Speakers of the House: Elections, 1913-2023

Speakers of the House: Elections, 1913-2023
September 14November 6, 2023 , 2023
Each new House elects a Speaker by roll call vote when it first convenes. Customarily, the Each new House elects a Speaker by roll call vote when it first convenes. Customarily, the
conference of each major party nominates a candidate whose name is placed in conference of each major party nominates a candidate whose name is placed in nomination. A
Valerie Heitshusen
nomination. A Member normally votes for the candidate of his or her own party Member normally votes for the candidate of his or her own party conference but may vote for
Specialist on Congress and Specialist on Congress and
conference but may vote for any individual, whether nominated or not. To be elected, a any individual, whether nominated or not. To be elected, a candidate must receive an absolute
the Legislative Process the Legislative Process
candidate must receive an absolute majority of all the votes cast for individuals. This majority of all the votes cast for individuals. This number may be less than a majority (now 218) number may be less than a majority (now 218)

of the full membership of the House of the full membership of the House because of vacancies, absentees, or Members answering because of vacancies, absentees, or Members answering
“present.” “present.”

This report provides data on elections of the Speaker in each Congress since 1913, when the House first reached its present This report provides data on elections of the Speaker in each Congress since 1913, when the House first reached its present
size of 435 Members. During that period (63rd size of 435 Members. During that period (63rd through 118th CongressesCongress through October of the first session of the 118th Congress), a Speaker was elected seven times with the votes of ), a Speaker was elected seven times with the votes of
less than a majority of the full membership. less than a majority of the full membership.
If a Speaker dies or resigns during a Congress, the House immediately elects a new one. Five such elections occurred since If a Speaker dies or resigns during a Congress, the House immediately elects a new one. Five such elections occurred since
1913. In the earlier two cases, the House elected the new Speaker by resolution; in the more recent three, the body used the 1913. In the earlier two cases, the House elected the new Speaker by resolution; in the more recent three, the body used the
same procedure as at the outset of a Congress. same procedure as at the outset of a Congress.
During the first session of the 118th Congress, the House elected a new Speaker after having declared the position vacant earlier in the month. If no candidate receives the requisite majority, the roll call is repeated until a Speaker is elected. Since 1913, this procedure If no candidate receives the requisite majority, the roll call is repeated until a Speaker is elected. Since 1913, this procedure
has been necessary only in 1923 and has been necessary only in 1923 and for the two elections in 2023. In 1923, nine ballots were required before a Speaker was elected; in 2023, 15 2023. In 1923, nine ballots were required before a Speaker was elected; in 2023, 15
ballots were requiredballots were required for the initial election and four for the subsequent election. .
From 1913 through 1943, more often than not, some Members voted for candidates other than those of the two major parties. From 1913 through 1943, more often than not, some Members voted for candidates other than those of the two major parties.
The candidates in question were usually those representing the “progressive” group (reformers originally associated with the The candidates in question were usually those representing the “progressive” group (reformers originally associated with the
Republican Party), and in some Congresses, their names were formally placed in nomination on behalf of that group. From Republican Party), and in some Congresses, their names were formally placed in nomination on behalf of that group. From
1945 through 1995, only the nominated Republican and Democratic candidates received votes, reflecting the establishment of 1945 through 1995, only the nominated Republican and Democratic candidates received votes, reflecting the establishment of
an exclusively two-party system at the national level. an exclusively two-party system at the national level.
In In 1213 of the of the 1516 elections since 1997, however, some Members have voted for candidates other than the official nominees of elections since 1997, however, some Members have voted for candidates other than the official nominees of
their parties. Only in the initial election in 2015 and the their parties. Only in the initial election in 2015 and the initial 2023 election, however, were any such candidates formally placed in 2023 election, however, were any such candidates formally placed in
nomination. Usually, the additional candidates receiving votes have been other Members of the voter’s own party, but in one nomination. Usually, the additional candidates receiving votes have been other Members of the voter’s own party, but in one
instance, in 2001, a Member voted for the official nominee of the other party. In the 1997, 2013, 2015 (both instances), 2019, instance, in 2001, a Member voted for the official nominee of the other party. In the 1997, 2013, 2015 (both instances), 2019,
and 2021 elections, as well as on some ballots during and 2021 elections, as well as on some ballots during both of the 2023 the 2023 electionelections, votes were cast for candidates who were not then , votes were cast for candidates who were not then
Members of the House, including, in the initial 2015 election, the 2019 election, and the 2021 election, sitting Senators. Members of the House, including, in the initial 2015 election, the 2019 election, and the 2021 election, sitting Senators.
Although the Constitution does not so require, the Speaker has always been a Member of the House. Although the Constitution does not so require, the Speaker has always been a Member of the House.
The report will be updated as additional elections for Speaker occur. The report will be updated as additional elections for Speaker occur.

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Contents
Regular and Special Elections of the Speaker ................................................................................. 1
Size of the House and Majority Required to Elect .......................................................................... 1
Third and Additional Candidates ..................................................................................................... 3

Tables
Table 1. Votes Cast on Ballots Electing the Speaker, 1913-2023 .................................................... 5

Table A-1. 1923 (68th Congress) ..................................................................................................... 11 Table A-2. January 2023 (118th Congress) .................................................................................... 12 Table A-3. October 2023 (118th Congress) .................................................................................... 13 Appendixes Appendix. Multi-Ballot Speaker Elections Since 1913 .................................................................. 11 Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 1014


