Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program: Background and Issues for Congress

Changes from December 21, 2022 to April 13, 2023

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Navy ~~Light Amphibious Warship (LAW)~~
~~December 21, 2022~~
~~Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~
~~Ronald O'Rourke~~
~~The Navy’s~~Medium Landing Ship (LSM) (Previously April 13, 2023 Light Amphibious Warship [LAW]) Program: Ronald O'Rourke Background and Issues for Congress Specialist in Naval Affairs The Navy’s Medium Landing Ship (LSM) program, previously called the Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) program Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) program, envisions procuring a class of 18 to 35 envisions procuring a class of 18 to 35
~~Specialist in Naval Affairs~~
new amphibious ships to new amphibious ships to support the Marine Corps, particularly in implementing a new Marine support the Marine Corps, particularly in implementing a new Marine

Corps operational concept called Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO). The Navy Corps operational concept called Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO). The Navy
~~had previously envisioned procuring~~wants to procure the first the first ~~LAW in FY2023, but the Navy’s FY2023 budget~~

~~submission defers the procurement of the first LAW to~~ LSM in FY2025. The Navy’s proposed FY2025. The Navy’s proposed ~~FY2023~~
FY2024 budget requests $budget requests $~~12.2~~14.7 million in research and development funding for the program. million in research and development funding for the program.
The EABO concept was developed with an eye toward potential conflict scenarios with China in the Western Pacific. Under The EABO concept was developed with an eye toward potential conflict scenarios with China in the Western Pacific. Under
the concept, the Marine Corps envisions, among other things, having reinforced-platoon-sized Marine Corps units maneuver the concept, the Marine Corps envisions, among other things, having reinforced-platoon-sized Marine Corps units maneuver
around the theater, moving from island to island, to fire anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and perform other missions so as around the theater, moving from island to island, to fire anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and perform other missions so as
to contribute, alongside Navy and other U.S. military forces, to U.S. operations to counter and deny sea control to Chinese to contribute, alongside Navy and other U.S. military forces, to U.S. operations to counter and deny sea control to Chinese
forces. The forces. The ~~LAW ships~~LSMs would be instrumental to these operations, with would be instrumental to these operations, with ~~LAWs~~LSMs embarking, transporting, landing, and embarking, transporting, landing, and
subsequently reembarking these small Marine Corps units. subsequently reembarking these small Marine Corps units.
~~LAWs~~LSMs would be much smaller and individually much less expensive to procure and operate than the Navy’s current would be much smaller and individually much less expensive to procure and operate than the Navy’s current
amphibious ships. Under the Navy’s amphibious ships. Under the Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget submission, the first budget submission, the first ~~LAW~~LSM would be procured in FY2025 at a cost of would be procured in FY2025 at a cost of
$$~~247.0~~187.9 million, the second million, the second ~~LAW~~LSM would be procured in FY2026 at a cost of $ would be procured in FY2026 at a cost of $~~203.0~~149.2 million, million, ~~and~~ the third and fourth the third and fourth ~~LAWs~~
LSMs would be procured in FY2027 at a combined cost of $would be procured in FY2027 at a combined cost of $~~290~~297.0 million (i.e., an average cost of .0 million (i.e., an average cost of ~~$145.0 million each). The first~~
~~LAW would cost substantially~~ about $148.5 million each), and the fifth and sixth LSMs in FY2028 at a combined cost of $296.2 million (i.e., an average of about $148.1 million each). The first LSM would cost more than subsequent ships in the program because the procurement cost of the first more than subsequent ships in the program because the procurement cost of the first ~~LAW~~
LSM would include much or all of the detailed design/nonrecurring engineering (DD/NRE) costs for the class. (It is a traditional would include much or all of the detailed design/nonrecurring engineering (DD/NRE) costs for the class. (It is a traditional
Navy budgeting practice to include much of all of the DD/NRE costs for a class of ship in the procurement cost of the lead Navy budgeting practice to include much of all of the DD/NRE costs for a class of ship in the procurement cost of the lead
ship in the class.) ship in the class.)
The The ~~LAW~~LSM as outlined by the Navy could be built by any of several U.S. shipyards. The Navy’s baseline preference is to have as outlined by the Navy could be built by any of several U.S. shipyards. The Navy’s baseline preference is to have
a single shipyard build all the ships, but the Navy is open to having them built in multiple yards to the same design if doing a single shipyard build all the ships, but the Navy is open to having them built in multiple yards to the same design if doing
so could permit the program to be implemented more quickly and/or less expensively. The Navy’s so could permit the program to be implemented more quickly and/or less expensively. The Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget budget
submission states that the contract for the construction of the first submission states that the contract for the construction of the first ~~LAW~~LSM would be awarded in December 2024, and that the would be awarded in December 2024, and that the
ship would be delivered in July 2028. ship would be delivered in July 2028.
The The ~~LAW~~LSM program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress. The issue for Congress is whether to program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress. The issue for Congress is whether to
approve, reject, or modify the Navy’s annual funding requests and envisioned acquisition strategy for the program. approve, reject, or modify the Navy’s annual funding requests and envisioned acquisition strategy for the program.
