p. 866, https://www.congress.gov/115/crpt/hrpt863/CRPT-115hrpt863.pdf#page=904; and Jennie W. Wenger, Are Current Military Education Benefits Efficient and Effective for the Services? RAND Corporation, 2017, p. 1, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1766/RAND_RR1766.pdf.

8.

DOD, Department of the Army, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 520, https://www.asafm.army.mil/Portals/72/Documents/BudgetMaterial/2024/Base%20Budget/Operation%20and%20Maintenance/Regular%20Army%20Operation%20and%20Maintenance%20Volume%201.pdf#page=524; and Department of the Army, Army Continuing Education System, AR 621-5, October 28, 2019, p. 18, https://armypubs.army.mil/epubs/DR_pubs/DR_a/pdf/web/ARN4227_R621_5_FINAL.pdf#page=24.

9.

DOD, Department of the Navy, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Navy, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 532, https://www.secnav.navy.mil/fmc/fmb/Documents/24pres/OMN_Book.pdf#page=532.

10.

DOD, Department of the Navy, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Marine Corps, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 168, https://www.secnav.navy.mil/fmc/fmb/Documents/24pres/OMMC_Book.pdf#page=168.

11.

DOD, Department of the Air Force, FY2024 Budget Estimates, Volume I, Operation and Maintenance, Air Force, Justification of Estimates, March 2023, p. 567, https://www.saffm.hq.af.mil/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=vxyxfiMWkew%3d&portalid=84#page=571.

12.

DODI 1322.25, p. 8.

13.

DODI 1322.25, p. 3.

14.

DODI 1322.25, p. 2.

15. For service-specific TA policies and procedures, see DOD, Defense Activity for Non-Traditional Education Support (DANTES), "Military Tuition Assistance," https://www.dantes.mil/mil-ta/. 16.

DODI 1322.25, p. 16.

17.

DODI 1322.25, p. 16.

18.

10 U.S.C. §2007(c)(2).

19.

DODI 1322.25, p. 3.

20. DOD, Voluntary Education Partnership MOU, "Tuition Assistance (TA) Decide," https://www.dodmou.com/tadecide/. 21.

10 U.S.C. §2007.

22.

10 U.S.C. §2007(b)(1).

23.

10 U.S.C. §2007(c)(3).

24.

DODI 1322.25, p. 15.

25.

DODI 1322.25, p. 16. Advanced civil schooling is an Army program for officers to obtain a fully funded full-time (on-duty) graduate degree; see https://myarmybenefits.us.army.mil/Benefit-Library/Federal-Benefits/Advanced-Civil-Schooling-(ACS). The other military services have similar programs.

26.

DODI 1322.25, p. 16.

27. P.L. 106-398 §1602, October 30, 2000, 114 Stat. 1654A-358. See https://www.va.gov/education/about-gi-bill-benefits/how-to-use-benefits/tuition-assistance-top-up/. Reserve component members can concurrently receive TA and Montgomery GI Bill Selected Reserve (MGIB-SR) per 10 U.S.C. §16131(k) when enrolled at least half-time. 28.

DOD, Military OneSource, How to Use the Military Tuition Assistance Program, https://www.militaryonesource.mil/-/how-to-use-the-military-tuition-assistance-program. For more information on the GI Bill, see CRS Report R42785, Veterans' Educational Assistance Programs and Benefits: A Primer, by Cassandria Dortch.

29. P.L. 116-92, §560, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 1393. In addition, per 10 U.S.C. 2006a(a)(1), each institution of higher education must have and be in compliance with its Higher Education Act Title IV program participation agreement with the U.S. Department of Education. A list of schools is available on the TA DECIDE website, at https://www.dodmou.com/tadecide/. 30.

For information about the requirements of Title IV program participation agreements, see CRS Report R43159, Eligibility for Participation in Title IV Student Financial Aid Programs, by Alexandra Hegji.

31.

DODI 1322.25, p. 17.

32.

See the DOD Postsecondary Education Complaint System (PECS) at https://pecs.militaryonesource.mil/pecs/dodpecs.aspx.