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Regular and Special Elections of the SpeakerSpeaker1
The traditional practice of the House is to elect a Speaker by roll call vote upon first convening The traditional practice of the House is to elect a Speaker by roll call vote upon first convening
after a general election of Representatives.after a general election of Representatives.12 Customarily, the conference of each major party in Customarily, the conference of each major party in
the House selects a candidate whose name is formally placed in nomination before the roll call. A the House selects a candidate whose name is formally placed in nomination before the roll call. A
Member may vote for one of these nominated candidates or for another individual.Member may vote for one of these nominated candidates or for another individual.23 In the great In the great
majority of casesmajority of cases since 1913, Members vote for the candidate nominated by their own party conferences, , Members vote for the candidate nominated by their own party conferences,
since the outcome of this vote in effect establishes which party has the majority and therefore will since the outcome of this vote in effect establishes which party has the majority and therefore will
organize the House. organize the House.
Table 1 presents data on the votes by which the Speaker of the House of Representatives was presents data on the votes by which the Speaker of the House of Representatives was
elected in each Congress from 1913 (63rd Congress) through elected in each Congress from 1913 (63rd Congress) through October 2023 (118th Congress). It shows the 2023 (118th Congress). It shows the
votes cast for the nominees of the two major parties, other candidates nominated from the floor, votes cast for the nominees of the two major parties, other candidates nominated from the floor,
and individuals not formally nominated. and individuals not formally nominated.
Included in the table are not only the elections held regularly at the outset of each Congress but Included in the table are not only the elections held regularly at the outset of each Congress but
also those held during the course of a Congress as a result of also those held during the course of a Congress as a result of thea Speaker’s death or resignation death or resignation of a sitting
Speakeror due to a declared vacancy in the position. Such elections have occurred . Such elections have occurred fivesix times during the period examined: times during the period examined:
• in 1936 (74th Congress) upon the death of Speaker Joseph Byrns; • in 1936 (74th Congress) upon the death of Speaker Joseph Byrns;
• in 1940 (76th Congress) upon the death of Speaker William Bankhead; • in 1940 (76th Congress) upon the death of Speaker William Bankhead;
• in 1962 (87th Congress) upon the death of Speaker Sam Rayburn; • in 1962 (87th Congress) upon the death of Speaker Sam Rayburn;
• in 1989 (101st Congress) upon the resignation of Speaker Jim Wright; • in 1989 (101st Congress) upon the resignation of Speaker Jim Wright; and
• in 2015 (114th Congress) upon the resignation of Speaker John Boehner• in 2015 (114th Congress) upon the resignation of Speaker John Boehner; and • in 2023 (118th Congress) after the House declared a vacancy in the speakership. .
On the two earlier occasions among these On the two earlier occasions among these fivesix, the election was by resolution rather than by roll , the election was by resolution rather than by roll
call vote. On the more recent call vote. On the more recent threefour, the same , the same general procedure was followed as at the start of a Congress.procedure was followed as at the start of a Congress.4
Size of the House and Majority Required to Elect
The data presented here cover the period during which the permanent size of the House has been The data presented here cover the period during which the permanent size of the House has been
set at 435 Members. This period corresponds to that since the admission of Arizona and New set at 435 Members. This period corresponds to that since the admission of Arizona and New
Mexico as the 47th and 48th states in 1912. The actual size of the House was 436, and then 437, for Mexico as the 47th and 48th states in 1912. The actual size of the House was 436, and then 437, for
a brief period between the admission of Alaska and Hawaii (in 1958 and 1959) and the
reapportionment of Representatives following the 1960 census.
By practice of the House going back to its earliest days, an absolute majority of the Members
present and voting is required in order to elect a Speaker. A majority of the full membership of the
House (218, in a House of 435) is not required. Precedents emphasize that the requirement is for a
majority of “the total number of votes cast for a person by name.”3 A candidate for Speaker may