Congress’s decisions regarding the program could affect Navy and Marine Corps capabilities and funding requirements and Congress’s decisions regarding the program could affect Navy and Marine Corps capabilities and funding requirements and
the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base. the U.S. shipbuilding industrial base.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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~~Tables~~
~~Table 1. Congressional Action on FY2023 Procurement Funding Request .................................. 23~~

32 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 28

Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

Navy ~~Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program

Introduction
This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the Navy’s This report provides background information and issues for Congress on the Navy’s ~~new~~Medium Landing Ship (LSM) program, previously called the Light Light
Amphibious Warship (LAW) programAmphibious Warship (LAW) program~~, which~~. The LSM program envisions procuring a class of 18 to 35 new envisions procuring a class of 18 to 35 new
amphibious ships to support the Marine Corps, particularly in implementing a new Marine Corps amphibious ships to support the Marine Corps, particularly in implementing a new Marine Corps
operational concept called Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO). The Navy operational concept called Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations (EABO). The Navy ~~had~~
~~previously envisioned procuring~~wants to procure the first the first ~~LAW in FY2023, but the Navy’s FY2023 budget~~
~~submission defers the procurement of the first LAW to~~ LSM in FY2025. The Navy’s proposed FY2025. The Navy’s proposed ~~FY2023~~
FY2024 budget requests $budget requests $~~12.2~~14.7 million in research and development funding for the program. million in research and development funding for the program.
The The ~~LAW~~LSM program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress. The issue for program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress. The issue for
Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Navy’s annual funding requests and Congress is whether to approve, reject, or modify the Navy’s annual funding requests and
envisioned acquisition strategy for the program. Congress’s decisions regarding the program envisioned acquisition strategy for the program. Congress’s decisions regarding the program
could affect Navy and Marine Corps capabilities and funding requirements and the U.S. could affect Navy and Marine Corps capabilities and funding requirements and the U.S.
shipbuilding industrial base. shipbuilding industrial base.
A separate CRS report discusses the Navy’s programs for building much-larger LPD-17 Flight II A separate CRS report discusses the Navy’s programs for building much-larger LPD-17 Flight II
and LHA-class amphibious ships.1 Other CRS reports provide an overview of Navy force and LHA-class amphibious ships.1 Other CRS reports provide an overview of Navy force
structure and shipbuilding plans2 and the Marine Corps’ overall plan for redesigning its units and structure and shipbuilding plans2 and the Marine Corps’ overall plan for redesigning its units and
equipment to meet future mission demands, called Force Design 2030, of which the equipment to meet future mission demands, called Force Design 2030, of which the ~~LAW~~LSM
program is a part.3 program is a part.3
Background
U.S. Navy Amphibious Ships
Roles and Missions
Navy amphibious ships are operated by the Navy, with crews consisting of Navy personnel. They Navy amphibious ships are operated by the Navy, with crews consisting of Navy personnel. They
are battle force ships, meaning ships that count toward the quoted size of the Navy. The primary are battle force ships, meaning ships that count toward the quoted size of the Navy. The primary
function of Navy amphibious ships is to lift (i.e., transport) embarked U.S. Marines and their function of Navy amphibious ships is to lift (i.e., transport) embarked U.S. Marines and their
weapons, equipment, and supplies to distant operating areas, and enable Marines to conduct weapons, equipment, and supplies to distant operating areas, and enable Marines to conduct
expeditionary operations ashore in those areas. Although amphibious ships can be used to support expeditionary operations ashore in those areas. Although amphibious ships can be used to support
Marine landings against opposing military forces, they are also used for operations in permissive Marine landings against opposing military forces, they are also used for operations in permissive
or benign situations where there are no opposing forces. Due to their large storage spaces and or benign situations where there are no opposing forces. Due to their large storage spaces and
their ability to use helicopters and landing craft to transfer people, equipment, and supplies from their ability to use helicopters and landing craft to transfer people, equipment, and supplies from

1 CRS Report R43543, 1 CRS Report R43543, Navy LPD-17 Flight II and LHA Amphibious Ship Programs: Background and Issues for
Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. , by Ronald O'Rourke.
2 CRS Report RL32665, 2 CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, by , by
Ronald O'Rourke Ronald O'Rourke
3 CRS Insight IN11281, 3 CRS Insight IN11281, New U.S. Marine Corps Force Design Initiative: Force Design 2030, by Andrew Feickert. , by Andrew Feickert.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
1 1

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ship to shore without need for port facilities,4 amphibious ships are potentially useful for a range ship to shore without need for port facilities,4 amphibious ships are potentially useful for a range
of combat and noncombat operations.5 of combat and noncombat operations.5
On any given day, some of the Navy’s amphibious ships, like some of the Navy’s other ships, are On any given day, some of the Navy’s amphibious ships, like some of the Navy’s other ships, are
forward-deployed to various overseas operating areas in multiship formations called amphibious forward-deployed to various overseas operating areas in multiship formations called amphibious
groups (ARGs). Amphibious ships are also sometimes forward-deployed on an individual basis, groups (ARGs). Amphibious ships are also sometimes forward-deployed on an individual basis,
particularly for conducting peacetime engagement activities with foreign countries or for particularly for conducting peacetime engagement activities with foreign countries or for
responding to smaller-scale or noncombat contingencies. responding to smaller-scale or noncombat contingencies.