33.

DODI 1322.25, p. 22.

34.

DODI 1322.25, p. 17.

35.

GAO, DOD Education Benefits: Action Is Needed to Ensure Evaluations of Postsecondary Schools Are Useful, GAO-14-855, September 2014, pp. 5-6, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-14-855; and DOD Office of Inspector General, Audit of Controls at Military Installations for Schools Participating in the DoD Tuition Assistance Program, September 10, 2019, https://media.defense.gov/2019/Sep/12/2002181692/-1/-1/1/DODIG-2019-122.PDF.

36.

See, for example, Federal Trade Commission, "Operator of Colorado Technical University and American InterContinental University Will Pay $30 Million to Settle FTC Charges It Used Deceptive Lead Generators to Market its Schools," press release, August 27, 2019, https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2019/08/operator-colorado-technical-university-american-intercontinental-university-will-pay-30-million.

37.

DODI 1322.25, p. 3.

38. See citations in Table 2. 39.

P.L. 116-92, Division A, Title V, §560.

40. American Military University, a member of the American Public University System, advertises that they are the "top choice nationwide for veterans using their GI Bill^® benefit." See https://www.amu.apus.edu/military/. CRS has not analyzed the amount of GI Bill funding received by this institution. 41.

The American Public University System offers education exclusively online. The University of Maryland Global Campus offers most of its education online, though some portions are completed in person.

42.

See, for example, Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, Testimony of Holly Petraeus: Improving Educational Outcomes for Our Military and Veterans, written statement for the record to the U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Subcommittee on Federal Financial Management, Government Information, Federal Services and International Security, September 22, 2011, https://www.consumerfinance.gov/about-us/newsroom/testimony-of-holly-petraeus-improving-educational-outcomes-for-our-military-and-veterans/; and United States Senate, Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Committee, Is the New GI Bill Working? For-Profit Colleges Increasing Veteran Enrollment and Federal Funds, Majority Committee Staff Report, July 30, 2014, https://vetsedsuccess.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/harkin-senate-help-report-is-new-gi-bill-working-for-profit-colleges-increasing-veteran-enrollment-federal-funds-july-2014.pdf.

43.

Executive Order 13607 of April 27, 2012, "Establishing Principles of Excellence for Educational Institutions Serving Service Members, Veterans, Spouses, and Other Family Members," 77 Federal Register 25861, May 2, 2012.

44.

Explanatory statement to accompany the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2014 (Division C of P.L. 113-76), as published in the House, Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 160, no. 9—Book II (January 15, 2014), p. H574, https://www.congress.gov/113/crec/2014/01/15/160/9/CREC-2014-01-15-pt2-PgH475-2.pdf. For more on military spouse education benefits, see CRS Report R46498, Military Spouse Employment, by Kristy N. Kamarck, Barbara L. Schwemle, and Sofia Plagakis.

45.

DODI 1322.25, p. 33.

46.

For example, see Michael Stratford, "For-Profit-College Marketer Settles Allegations of Predatory Practices," Chronicle of Higher Education, June 26, 2012; and Andy Thomason, "Defense Dept. Lifts Suspension of U. of Phoenix from Tuition Assistance Program," Chronicle of Higher Education, January 15, 2016.

47.

For more information, see CRS Report R47301, Veterans-Related Education Legislation Enacted in the 117th Congress, by Cassandria Dortch.

48.

For further discussion, see CRS Report R46773, The 90/10 Rule Under HEA Title IV: Background and Issues, by Alexandra Hegji.

49. National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), "Postsecondary Education Outcome Measures: ED, DOD, and VA," https://nces.ed.gov/statprog/outcomemeasures/. 50.

NCES, "Postsecondary Education Outcome Measures: ED, DOD, and VA."

51.

NCES, "Postsecondary Education Outcome Measures: ED, DOD, and VA.".

52.

CNA, April 2021, Tables 37-41, pp. 56-60.

53.

CNA, April 2021, Tables 35 and 43-47, pp. 64-68.

54.