1 1 For key House precedents and general discussion of Speaker election procedures, see Precedents of the U.S. House of Representatives, 115th Cong., 1st sess., H.Doc. No. 115-62 (Washington, GPO, 2019) (hereinafter Precedents (Wickham)), ch. 6, §1. The volume is available online, referred to as the 2017 series, on the GovInfo website of the U.S. Government Publishing Office at https://www.govinfo.gov/collection/precedents-of-the-house. 2 Until the 1830s, the Speaker was elected by secret ballot. See Asher C. Hinds, Until the 1830s, the Speaker was elected by secret ballot. See Asher C. Hinds, Hinds’ Precedents of the House of
Representative of the United States, vol. I (Washington, DC: GPO, 1906), §§187, 204-211. Also see Jeffrey A. Jenkins , vol. I (Washington, DC: GPO, 1906), §§187, 204-211. Also see Jeffrey A. Jenkins
and Charles Stewart III, and Charles Stewart III, Fighting for the Speakership: The House and the Rise of Party Government (Princeton, NJ: (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 2013). Princeton University Press, 2013).
23 Candidates may vote for themselves, although they have often declined to vote or voted “present.” Candidates may vote for themselves, although they have often declined to vote or voted “present.”
3 The Clerk, remarks from the chair (and parliamentary inquiry immediately following), Congressional Record, vol.
143, January 7, 1997, p. 117. See also Charles W. Johnson, John V. Sullivan, and Thomas J. Wickham Jr., House
Practice: A Guide to the Rules, Precedents, and Procedures of the House (Washington, DC: GPO, 2017), ch. 34, §3,
which states that “the Speaker is elected by a majority of Members-elect voting by surname, a quorum being present.”
See also U.S. Congress, House, Constitution, Jefferson’s Manual, and Rules of the House of Representatives, One
Hundred Seventeenth Congress, (compiled by) Jason A. Smith, Parliamentarian, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Doc. 116-177
(Washington, DC: GPO, 2021), §27.
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4 In the 1989 and 2015 cases, because the Speaker resigned effective upon the election of a successor, each presided over the election of his replacement. See Precedents (Wickham), ch. 6, §1, p. 395 (note 29) and §1.2. In the 2023 replacement election triggered by a declared vacancy in the speakership, a Speaker pro tempore had assumed certain authorities of the Speaker (pursuant to House Rule I, clause 8(b)(3)) and thus presided over the election of a new Speaker. See Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 169 (October 3, 2023), p. H4978. Congressional Research Service 1 Speakers of the House: Elections, 1913-2023 a brief period between the admission of Alaska and Hawaii (in 1958 and 1959) and the reapportionment of Representatives following the 1960 census. By practice of the House going back to its earliest days, an absolute majority of the Members present and voting is required in order to elect a Speaker. A majority of the full membership of the House (218, in a House of 435) is not required. Precedents emphasize that the requirement is for a majority of “the total number of votes cast for a person by name.”5 A candidate for Speaker may receive a majority of the votes cast, and be elected, while failing to obtain a majority of the full receive a majority of the votes cast, and be elected, while failing to obtain a majority of the full
membership because some Members either are not present to vote or instead answer “present” membership because some Members either are not present to vote or instead answer “present”
rather than voting for a candidate. During the period examined, this kind of result has occurred rather than voting for a candidate. During the period examined, this kind of result has occurred
seven times: seven times:
• in 1917 (65th Congress), “Champ” Clark was elected with 217 votes; • in 1917 (65th Congress), “Champ” Clark was elected with 217 votes;
• in 1923 (68th Congress), Frederick Gillett was elected with 215 votes; • in 1923 (68th Congress), Frederick Gillett was elected with 215 votes;
• in 1943 (78th Congress), Sam Rayburn was elected with 217 votes; • in 1943 (78th Congress), Sam Rayburn was elected with 217 votes;
• in 1997 (105th Congress), Newt Gingrich was elected with 216 votes; • in 1997 (105th Congress), Newt Gingrich was elected with 216 votes;
• in 2015 (114th Congress), John Boehner was elected with 216 votes; • in 2015 (114th Congress), John Boehner was elected with 216 votes;
• in 2021 (117th Congress), Nancy Pelosi was elected with 216 votes; and • in 2021 (117th Congress), Nancy Pelosi was elected with 216 votes; and
• in 2023 (118th Congress), Kevin McCarthy was elected with 216 votes. • in 2023 (118th Congress), Kevin McCarthy was elected with 216 votes.
In addition, in 1931 (72nd Congress), the candidate of the new Democratic majority, John Nance In addition, in 1931 (72nd Congress), the candidate of the new Democratic majority, John Nance
Garner (later Vice President), received 218 votes, a bare majority of the membership. The Garner (later Vice President), received 218 votes, a bare majority of the membership. The table
historical table below does not take into account the number of vacancies existing in the House at the time of the does not take into account the number of vacancies existing in the House at the time of the
election; it therefore cannot show whether any Speaker may have been elected lacking a majority election; it therefore cannot show whether any Speaker may have been elected lacking a majority
of the of the then qualified membership of the House. membership of the House.46
If no candidate obtains the requisite majority, the roll call is repeated. If no candidate obtains the requisite majority, the roll call is repeated.7 On these subsequent On these subsequent
ballots, Members may still vote for any individual; no restrictions have ever been imposed, such ballots, Members may still vote for any individual; no restrictions have ever been imposed, such
as that the lowest candidate on each ballot must drop out, or that no new candidate may enter. as that the lowest candidate on each ballot must drop out, or that no new candidate may enter.
Because of the predominance of the two established national parties during the period examined, Because of the predominance of the two established national parties during the period examined,
only twiceon only three occasions in the period has the House failed to elect on the first roll call. in the period has the House failed to elect on the first roll call.58 In 1923 (68th In 1923 (68th
Congress), in a closely divided House, both major party nominees initially failed to gain a Congress), in a closely divided House, both major party nominees initially failed to gain a
majority because of votes cast for other candidates by Members from the Progressive Party or majority because of votes cast for other candidates by Members from the Progressive Party or
from the “progressive” wing of the Republican Party. Many of these Members agreed to vote for from the “progressive” wing of the Republican Party. Many of these Members agreed to vote for
the Republican candidate only on the ninth ballot, after the Republican leadership had agreed to the Republican candidate only on the ninth ballot, after the Republican leadership had agreed to
accept a number of procedural reforms these Members favored. Thus the Republican was accept a number of procedural reforms these Members favored. Thus the Republican was
ultimately elected, although (as noted earlier) still with less than a majority of the full ultimately elected, although (as noted earlier) still with less than a majority of the full
membership.6 At the start of the 118th Congress (in 2023), the House was also closely divided,

4 5 The Clerk, remarks from the chair (and parliamentary inquiry immediately following), Congressional Record, vol. 143, January 7, 1997, p. 117. See also Charles W. Johnson, John V. Sullivan, and Thomas J. Wickham Jr., House Practice: A Guide to the Rules, Precedents, and Procedures of the House (Washington, DC: GPO, 2017), ch. 34, §3, which states that “the Speaker is elected by a majority of Members-elect voting by surname, a quorum being present.” See also Constitution, Jefferson’s Manual, and Rules of the House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighteenth Congress, (compiled by) Jason A. Smith, Parliamentarian, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., H.Doc. 117-161 (Washington, GPO, 2023), §27. 6 The existence of vacancies at the point when a new House first convened was more common before the 20th The existence of vacancies at the point when a new House first convened was more common before the 20th
Amendment took effect in 1936. Until that time, a Congress elected in one November did not begin its term until Amendment took effect in 1936. Until that time, a Congress elected in one November did not begin its term until
March of the following year, and did not convene until December of that year, unless the previous Congress provided March of the following year, and did not convene until December of that year, unless the previous Congress provided
otherwise by law. otherwise by law.
57 Precedents (Wickham), ch. 6, §1. 8 This occurrence, however, was more common before the period covered in this report, when the two-party system had This occurrence, however, was more common before the period covered in this report, when the two-party system had
not become as thoroughly established nor the discipline accompanying it as pronounced. not become as thoroughly established nor the discipline accompanying it as pronounced.
6 Full results were as follows:
Ballot
Date
Gillett (R)
Garrett (D)
Cooper
Madden
Present
1
Dec. 3, 1923
197
195
17
5
4
2
Dec. 3
194
194
17
6
3
3
Dec. 3
195
196
17
5
3
4
Dec. 3
197
196
17
5
3
5
Dec. 4
197
197
17
5
3
6
Dec. 4
195
197
17
5
3
7
Dec. 4
196
198
17
5
3
8
Dec. 4
197
198
17
5
3
9
Dec. 5
215
197
0
2
4