Current Types of Amphibious Ships
The Navy’s current amphibious-ship force consists entirely of large amphibious ships, including The Navy’s current amphibious-ship force consists entirely of large amphibious ships, including
the so-called “big-deck” amphibious assault ships, designated LHA and LHD, which look like the so-called “big-deck” amphibious assault ships, designated LHA and LHD, which look like
medium-sized aircraft carriers, and the smaller (but still quite sizeable) amphibious ships, medium-sized aircraft carriers, and the smaller (but still quite sizeable) amphibious ships,
designated LPD or LSD, which are sometimes called “small-deck” amphibious ships.6 As designated LPD or LSD, which are sometimes called “small-deck” amphibious ships.6 As
mentioned earlier, a separate CRS report discusses the Navy’s current programs for procuring mentioned earlier, a separate CRS report discusses the Navy’s current programs for procuring
new LHA- and LPD-type ships.7 The new LHA- and LPD-type ships.7 The ~~LAWs~~LSMs discussed in this CRS report would be much smaller discussed in this CRS report would be much smaller
than the Navy’s current amphibious ships. than the Navy’s current amphibious ships.
Amphibious Ship Force ~~at End of FY2021~~
~~The Navy’s force of amphibious ships at the end of FY2021 included 31 ships, including 9~~
~~amphibious assault ships (2 LHAs and 7 LHDs), 11 LPD-17 Flight I ships, and 11 older LSD-~~
~~41/49 class ships. The LSD-41/49 class ships are to be replaced by new LPD-17 Flight II class~~
~~ships.~~
~~Amphibious Ship Force~~-Level Goal Under 355-Ship Plan of 2016
The Navy’s current force-level goal, released in December 2016, calls for achieving and The Navy’s current force-level goal, released in December 2016, calls for achieving and
maintaining a 355-ship fleet that includes 38maintaining a 355-ship fleet that includes 38 larger amphibious ships—12 LHA/LHD-type ships, 13 amphibious ships—12 LHA/LHD-type ships, 13
LPD-17 Flight I class ships, and 13 LPD-17 Flight II class ships (12+13+13).8 This 38-ship LPD-17 Flight I class ships, and 13 LPD-17 Flight II class ships (12+13+13).8 This 38-ship force-level goal predates the LSM program and consequently includes no LSMs. ~~force-~~

4 Amphibious ships have berthing spaces for Marines; storage space for their wheeled vehicles, their other combat 4 Amphibious ships have berthing spaces for Marines; storage space for their wheeled vehicles, their other combat
equipment, and their supplies; flight decks and hangar decks for their helicopters and vertical take-off and landing equipment, and their supplies; flight decks and hangar decks for their helicopters and vertical take-off and landing
(VTOL) fixed-wing aircraft; and in many cases well decks for storing and launching their landing craft. (A well deck is (VTOL) fixed-wing aircraft; and in many cases well decks for storing and launching their landing craft. (A well deck is
a large, garage-like space in the stern of the ship. It can be flooded with water so that landing craft can leave or return a large, garage-like space in the stern of the ship. It can be flooded with water so that landing craft can leave or return
to the ship. Access to the well deck is protected by a large stern gate that is somewhat like a garage door.) to the ship. Access to the well deck is protected by a large stern gate that is somewhat like a garage door.)
5 Amphibious ships and their embarked Marine forces can be used for launching and conducting humanitarian- 5 Amphibious ships and their embarked Marine forces can be used for launching and conducting humanitarian-
assistance and disaster-response (HA/DR) operations; peacetime engagement and partnership-building activities, such assistance and disaster-response (HA/DR) operations; peacetime engagement and partnership-building activities, such
as exercises; other nation-building operations, such as reconstruction operations; operations to train, advise, and assist as exercises; other nation-building operations, such as reconstruction operations; operations to train, advise, and assist
foreign military forces; peace-enforcement operations; noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs); maritime-security foreign military forces; peace-enforcement operations; noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs); maritime-security
operations, such as anti-piracy operations; smaller-scale strike and counter-terrorism operations; and larger-scale operations, such as anti-piracy operations; smaller-scale strike and counter-terrorism operations; and larger-scale
ground combat operations. Amphibious ships and their embarked Marine forces can also be used for maintaining ground combat operations. Amphibious ships and their embarked Marine forces can also be used for maintaining
forward-deployed naval presence for purposes of deterrence, reassurance, and maintaining regional stability. forward-deployed naval presence for purposes of deterrence, reassurance, and maintaining regional stability.
6 U.S. Navy amphibious ships have designations starting with the letter L, as in amphibious 6 U.S. Navy amphibious ships have designations starting with the letter L, as in amphibious landing. LHA can be . LHA can be
translated as landing ship, helicopter-capable, assault; LHD can be translated as landing ship, helicopter-capable, well translated as landing ship, helicopter-capable, assault; LHD can be translated as landing ship, helicopter-capable, well
deck; LPD can be translated as landing ship, helicopter platform, well deck; and LSD can be translated as landing ship, deck; LPD can be translated as landing ship, helicopter platform, well deck; and LSD can be translated as landing ship,
well deck. Whether noted in the designation or not, almost all these ships have well decks. The exceptions are LHAs 6 well deck. Whether noted in the designation or not, almost all these ships have well decks. The exceptions are LHAs 6
and 7, which do not have well decks and instead have expanded aviation support capabilities. For an explanation of and 7, which do not have well decks and instead have expanded aviation support capabilities. For an explanation of
well decks, see footnowell decks, see footnote 4. The terms “large-deck” and “small-deck” refer to the size of the ship’s flight deck. The terms “large-deck” and “small-deck” refer to the size of the ship’s flight deck.