Richard Garrett et al., CHLOE 8: Student Demand Moves Higher Ed Toward a Multi-Modal Future, Quality Matters and Encoura Eduventures Research, 2023, https://qualitymatters.org/sites/default/files/research-docs-pdfs/QM-Eduventures-CHLOE-8-Report-2023.pdf.

55.

See, for example, Maria Aristeidou and Simon Cross, "Disrupted Distance Learning: The Impact of Covid-19 on Study Habits of Distance Learning University Students," Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, vol. 36, no. 3 (August 29, 2021), pp. 263-282; Kelli A. Bird et al., "Negative Impacts from the Shift to Online Learning During the COVID-19 Crisis: Evidence from a Statewide Community College System," AERA Open, vol. 8 (April 10, 2022); and Di Xu and Shanna Smith Jaggars, "The Impact of Online Learning on Students' Course Outcomes: Evidence from a Large Community and Technical College System," Economics of Education Review, vol. 37 (December 2013), pp. 46-57.

56.

Department of Education, "Program Integrity and Institutional Quality: Distance Education and Return of Title IV, HEA Funds," 90 Federal Register 470, January 3, 2025.

57.

DOD Office of People Analytics, Spring 2024 Propensity Update, 25-P-0560, March 27, 2025, Slide 6, https://docs.opa.mil/opa.mil-production1/reports/futures_surveys/YP58Spring2024_PropensityUpdate_Briefing.pdf. Data are from the DOD Youth Poll, which surveys U.S. youth ages 16-21.

58.

Wenger et al., 2017, p. 15, https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1700/RR1766/RAND_RR1766.pdf.

59.

Wenger et al., 2017, p. 58.

60.

See Table 3 in CRS Report R42755, The Post-9/11 GI Bill: A Primer, by Cassandria Dortch.

61.

Wenger et al., 2017, p. 14.

62.

See, for example, 10 U.S.C. Chapter 109, "Educational Loan Repayment Programs."

63.

PSLF is authorized under 20 U.S.C. §1087e(m). For more information on student loan repayment programs, see CRS Report R43571, Federal Student Loan Forgiveness and Loan Repayment Programs, coordinated by Alexandra Hegji.

64.

Richard Buddin and Kanika Kapur, "Tuition Assistance Usage and First-Term Military Retention," RAND Corporation, March 1, 2002, https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1295.html.

65.

Buddin and Kapur, 2002, p. xiv.

66.

For more information, see CRS Report R42755, The Post-9/11 GI Bill: A Primer, by Cassandria Dortch.

67.

Report of the Military Compensation and Retirement Modernization Commission, final report, January 29, 2015, pp. 21-22, https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA625626.pdf.

68.

U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, The John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, committee print, report to accompany S. 2987, 115^th Cong., 2^nd sess., S.Rept. 115-262, p. 184.

69.

U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Armed Services, The John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, committee print, report to accompany S. 2987, 115^th Cong., 2^nd sess., S.Rept. 115-262, p. 218.

70.

GAO-19-699R, p. 20.

71.

GAO-19-699R, p. 31.

72.

Wenger et al., 2017, p. 58.

73.

Buddin and Kapur, 2002, p. 3.

74.

Servicemembers who report financial management challenges are more likely to express dissatisfaction with military compensation, coworkers, and the overall military way of life. Serious financial issues, like over-indebtedness or bankruptcy, can lead to loss of security clearance, administrative sanctions, or even involuntary discharge from the military. For more on military financial readiness, see CRS Report R46983, Military Families and Financial Readiness, by Kristy N. Kamarck.

75.

Wenger et al., 2017, p. 23.

76. DOD, Military OneSource, Postsecondary Education Complaint System; Fiscal Year 2014, https://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/PECS-Report-FY14.pdf, p.https://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/PECS-Report-FY14.pdf, p.9 9; and; and DOD, DOD, Postsecondary
Education Complaint System; Fiscal Year 2015, https://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/PECS-, https://download.militaryonesource.mil/12038/MOS/Reports/PECS-
Report-FY15.pdfReport-FY15.pdf. More current reports are not available. .
Congressional Research Service
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