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membership.9 At the start of the 118th Congress (in 2023), the House was also closely divided, and the nominee of the majority party’s conference did not receive sufficient votes to be elected and the nominee of the majority party’s conference did not receive sufficient votes to be elected
due to some of the party’s due to some of the party’s Membersmembers casting votes for other candidates. After 15 ballots over casting votes for other candidates. After 15 ballots over
several days, during which majority party Members engaged in negotiations over policy and several days, during which majority party Members engaged in negotiations over policy and
procedural differences, the majority party’s nominated candidate was elected when multiple procedural differences, the majority party’s nominated candidate was elected when multiple
Members voted “present.”Members voted “present.”7
10 In October 2023, the House declared the office of the Speaker to be vacant via adoption of H.Res. 757.11 Over subsequent weeks, the House took votes to choose a new Speaker, who was elected on the fourth ballot.12 Third and Additional Candidates
In the first portion of the period covered In the first portion of the period covered by Table 1, it was common for candidates other than it was common for candidates other than
those of the two major parties to receive votes. Such action occurred in 11 of the 16 Congresses those of the two major parties to receive votes. Such action occurred in 11 of the 16 Congresses
(63rd-78th) that convened from 1913 through 1943. On 7 of those 11 occasions, candidates other (63rd-78th) that convened from 1913 through 1943. On 7 of those 11 occasions, candidates other
than those of the two major parties were formally nominated. These events reflect chiefly the than those of the two major parties were formally nominated. These events reflect chiefly the
influence in Congress, during those three decades, of the progressive movement. The additional influence in Congress, during those three decades, of the progressive movement. The additional
nominations were offered in the name of that movement, and the votes cast for Members other nominations were offered in the name of that movement, and the votes cast for Members other
than the major party nominees also generally represent an expression of progressive sentiments. than the major party nominees also generally represent an expression of progressive sentiments.
During this period, the occurrence of additional nominations (displayed in the table) reflects During this period, the occurrence of additional nominations (displayed in the table) reflects
changing views of Members identifying themselves as “progressives” about whether to constitute changing views of Members identifying themselves as “progressives” about whether to constitute
themselves in the House as a separate Progressive Party caucus or as a wing of the Republican themselves in the House as a separate Progressive Party caucus or as a wing of the Republican
Party. Party. So does the pattern ofAdditional nominations in the period also reflect shifts in the party labels by which these nominees and others shifts in the party labels by which these nominees and others
receiving votes chose to designate themselves. The last formal Progressive Party nominee receiving votes chose to designate themselves. The last formal Progressive Party nominee
appeared in 1937 (75th Congress). After defeats in the following election, the only two remaining appeared in 1937 (75th Congress). After defeats in the following election, the only two remaining
Members representing the Progressive Party were reduced to voting for each other for Speaker, Members representing the Progressive Party were reduced to voting for each other for Speaker,
and beginning in 1947 (80th Congress), the last standard-bearer of the tendency accepted the and beginning in 1947 (80th Congress), the last standard-bearer of the tendency accepted the
Republican label. The demise of this movement in the House represented the final stage in the Republican label. The demise of this movement in the House represented the final stage in the
establishment of a two-party system at the national level. establishment of a two-party system at the national level.
From 1945 through 1995 (79th-104th Congresses), only the official nominees of the two major From 1945 through 1995 (79th-104th Congresses), only the official nominees of the two major
parties received votes for Speaker. This pattern, in other words, persisted from the end of World parties received votes for Speaker. This pattern, in other words, persisted from the end of World

7 Full results were as follows:
Ballot
Date
McCarthy (R)
Jeffries (D)
Biggs
Jordan
Banks
Zeldin
Donalds
Trump
Hern
Present
1
Jan. 3, 2023
203
212
10
6
1
1
1
0
0
0
2
Jan. 3
203
212
0
19
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
Jan. 3
202
212
0
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
Jan. 4
201
212
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
1
5
Jan. 4
201
212
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
1
6
Jan. 4
201
212
0
0
0
0
20
0
0
1
7
Jan. 5
201
212
0
0
0
0
19
1
0
1
8
Jan. 5
201
212
0
0
0
0
17
1
2
1
9
Jan. 5
200
212
0
0
0
0
17
0
3
1
10
Jan. 5
200
212
0
0
0
0
13
0
7
1
11
Jan. 5
200
212
0
0
0
0
12
1
7
1
12
Jan. 6
213
211
0
4
0
0
0
0
3
0
13
Jan. 6
214
212
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
Jan. 6
216
212
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
2
15
Jan. 7
216
212
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6