7 CRS Report R43543, 7 CRS Report R43543, Navy LPD-17 Flight II and LHA Amphibious Ship Programs: Background and Issues for
Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. , by Ronald O'Rourke.
8 For more on the Navy’s 355-ship force-level goal, see CRS Report RL32665, 8 For more on the Navy’s 355-ship force-level goal, see CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding
Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. For a more detailed review of the 38-ship force structure requirements, see Appendix A of archived CRS Report RL34476, Navy LPD-17 Amphibious Ship Procurement: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. Congressional Research Service 2 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Amphibious Ship Force at End of FY2022 and Projected for End of FY2024 The Navy’s force of amphibious ships at the end of FY2022 included 31 larger ships, including 9 amphibious assault ships (2 LHAs and 7 LHDs), 12 LPD-17 Flight I class ships, and 10 older LSD-41/49 class ships. The Navy’s FY2024 budget submission projects that the Navy at the end of FY2024 will include 29 larger amphibious ships, including 9 LHA/LHD-type ships, 13 LPD Flight I class ships, and 7 LSD-41/49 class ships ~~Congressional Research Service~~
2

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~level goal predates the EABO concept and the initiation of the LAW program and consequently~~
~~includes no LAWs~~. .
Emerging New Amphibious Ship Force-Level Goal
The Navy and The Navy and ~~DOD since 2019~~OSD have been working have been working since 2019 to develop a new force-level goal to replace to develop a new force-level goal to replace
the Navy’s the Navy’s ~~current 355-ship force-level goal~~355-ship force-level goal, but have not been able to come to closure on a successor goal. Required numbers of amphibious ships are reportedly a major issue in the ongoing discussion. The Navy’s FY2023 30-year (FY2023-FY2052) . The Navy’s FY2023 30-year (FY2023-FY2052)
shipbuilding plan, released on April 20, 2022, includes a table summarizing the results of studies shipbuilding plan, released on April 20, 2022, includes a table summarizing the results of studies
that have been conducted on the successor force-level goal. These studies outline potential future that have been conducted on the successor force-level goal. These studies outline potential future
fleets with 6 to 10 LHAs/LHDs and 30 to 54 other amphibious ships, including but not fleets with 6 to 10 LHAs/LHDs and 30 to 54 other amphibious ships, including but not
necessarily limited to LPDs and necessarily limited to LPDs and ~~LAWs.9~~
LSMs.9 Marine Corps officials state that, from their perspective, a minimum of 66 Marine Corps officials state that, from their perspective, a minimum of 66 larger and smaller amphibious ships will amphibious ships will
be required in coming years, including a minimum of 31 larger amphibious ships (10 be required in coming years, including a minimum of 31 larger amphibious ships (10
LHAs/LHDs and 21 LHAs/LHDs and 21 ~~LPDs~~LPD-17s) plus 35 ) plus 35 ~~LAWs~~LSMs (aka “31+35”).10 Marine Corps officials have stated that a force with fewer than 31 larger amphibious ships would increase operational risks in meeting demands from U.S. regional combatant commanders for forward-deployed amphibious ships and for responding to contingencies.11 ~~(aka “31+35”).10~~
At an April 26, 2022, hearing on Department of the Navy (DON) investment programs before the At an April 26, 2022, hearing on Department of the Navy (DON) investment programs before the
Seapower subcommittee of the Senate Armed Services Committee, the Department of the Navy Seapower subcommittee of the Senate Armed Services Committee, the Department of the Navy
testified that testified that
In order to ensure the future naval expeditionary force is maximized for effective combat In order to ensure the future naval expeditionary force is maximized for effective combat
power, while reflecting and supporting the force structure changes addressed in USMC’s power, while reflecting and supporting the force structure changes addressed in USMC’s
Force Design, the Secretary of the Navy directed an amphibious requirement study that Force Design, the Secretary of the Navy directed an amphibious requirement study that
will inform refinement of amphibious ship procurement plans and shipbuilding profiles, as will inform refinement of amphibious ship procurement plans and shipbuilding profiles, as
well as inform the ongoing overall Naval Force Structure Assessment.well as inform the ongoing overall Naval Force Structure Assessment.11
~~In January 2022, Navy officials reportedly anticipated that the above-mentioned study would be~~
~~completed by the end of March 2022.12 At the end of March 2022, the study reportedly was~~
~~expected to be completed shortly.13 At the beginning of April 2022, the study reportedly was in its~~

Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. For a more detailed review of the 38-ship force
~~structure requirements, see Appendix A of archived CRS Report RL34476,~~ ~~Navy LPD-17 Amphibious Ship~~
~~Procurement: Background, Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke.~~
12 9 For additional discussion, see CRS Report RL32665, 9 For additional discussion, see CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and
Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. , by Ronald O'Rourke.
10 See, for example, Todd South, “Back to Ship: Marines Need Ships to Fight. Will They Get Them?” 10 See, for example, Todd South, “Back to Ship: Marines Need Ships to Fight. Will They Get Them?” Military Times, ,
March 24, 2022; Megan Eckstein, “Some Lawmakers Back Marines in Disagreement over Navy Amphib Force,” March 24, 2022; Megan Eckstein, “Some Lawmakers Back Marines in Disagreement over Navy Amphib Force,”
Defense News, April 5, 2022; Caitlin M. Kenney, “Marines Push Light Amphib Warship While Navy Secretary Awaits , April 5, 2022; Caitlin M. Kenney, “Marines Push Light Amphib Warship While Navy Secretary Awaits
Study,” Study,” Defense One, April 5, 2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious Fleet’s , April 5, 2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious Fleet’s
Future as Delays and Cancellations Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” Future as Delays and Cancellations Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” USNI News, April 3, 2022. , April 3, 2022.
11 11 See, for example, Caitlin M. Kenney, “‘We Didn’t Have the Ships’ to Send ‘Best Option’ to Help Earthquake Victims, Commandant Says,” Defense One, February 15, 2023; Caitlin M. Kenney, “Marines Issue Warning on Amphib Fleet, The Assistant Commandant Says 31 Large Amphibious Warfare Ships Are Needed to Avoid Risk,” Defense One, February 14, 2023. 12 Statement of Frederick J. Stefany, Principal Civilian Deputy, Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Statement of Frederick J. Stefany, Principal Civilian Deputy, Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research,
Development and Acquisition), Performing The Duties Of The Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition), Performing The Duties Of The Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research,
Development and Acquisition), and Vice Admiral Scott Conn, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, Warfighting Development and Acquisition), and Vice Admiral Scott Conn, Deputy Chief of Naval Operations, Warfighting
Requirements And Capabilities (OPNAV N9), and Lieutenant General Karsten S. Heckl, Deputy Commandant, Requirements And Capabilities (OPNAV N9), and Lieutenant General Karsten S. Heckl, Deputy Commandant,
Combat Development and Integration, Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, before Combat Development and Integration, Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, before
the Subcommittee on Seapower of the Senate Armed Services Committee on Department of the Navy Fiscal Year 2023 the Subcommittee on Seapower of the Senate Armed Services Committee on Department of the Navy Fiscal Year 2023
Budget Request for Seapower, April 26, 2022, PDF page 12 of 37. Budget Request for Seapower, April 26, 2022, PDF page 12 of 37.
~~12 See Megan Eckstein, “Amphib Ship Requirements Study Could Spell Bad News for Marines, Industry,”~~ ~~Defense~~
~~News, January 18, 2022.~~
~~13 Megan Eckstgein, “US Navy Seeks to End San Antonio-Class Ship Production, Reducing Fleet by 8 Amphibious~~
~~Hulls,” Defense News, March 28, 2022.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
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~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~final stages.14 The issue of the future amphibious ship force level goal reportedly has been a~~
~~matter of debate within the Defense Department.15~~
~~The Navy’s FY2023 30-year (FY2023-FY2052) shipbuilding plan, released on April 20 2022,~~
~~states that “the Navy will begin assessment of a next-generation amphibious ship (i.e., LPD(X))~~
~~in FY2023.”16~~
~~Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program17~~
~~Overview~~
~~As noted earlier, the LAW program may include 18 to 35 ships. A total of 18 is mentioned in a~~
~~July 2022 Navy document, Chief of Operations Navigation Plan 2022.18 A total of 35 is~~
~~mentioned regularly by Marine Corps officials, and would include nine operational LAWs for~~
~~each of three envisioned Marine Littoral Regiments (MLRs),19 plus eight additional LAWs to~~
~~account for factors such as a certain number of LAWs being in maintenance at any given~~
~~moment.20 LAWs would be much smaller and individually much less expensive to procure and~~
~~operate than the Navy’s current amphibious ships. The Marine Corps sometimes refers to the~~
~~LAW as a Landing Ship Medium (LSM), meaning a medium-sized landing ship.21~~
~~Procurement Schedule~~
~~As noted earlier, the Navy had previously envisioned procuring the first LAW in FY2023, but the~~
~~Navy’s FY2023 budget submission defers the procurement of the first LAW to FY2025. The~~
~~Navy’s FY2023 five-year (FY2023-FY2027) shipbuilding plan calls for procuring the first LAW~~
~~in FY2025, the second in FY2026, and the third and fourth in FY2027. The Navy’s FY2023~~

~~14 Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious Fleet’s Future as Delays and Cancellations~~
~~Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” USNI News, April 3, 2022; Caitlin M. Kenney, “Marines Push Light Amphib~~
~~Warship While Navy Secretary Awaits Study,” Defense One, April 5, 2022.~~