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War II and the advent of the “modern Congress”8 until after the Republicans had regained the
majority in the 104th Congress (1995-1996) after four decades as the minority party. During this
period, the presumption became firmly established that a Member’s vote for Speaker will reliably
reflect his or her party membership.
The opening of the 105th Congress in 1997, accordingly, marked the first time since 1943 that
anyone other than the two major party candidates received votes for Speaker. In 12 of the 15
speakership elections since then (1997-2023), at least one Member has voted for a candidate other
than ones formally nominated by the major party conferences. Early in this period, votes cast for
other candidates seem to have usually reflected specific circumstances and events, but in the most
War II and the advent of the “modern Congress”13 until after the Republicans had regained the majority in the 104th Congress (1995-1996) after four decades as the minority party. During this period, the presumption became firmly established that a Member’s vote for Speaker will reliably reflect his or her party membership. The opening of the 105th Congress in 1997, accordingly, marked the first time since 1943 that anyone other than the two major party candidates received votes for Speaker. In 12 of the 15 speakership elections since then (1997-2023), at least one Member has voted for a candidate other than ones formally nominated by the major party conferences. Early in this period, votes cast for other candidates seem to have usually reflected specific circumstances and events, but in the most 9 See Table A-1 in Appendix for full results. 10 See Table A-2 in Appendix for full results. 11 The resolution was agreed to, 216-210. Upon adoption and pursuant to House Rule I, clause 8(b)(3), a Speaker pro tempore (Rep. Patrick McHenry [NC]) assumed certain duties of the Speaker until a new one was elected. See Congressional Record, daily edition, vol. 169 (October 3, 2023), p. H4978. See also Precedents (Wickham), ch. 6, §1, pp. 395-396. 12 See Table A-3 in the Appendix for full results. 13 The “modern Congress” is usually reckoned from the implementation in the 80th Congress (1947-1948) of the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 (P.L. 79-601, 60 Stat. 812). Congressional Research Service 3 Speakers of the House: Elections, 1913-2023 recent instances, some of them may be regarded as reflecting action by identifiable political recent instances, some of them may be regarded as reflecting action by identifiable political
factions or groupings. During this period, only in the initial election of 2015 and in some of the factions or groupings. During this period, only in the initial election of 2015 and in some of the
ballots in the initial 2023 election2023 ballots have the names of any candidates other than those of the party conferences been have the names of any candidates other than those of the party conferences been
formally placed in nomination. formally placed in nomination.
The ballots in 1997, 2013, 2015 (both instances), 2019, The ballots in 1997, 2013, 2015 (both instances), 2019, 2021, andand 2021 and both elections in 2023 (for some ballots) were 2023 (for some ballots) were
also notable because votes were cast for candidates who were not Members of the House at the also notable because votes were cast for candidates who were not Members of the House at the
time. In the initial election in 2015, two of the votes cast were for sitting Members of the Senate; time. In the initial election in 2015, two of the votes cast were for sitting Members of the Senate;
in 2019 and 2021, one such ballot was cast. In in 2019 and 2021, one such ballot was cast. In 2023, the initial 2023 election, votes were cast for a former President of the votes were cast for a former President of the
United States and a former Member of Congress. United States and a former Member of Congress. In the October 2023 election, votes were cast for three former Members of Congress (including a former Speaker of the House). Although the Constitution does not require the Although the Constitution does not require the
Speaker (or any other officer of either chamber) to be a Member, the Speaker has always been so; Speaker (or any other officer of either chamber) to be a Member, the Speaker has always been so;
it is not known that any votes for individuals other than Members to be Speaker had ever it is not known that any votes for individuals other than Members to be Speaker had ever
previously been cast in the history of the House. previously been cast in the history of the House.
Notably, in 2001, a Member who bore the designation of one major party voted for the nominee Notably, in 2001, a Member who bore the designation of one major party voted for the nominee
of the other. Although the table below does not indicate the party affiliation of the Members of the other. Although the table below does not indicate the party affiliation of the Members
voting for each candidate, examination of other available records confirms that no such action voting for each candidate, examination of other available records confirms that no such action
had occurred at least for the previous half century.had occurred at least for the previous half century.914 14


8 The “modern Congress” is usually reckoned from the implementation in the 80th Congress (1947-1948) of the
Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 (P.L. 79-601, 60 Stat. 812).
9 Subsequently, in organizing for that Congress (the 107th), the party caucus against whose nominee the Member voted Subsequently, in organizing for that Congress (the 107th), the party caucus against whose nominee the Member voted
declined to provide him with committee assignments. declined to provide him with committee assignments.
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Table 1. Votes Cast on Ballots Electing the Speaker, 1913-2023
Year
Republican Nominee
Votes
Democratic Nominee
Votes
Others Receiving Votes
Votes
1913 1913
James R. Mann (IL) James R. Mann (IL)
111 111
James B. (“Champ”) Clark (MO)(MO)
272 272
Victor Murdock (P-KS) (P-KS)
18 18
Henry A. Cooper (R-WI) Henry A. Cooper (R-WI)
4 4
John M. Nelson (R-WI) John M. Nelson (R-WI)
1 1
1915 1915
James R. Mann (IL) James R. Mann (IL)
195 195
James B. (“Champ”) Clark (MO)(MO)
222 222


1917 1917
James R. Mann (IL) James R. Mann (IL)
205 205
James B. (“Champ”) Clark (MO) (MO)
217 217
Irvine L. Lenroot (R-WI) Irvine L. Lenroot (R-WI)
2 2
Frederick H. Gil ett (R-MA) Frederick H. Gil ett (R-MA)
2 2
1919 1919
Frederick H. Gillett (MA)(MA)
228 228
James B. (“Champ”) Clark (MO) James B. (“Champ”) Clark (MO)
172 172


1921 1921
Frederick H. Gillett (MA)(MA)
297 297
Claude Kitchin (NC) Claude Kitchin (NC)
122 122


1923 ( 1923 (first ballotballot #1) )
Frederick H. Gil ett (MA) Frederick H. Gil ett (MA)
197 197
Finis J. Garrett (TN) Finis J. Garrett (TN)
195 195
Henry A. Cooper (R-WI) (R-WI)
17 17
Martin B. Madden (R-IL) (R-IL)
5 5
( (ninth ballotballot #9) )
Frederick H. Gillett (MA)(MA)
215 215
Finis J. Garrett (TN) Finis J. Garrett (TN)
197 197
Martin B. Madden (R-IL) (R-IL)
2 2
1925 1925
Nicholas Longworth (OH)(OH)
229 229
Finis J. Garrett (TN) Finis J. Garrett (TN)
173 173
Henry A. Cooper (R-WI) (R-WI)
13 13
1927 1927
Nicholas Longworth (OH) (OH)
225 225
Finis J. Garrett (TN) Finis J. Garrett (TN)
187 187


1929 1929
Nicholas Longworth (OH) (OH)
254 254
John N. Garner (TX) John N. Garner (TX)
143 143


1931 1931
Bertrand H. Snell (NY) Bertrand H. Snell (NY)
207 207
John N. Garner (TX)(TX)
218 218
George J. Schneider (R-WI) George J. Schneider (R-WI)
5 5
1933 1933
Bertrand H. Snell (NY) Bertrand H. Snell (NY)
110 110
Henry T. Rainey (IL) (IL)
302 302
Paul J. Kvale (F-L-MN) (F-L-MN)
5 5
1935 1935
Bertrand H. Snell (NY) Bertrand H. Snell (NY)
95 95
Joseph W. Byrns (TN)(TN)
317 317
George J. Schneider (P-WI) (P-WI)
9 9
W.P. Lambertson (R-KS) W.P. Lambertson (R-KS)
2 2
1936 (June 4 1936 (June 4)a