~~15 See Megan Eckstein, “White House Steps in as Navy, Pentagon Feud over Amphibious Ship Study~~Congressional Research Service 3 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program In January 2022, Navy officials reportedly anticipated that the above-mentioned study would be completed by the end of March 2022.13 At the end of March 2022, the study reportedly was expected to be completed shortly.14 At the beginning of April 2022, the study reportedly was in its final stages.15 The Navy’s FY2023 30-year (FY2023-FY2052) shipbuilding plan, released on April 20 2022, states that “the Navy will begin assessment of a next-generation amphibious ship (i.e., LPD(X)) in FY2023.”16 A January 20, 2023, press report states: The long-awaited Navy study to determine the future makeup of the U.S. amphibious warship fleet has finally made it to Congress, but don’t hold your breath for the results: they’re classified. The Navy sent the Amphibious Force Requirements Study to the Congressional defense committees on Dec. 28, Lt. Gabrielle Dimaapi, a spokeswoman for the Navy secretary, said in an email statement Friday to Defense One. The study was “closely coordinated with the Office of the Secretary of Defense Cost Analysis and Program Evaluation and Office of Management and Budget prior to providing it to Congress,” Dimaapi said. It “assessed the risk associated with the size and composition of the future amphibious warship fleet. It focused on both traditional and planned amphibious warships and platforms.” Though the service “is not planning to release an unclassified summary of the report,” the results “will be incorporated into an ongoing battle force ship assessment that will be published later this year,” she said. But it’s unclear how much of the amphibious ship study results will be revealed in the battle force ship assessment. Last year’s assessment was also classified, and only the top-level number of 373 ships was released, U.S. Naval Institute News reported. Navy Secretary Carlos Del Toro has been promising for months that the amphibious ship study would be ready in a matter of weeks, even testifying to that during a May Senate Armed Services Committee hearing. When no study materialized, Sens. Tim Kaine, D-Va., and Roger Wicker, R-Miss., sent a letter in November to Del Toro asking for the study. In early December, the secretary told reporters the document was almost ready, but was still “being briefed to senior leadership.”17 FY2023 NDAA Provisions Regarding Amphibious Ship Force-Level Goal The FY2023 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) (H.R. 7776/P.L. 117-263 of December 23, 2022) included the following provisions relating to the amphibious ship force-level goal: 13 See Megan Eckstein, “Amphib Ship Requirements Study Could Spell Bad News for Marines, Industry,” Defense News, January 18, 2022. 14 Megan Eckstgein, “US Navy Seeks to End San Antonio-Class Ship Production, Reducing Fleet by 8 Amphibious Hulls,” Defense News, March 28, 2022. 15 Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious Fleet’s Future as Delays and Cancellations Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” USNI News, April 3, 2022; Caitlin M. Kenney, “Marines Push Light Amphib Warship While Navy Secretary Awaits Study,” Defense One, April 5, 2022. 16 U.S. Navy, Report to Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for Construction of Naval Vessels for Fiscal Year 2023, April 2022, p. 14. 17 Caitlin M. Kenney, “Navy Won’t Publicly Release Results of Amphibious Ship Study, The Study, Which Had Been Delayed for Months, Has Been Sent to Lawmakers,” Defense One, January 20, 2023. Congressional Research Service 4 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program  Section 1022 amended 10 U.S.C. 8026 to require the Secretary of the Navy to ensure that the views of the Commandant of the Marine Corps are given appropriate consideration before a major decision is made by an element of the Department of the Navy outside the Marine Corps on a matter that directly concerns amphibious force structure and capability.  Section 1023, as noted earlier, amends 10 U.S.C. 8062 to require the Navy to include not less than 31 operational larger amphibious ships, including 10 LHA/LHD-type ships and 21 LPD or LSD type ships.  Section 1025 amends 10 U.S.C. 8695 to state that, in preparing a periodic battle force ship assessment and requirement, the Commandant of the Marine Corps shall be specifically responsible for developing the requirements relating to amphibious warfare ships. Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Overview As noted earlier, the LSM program may include 18 to 35 ships. A total of 18 is mentioned in a July 2022 Navy document, Chief of Operations Navigation Plan 2022.18 A total of 35 is mentioned regularly by Marine Corps officials, and would include nine operational LSMs for each of three envisioned Marine Littoral Regiments (MLRs),19 plus eight additional LSMs to account for factors such as a certain number of LSMs being in maintenance at any given moment.20 LSMs would be much smaller and individually much less expensive to procure and operate than the Navy’s current amphibious ships. Procurement Schedule The Navy wants to procure the first LSM in FY2025, the second in FY2026, the third and fourth in FY2027, and the fifth and sixth LSMs in FY2028. The Navy’s FY2024 ~~,” Defense News,~~
~~December 8, 2022. See also Justin Katz, “Del Toro: Navy-Marine Corps Amphib Study in ‘Final Stages,’ Being~~
~~Briefed to Leadership,” Breaking Defense, December 6, 2022; Lee Hudson, “Senators Press Del Toro for Update on~~
~~Amphib Study,” Politico Pro, November 14, 2022.~~
~~16 U.S. Navy,~~ ~~Report to Congress on the Annual Long-Range Plan for Construction of Naval Vessels for Fiscal Year~~
~~2023, April 2022, p. 14.~~
~~17 Unless otherwise stated, information in this section about the LAW is taken from Navy briefing slides and Navy~~
~~answers to industry questions from LAW program industry days that were held on March 4 and April 9, 2020, and~~
~~posted on March 20, May 5, and May 7, 2020, at “RFI: US Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW),”~~
~~https://beta.sam.gov/opp/90a9ece86ade48089e9f6d57d2969d23/view, accessed by CRS on May 15, 2020.~~
~~For press articles about the LAW, see Megan Eckstein, “Navy Researching New Class of Medium Amphibious Ship,~~
~~New Logistics Ships,” USNI News, February 20, 2020. See also Rich Abott, “FY 2021 Request Starts Work on Future~~
~~Amphibs and Logistics Ships,” Defense Daily, February 20, 2020; David Axe, “This Weird Little Ship Could Be the~~
~~Future of Amphibious Warfare,” National Interest, February 24, 2020; Mallory Shellbourne, “Navy begins pursuit of~~
~~Light Amphibious Warship,” Inside Defense, March 26, 2020; Joseph Trevithick, “Navy Wants To Buy 30 New Light~~
~~Amphibious Warships To Support Radical Shift In Marine Ops,” The Drive, May 5, 2020; Megan Eckstein, “Navy~~
~~Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, November 19, 2020.~~
~~18 U.S. Navy, “Chief of Operations Navigation Plan 2022,” undated, released July 26, 2022, p. 10.~~
~~19 For more on the MLRs, see CRS In Focus IF12200, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by~~
~~Andrew Feickert, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert.~~
~~20 See also Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps, Navy Remain Split Over Design, Number of Future Light Amphibious~~
~~Warship, Divide Risks Stalling Program,” USNI News, September 14 (updated September 15), 2022.~~
~~21 See, for example, U.S. Marine Corps, Force Design 2030, Annual Update, May 2022, p. 15.~~
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budget submission states that the contract for the construction of the first budget submission states that the contract for the construction of the first ~~LAW~~LSM would be awarded would be awarded
~~in December 2024, and that the ship would be delivered in July 2028~~in March 2025, and that construction of the first LSM would begin in May 2026. .
Procurement Cost
Under the Navy’s Under the Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget submission, the first budget submission, the first ~~LAW~~LSM would be procured in FY2025 at a would be procured in FY2025 at a
cost of $cost of $~~247.0~~187.9 million, the second million, the second ~~LAW~~LSM would be procured in FY2026 at a cost of $ would be procured in FY2026 at a cost of $~~203.0~~
149.2 million, million, ~~and~~ the third and fourth the third and fourth ~~LAWs~~LSMs would be procured in FY2027 at a combined cost of would be procured in FY2027 at a combined cost of
~~$290~~$297.0 million (i.e., an average cost of .0 million (i.e., an average cost of ~~$145.0 million each). The first LAW~~ about $148.5 million each), and the fifth and sixth LSMs in FY2028 at a combined cost of $296.2 million (i.e., an average of about $148.1 million each). The first LSM would cost ~~would cost~~
~~substantially~~ more than subsequent ships in the program because the procurement cost of the first more than subsequent ships in the program because the procurement cost of the first
~~LAW~~LSM would include much or all of the detailed design/nonrecurring engineering (DD/NRE) costs would include much or all of the detailed design/nonrecurring engineering (DD/NRE) costs
for the class. (It is a traditional Navy budgeting practice to include much of all of the DD/NRE for the class. (It is a traditional Navy budgeting practice to include much of all of the DD/NRE
costs for a class of ship in the procurement cost of the lead ship in the class.) costs for a class of ship in the procurement cost of the lead ship in the class.)
~~By way of comparison, the Navy’s most recently procured LHA-type amphibious ship has an~~
~~estimated unit procurement cost in the Navy’s FY2023 budget submission of about $3.5 billion,~~
~~and LPD-17 Flight II amphibious ships have unit procurement costs of about $1.9 billion. As~~
~~additional comparisons, the Navy’s Ship-to-Shore Connectors (SSCs)—its new air-cushioned~~
~~landing craft—are about 92 feet long and have a unit procurement cost of roughly $95 million,~~
~~the Coast Guard’s new Fast Response Cutters (FRCs) are 154 feet long and have a unit~~
~~procurement cost of about $65 million, and the Navy’s new TATS towing, salvage, and rescue~~
~~ships are 263 feet long and have a unit procurement cost of about $96 million~~ 18 U.S. Navy, “Chief of Operations Navigation Plan 2022,” undated, released July 26, 2022, p. 10. 19 For more on the MLRs, see CRS In Focus IF12200, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert. 20 See also Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps, Navy Remain Split Over Design, Number of Future Light Amphibious Warship, Divide Risks Stalling Program,” USNI News, September 14 (updated September 15), 2022. Congressional Research Service 5 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program By way of comparison, the Navy’s most recently procured LHA-type amphibious ship has an estimated unit procurement cost in the Navy’s FY2024 budget submission of about $3.8 billion, and LPD-17 Flight II amphibious ships have unit procurement costs of about $1.9 billion. .