William B. Bankhead (AL) (AL)
voice vote voice vote


(H.Res. 543 (H.Res. 543)b
1937 1937
Bertrand H. Snell (NY) Bertrand H. Snell (NY)
83 83
William B. Bankhead (AL) (AL)
324 324
George J. Schneider (P-WI) (P-WI)
10 10
Fred L. Crawford (R-MI) Fred L. Crawford (R-MI)
2 2
1939 1939
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
168 168
William B. Bankhead (AL) (AL)
249 249
Merlin Hul (P-WI) Merlin Hul (P-WI)
1 1
Bernard J. Gehrmann (P-WI) Bernard J. Gehrmann (P-WI)
1 1
1940 (Sept. 16 1940 (Sept. 16)a


Sam Rayburn (TX) (H.Res. 602(TX) (H.Res. 602)b
voice vote voice vote CRS-5 link to page 13 Year Republican Nominee Votes Democratic Nominee Votes Others Receiving Votes Votes


1941 1941
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
159 159
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
247 247
Merlin Hul (P-WI) Merlin Hul (P-WI)
2 2
Bernard J. Gehrmann (P-WI) Bernard J. Gehrmann (P-WI)
1 1
1943 1943
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
206 206
Sam Rayburn (TX)TX)
217 217
Merlin Hul (P-WI) Merlin Hul (P-WI)
1 1
Harry Sauthoff (P-WI) Harry Sauthoff (P-WI)
1 1
CRS-5

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link to page 12 link to page 12
Year
Republican Nominee
Votes
Democratic Nominee
Votes
Others Receiving Votes
Votes
1945 1945
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
168 168
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
224 224


1947 1947
Joseph W. Martin (MA)(MA)
244 244
Sam Rayburn (TX) Sam Rayburn (TX)
182 182


1949 1949
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
160 160
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
255 255


1951 1951
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
193 193
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
231 231


1953 1953
Joseph W. Martin (MA)(MA)
220 220
Sam Rayburn (TX) Sam Rayburn (TX)
201 201


1955 1955
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
198 198
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
228 228


1957 1957
Joseph W. Martin (MA) Joseph W. Martin (MA)
199 199
Sam Rayburn (TX)(TX)
227 227


1959 1959
Charles A. Halleck (IN) Charles A. Halleck (IN)
148 148
Sam Rayburn (TX) (TX)
281 281


1961 1961
Charles A. Halleck (IN) Charles A. Halleck (IN)
170 170
Sam Rayburn (TX) (TX)
258 258


1962 (Jan. 10 1962 (Jan. 10)a
Charles A. Halleck (IN) Charles A. Halleck (IN)
166 166
John W. McCormack (MA) (MA)
248 248


1963 1963
Charles A. Halleck (IN) Charles A. Halleck (IN)
175 175
John W. McCormack (MA) (MA)
256 256


1965 1965
Gerald R. Ford (MI) Gerald R. Ford (MI)
139 139
John W. McCormack (MA) (MA)
289 289


1967 1967
Gerald R. Ford (MI) Gerald R. Ford (MI)
186 186
John W. McCormack (MA) (MA)
246 246


1969 1969
Gerald R. Ford (MI) Gerald R. Ford (MI)
187 187
John W. McCormack (MA) (MA)
241 241


1971 1971
Gerald R. Ford (MI) Gerald R. Ford (MI)
176 176
Carl B. Albert (OK) (OK)
250 250


1973 1973
Gerald R. Ford (MI) Gerald R. Ford (MI)
188 188
Carl B. Albert (OK) (OK)
236 236


1975 1975
John J. Rhodes (AZ) John J. Rhodes (AZ)
143 143
Carl B. Albert (OK) (OK)
287 287


1977 1977
John J. Rhodes (AZ) John J. Rhodes (AZ)
142 142
Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill (MA) (MA)
290 290


1979 1979
John J. Rhodes (AZ) John J. Rhodes (AZ)
152 152
Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill (MA) (MA)
268 268


1981 1981
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
183 183
Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill (MA) (MA)
233 233


1983 1983
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
155 155
Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill (MA) (MA)
260 260


CRS-6 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 Year Republican Nominee Votes Democratic Nominee Votes Others Receiving Votes Votes 1985 1985
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
175 175
Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill (MA) (MA)
247 247


1987 1987
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
173 173
Jim Wright (TX) (TX)
254 254


1989 1989
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
170 170
Jim Wright (TX) (TX)
253 253


1989 (June 6 1989 (June 6)a
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
164 164
Thomas S. Foley (WA) (WA)
251 251


1991 1991
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
165 165
Thomas S. Foley (WA) (WA)
262 262


1993 1993
Robert H. Michel (IL) Robert H. Michel (IL)
174 174
Thomas S. Foley (WA) (WA)
255 255


CRS-6

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link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12
Year
Republican Nominee
Votes
Democratic Nominee
Votes
Others Receiving Votes
Votes
1995 1995
Newt Gingrich (GA)(GA)
228 228
Richard A. Gephardt (MO) Richard A. Gephardt (MO)
202 202


1997 1997
Newt Gingrich (GA) (GA)
216 216
Richard A. Gephardt (MO) Richard A. Gephardt (MO)
205 205
James Leach (R-IA) James Leach (R-IA)
2 2
Robert H. Mich Robert H. Michelc
1 1
Robert Wal Robert Walkerc
1 1
1999 1999
J. Dennis Hastert (IL)(IL)
220 220
Richard A. Gephardt (MO) Richard A. Gephardt (MO)
205 205


2001 2001
J. Dennis Hastert (IL) (IL)
222 222
Richard A. Gephardt (MO) Richard A. Gephardt (MO)
206 206
John P. Murtha (D-PA) John P. Murtha (D-PA)
1 1
2003 2003
J. Dennis Hastert (IL)(IL)
228 228
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
201 201
John P. Murtha (D-PA) John P. Murtha (D-PA)
1 1
2005 2005
J. Dennis Hastert (IL) (IL)
226 226
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
199 199
John P. Murtha (D-PA) John P. Murtha (D-PA)
1 1
2007 2007
John A. Boehner (OH) John A. Boehner (OH)
202 202
Nancy Pelosi (CA) (CA)
233 233


2009 2009
John A. Boehner (OH) John A. Boehner (OH)
174 174
Nancy Pelosi (CA) (CA)
255 255


2011 2011
John A. Boehner (OH) (OH)
241 241
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
173 173
Heath Shuler (D-NC) Heath Shuler (D-NC)
11 11
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
2 2
Jim Costa (D-CA) Jim Costa (D-CA)
1 1
Dennis Cardoza (D-CA) Dennis Cardoza (D-CA)
1 1
Jim Cooper (D-TN) Jim Cooper (D-TN)
1 1
Marcy Kaptur (D-OH) Marcy Kaptur (D-OH)
1 1
Steny H. Hoyer (D-MD) Steny H. Hoyer (D-MD)
1 1
CRS-7 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 Year Republican Nominee Votes Democratic Nominee Votes Others Receiving Votes Votes 2013 2013
John A. Boehner (OH) (OH)
220 220
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
192 192
Eric Cantor (R-VA) Eric Cantor (R-VA)
3 3
Allen Allen Westc
2 2
Jim Cooper (D-TN) Jim Cooper (D-TN)
2 2
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
1 1
Jim Jordan (R-OH) Jim Jordan (R-OH)
1 1
Colin Powe Colin Powel c
1 1
Raúl R. Labrador (R-ID) Raúl R. Labrador (R-ID)
1 1
Justin Amash (R-MI) Justin Amash (R-MI)
1 1
John Dingell (D-MI) John Dingell (D-MI)
1 1
David Wal David Walkerc
1 1
CRS-7

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link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 12
Year
Republican Nominee
Votes
Democratic Nominee
Votes
Others Receiving Votes
Votes
2015 2015
John A. Boehner (OH) (OH)
216 216
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
164 164
Daniel Webster (R-FL) (R-FL)
12 12
Louie Gohmert (R-TX) (R-TX)
3 3
Ted S. Yoho (R-FL) (R-FL)
2 2
Jim Jordan (R-OH) Jim Jordan (R-OH)
2 2
Jeff Duncan (R-SC) Jeff Duncan (R-SC)
1 1
Sen. Rand Paul (R-KY Sen. Rand Paul (R-KY)c
1 1
Colin Powe Colin Powel c
1 1
Trey Gowdy (R-SC) Trey Gowdy (R-SC)
1 1
Kevin McCarthy (R-CA) Kevin McCarthy (R-CA)
1 1
Jim Cooper (D-TN) Jim Cooper (D-TN)
1 1
Peter A. DeFazio (D-OR) Peter A. DeFazio (D-OR)
1 1
Sen. Jeff Sessions (R-AL Sen. Jeff Sessions (R-AL)c
1 1
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
1 1
2015 (Oct. 29 2015 (Oct. 29)a
Paul D. Ryan (WI)(WI)
236 236
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
184 184
Daniel Webster (R-FL) Daniel Webster (R-FL)
9 9
Colin Powe Colin Powel c
1 1
Jim Cooper (D-TN) Jim Cooper (D-TN)
1 1
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
1 1
2017 2017
Paul D. Ryan (WI)(WI)
239 239
Nancy Pelosi (CA) Nancy Pelosi (CA)
189 189
Tim Ryan (D-OH) Tim Ryan (D-OH)
2 2
Daniel Webster (R-FL) Daniel Webster (R-FL)
1 1
Jim Cooper (D-TN) Jim Cooper (D-TN)
1 1
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
1 1
CRS-8 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 13 Year Republican Nominee Votes Democratic Nominee Votes Others Receiving Votes Votes 2019 2019
Kevin McCarthy (CA) Kevin McCarthy (CA)
192 192
Nancy Pelosi (CA)(CA)
220 220
Jim Jordan (R-OH) Jim Jordan (R-OH)
5 5
Cheri Bustos (D-IL) Cheri Bustos (D-IL)
4 4
Sen. Tammy Duckworth (D- Sen. Tammy Duckworth (D-IL)c
2 2
Thomas Massie (R-KY) Thomas Massie (R-KY)
1 1
Joseph Joseph BidencBidenc
1 1
John Lewis (D-GA) John Lewis (D-GA)
1 1
Joseph P. Kennedy, III (D-MA) Joseph P. Kennedy, III (D-MA)
1 1
Stephanie Murphy (D-FL) Stephanie Murphy (D-FL)
1 1
Marcia L. Fudge (D-OH) Marcia L. Fudge (D-OH)
1 1
Stacey Abr Stacey Abramsc
1 1

2021 2021
Kevin McCarthy (CA) Kevin McCarthy (CA)
209 209
Nancy Pelosi (CA)(CA)
216 216
Sen. Tammy Duckworth (D- Sen. Tammy Duckworth (D-IL)c
1 1
Rep. Hakeem Jeffries (D-NY) Rep. Hakeem Jeffries (D-NY)
1 1
CRS-8

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link to page 12
Year
Republican Nominee
Votes
Democratic Nominee
Votes
Others Receiving Votes
Votes
2023 (first ballot)
Kevin McCarthy (CA)
2032023 (Jan. ballot #1) Kevin McCarthy (CA) 203 Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY) 212 Andy Biggs (R-AZ) 10 Jim Jordan (R-OH) 6 Jim Banks (R-IN) 1 Lee Zeldinc 1 Byron Donalds (R-FL) 1 (ballot #15) Kevin McCarthy (CA) 214 Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY) 212 2023 (Oct. ballot #1)d Jim Jordan (IN) 200 Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY) 212 Steve Scalise (R-LA) 7 Kevin McCarthy (R-CA) 6 Lee Zeldinc 3 Mike Garcia (R-CA) 1 Tom Emmer (R-MN) 1 Tom Cole (R-OK) 1 Thomas Massie (R-KY) 1 (ballot #4) Mike Johnson (LA) 220 Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY) 209
Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY)
212
Andy Biggs (R-AZ)
10
Jim Jordan (R-OH)
6
Jim Banks (R-IN)
1
Lee Zeldinc
1
Byron Donalds (R-FL)
1
(15th ballot)
Kevin McCarthy (CA)
214
Hakeem S. Jeffries (NY)
212


Source: Journals of the House of Representatives (for 2003-2011, of the House of Representatives (for 2003-2011, Congressional Record, daily edition, and for 2013-2023, Clerk of the House website, daily edition, and for 2013-2023, Clerk of the House website, https://clerk.house.gov/Votes). Party designations are ). Party designations are
taken from the taken from the Congressional Directory for the respective years since these reflect a Member’s official party self-designation; historical sources may differ as to the effective for the respective years since these reflect a Member’s official party self-designation; historical sources may differ as to the effective
party affiliation of certain individuals. party affiliation of certain individuals.
Notes: Key:
Elected candidate in Elected candidate in bold. .
“Other” candidate’s name formally placed in nomination in “Other” candidate’s name formally placed in nomination in italics. .
CRS-9 Party designations of “other” candidates: R = Republican, P = Progressive, F-L = Farmer-Labor. Party designations of “other” candidates: R = Republican, P = Progressive, F-L = Farmer-Labor.
Notes:
a. Special election to fil a vacancy in the speakership caused by death or resignation. a. Special election to fil a vacancy in the speakership caused by death or resignation.
b. Elected by resolution, not by rol call from nominations. b. Elected by resolution, not by rol call from nominations.
c. Not a c. Not a Membermember of the House at the time. of the House at the time.

CRS-9d. Special election caused by House declaration of a vacancy in the Speaker’s office. CRS-10 Appendix. Multi-Ballot Speaker Elections Since 1913 Table A-1. 1923 (68th Congress) (R)=Republican Party Nominee; (D)=Democratic Party Nominee Dec. 3 (ballot #1) Dec. 3 (#2) Dec. 3 (#3) Dec. 3 (#4) Dec. 4 (#5) Dec. 4 (#6) Dec. 4 (#7) Dec. 4 (#8) Dec. 5 (#9) Gil ett (R) 197 194 195 197 197 195 196 197 215 Garrett (D) 195 194 196 196 197 197 198 198 197 Cooper 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 - Madden 5 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 Present 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 Source: Congressional Record, vol. 65 (December 3 - 5, 1923), pp. H8-H15. CRS-11 link to page 15 link to page 15 Table A-2. January 2023 (118th Congress) (R)=Republican Party Nominee; (D)=Democratic Party Nominee Jan. 3 Jan. 3 Jan. 3 Jan. 4 Jan. 4 Jan. 4 Jan. 5 Jan. 5 Jan. 5 Jan. 5 Jan. 5 Jan. 6 Jan. 6 Jan. 6 Jan. 7 (ballot #1) (#2) (#3) (#4) (#5) (#6) (#7) (#8) (#9) (#10) (#11) (#12) (#13) (#14) (#15) McCarthy (R) 203 203 202 201 201 201 201 201 200 200 200 213 214 216 216 Jeffries (D) 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 212 211 212 212 212 Biggs 10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Jordan 6 19 20 - - - - - - - - 4 6 2 - Banks 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - 2 - Zeldina 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Donalds 1 - - 20 20 20 19 17 17 13 12 - - - - Trumpa - - - - - - 1 1 - - 1 - - - - Hern - - - - - - - 2 3 7 7 3 - - - Present - - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - 2 6 Source: Clerk of the House website (https://clerk.house.gov/Votes). See Rol Call vote numbers 2 through 4 (January 3); 5 through 7 (January 4); 9 through 13 (January 5); 15, 16, and 18 (January 6); and 20 (January 7). Notes: a. Lee M. Zeldin (NY, former Member of Congress) and Donald J. Trump (former President of the United States) were not Members at the time. CRS-12 link to page 16 link to page 16 link to page 16 link to page 16 link to page 16 Table A-3. October 2023 (118th Congress) (R)= Republican Party Nominee; (D)=Democratic Party Nominee Oct. 17 Oct. 18 Oct. 20 Oct. 25 (ballot #1) (#2) (#3) (#4) Jordan (R)a 200 199 194 - Jeffries (D) 212 212 210 209 Johnson (R)a - - - 220 Scalise 7 7 8 - McCarthy 6 5 2 - Zeldinb 3 3 4 - Garcia, Mike 1 1 1 - Emmer 1 1 1 - Cole 1 - - - Massie 1 - - - Donalds - 1 2 - Boehnerb - 1 - - Granger - 1 - - Westerman - 1 1 - Mil er, Candiceb - 1 - - McHenry - - 6 - Present - - - - Source: Clerk of the House website (https://clerk.house.gov/Votes). See Rol Call vote numbers 521 (October 17), 523 (October 18), 525 (October 20), and 527 (October 25). Notes: a. Jordan was the Republican Party’s nominee on the first three ballots; Johnson was the party’s nominee on the fourth ballot. b. Lee M. Zeldin (NY), John A. Boehner (OH), and Candice S. Mil er (MI) were former Members of Congress at the time. CRS-13

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Speakers of the House: Elections, 1913-2023



Author Information

Valerie Heitshusen Valerie Heitshusen

Specialist on Congress and the Legislative Process Specialist on Congress and the Legislative Process


Acknowledgments
This report was initially written by Richard S. Beth, former CRS Specialist on Congress and the Legislative This report was initially written by Richard S. Beth, former CRS Specialist on Congress and the Legislative
Process. Process. Updates in recent years were coauthored with the current author, whoThe current author had updated the report in recent years and is available to answer is available to answer
inquiries from congressional clients on the topic. inquiries from congressional clients on the topic.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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