Operational Rationale, Including EABO
To improve their ability to perform various missions in coming years, including a potential To improve their ability to perform various missions in coming years, including a potential
mission of countering Chinese forces in a possible conflict in the Western Pacific, the Navy and mission of countering Chinese forces in a possible conflict in the Western Pacific, the Navy and
Marine Corps want to implement a new operational concept called Distributed Maritime Marine Corps want to implement a new operational concept called Distributed Maritime
Operations (DMO).Operations (DMO).2221 DMO calls for U.S. naval forces (meaning the Navy and Marine Corps) DMO calls for U.S. naval forces (meaning the Navy and Marine Corps)2322 to to
operate at sea in a less concentrated, more distributed manner, so as to complicate an adversary’s operate at sea in a less concentrated, more distributed manner, so as to complicate an adversary’s
task of detecting, identifying, tracking, and targeting U.S. naval forces, while still being able to task of detecting, identifying, tracking, and targeting U.S. naval forces, while still being able to
bring lethal force to bear against adversary forces. bring lethal force to bear against adversary forces.
In parallel with DMO, and with an eye toward potential conflict scenarios in the Western Pacific In parallel with DMO, and with an eye toward potential conflict scenarios in the Western Pacific
against Chinese forces, the Marine Corps has developed two supporting operational concepts, against Chinese forces, the Marine Corps has developed two supporting operational concepts,
called Littoral Operations in a Contested Environment (LOCE) and Expeditionary Advanced called Littoral Operations in a Contested Environment (LOCE) and Expeditionary Advanced
Base Operations (EABO). Under the EABO concept, the Marine Corps envisions, among other Base Operations (EABO). Under the EABO concept, the Marine Corps envisions, among other
things, having reinforced-platoon-sized Marine Corps units maneuver around the theater, moving things, having reinforced-platoon-sized Marine Corps units maneuver around the theater, moving
from island to island, to fire anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and perform other missions so as from island to island, to fire anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and perform other missions so as
to contribute, alongside Navy and other U.S. military forces, to U.S. operations to counter and deny sea control to Chinese forces. More specifically, the Marine Corps states that the EABO concept includes, among other things, establishing and operating “multiple platoon-reinforced-size expeditionary advance base sites that can host and enable a variety of missions such as long-range anti-ship fires, forward arming and refueling of aircraft, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance of key maritime terrain, and air-defense and early warning,”23 The use of Marine Corps units to contribute to U.S. sea-denial operations against an opposing navy by shooting ASCMs would represent a new mission for the Marine Corps.24 21
22 For additional discussion, see CRS Report RL32665, For additional discussion, see CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and
Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke, and CRS Report RL33153, , by Ronald O'Rourke, and CRS Report RL33153, China Naval Modernization: Implications for
U.S. Navy Capabilities—Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. , by Ronald O'Rourke.
2322 Although the term Although the term naval is often used to refer specifically to the Navy, it more properly refers to both the Navy and is often used to refer specifically to the Navy, it more properly refers to both the Navy and
Marine Corps, because both the Navy and Marine Corps are naval services. Even though the Marine Corps sometimes Marine Corps, because both the Navy and Marine Corps are naval services. Even though the Marine Corps sometimes
operates for extended periods as a land fighting force (as it has done in recent years, for example, in Afghanistan and operates for extended periods as a land fighting force (as it has done in recent years, for example, in Afghanistan and
Iraq), and is often thought of as the country’s second land army, it nevertheless is, by law, a naval service. 10 U.S.C. Iraq), and is often thought of as the country’s second land army, it nevertheless is, by law, a naval service. 10 U.S.C.
§8001(a)(3) states, “The term ‘member of the naval service’ means a person appointed or enlisted in, or inducted or §8001(a)(3) states, “The term ‘member of the naval service’ means a person appointed or enlisted in, or inducted or
conscripted into, the Navy or the Marine Corps.” DON officials sometimes refer to the two services as the Navy-conscripted into, the Navy or the Marine Corps.” DON officials sometimes refer to the two services as the Navy-
Marine Corps team. For additional discussion, see CRS In Focus IF10484, Marine Corps team. For additional discussion, see CRS In Focus IF10484, Defense Primer: Department of the Navy, ,
by Ronald O'Rourke. by Ronald O'Rourke.
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~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~to contribute, alongside Navy and other U.S. military forces, to U.S. operations to counter and~~
~~deny sea control to Chinese forces.~~
~~More specifically, the Marine Corps states that the EABO concept includes, among other things,~~
~~establishing and operating “multiple platoon-reinforced-size expeditionary advance base sites that~~
~~can host and enable a variety of missions such as long-range anti-ship fires, forward arming and~~
~~refueling of aircraft, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance of key maritime terrain, and~~
~~air-defense and early warning,”24 The use of Marine Corps units to contribute to U.S. sea-denial~~
~~operations against an opposing navy by shooting ASCMs would represent a new mission for the~~
~~Marine Corps.25~~
~~Light Amphibious Warships (LAWs) would be instrumental to these operations, with LAWs~~
23 Emailed statement from Marine Corps as quoted in Shawn Snow, “New Marine Littoral Regiment, Designed to Fight in Contested Maritime Environment, Coming to Hawaii,” Marine Times, May 14, 2020. See also David H. Berger, “Preparing for the Future, Marine Corps Support to Joint Operations in Contested Littorals,” Military Review, April 2021, 8 pp. 24 For press articles discussing these envisioned operations, see, for example, Jeff Schogol, “Inside the US Military’s Modern ‘Island Hopping’ Campaign to Take on China,” Task and Purpose, June 16, 2022; Justin Katz, “Marines’ New Warfighting Concept Focuses on Small, Agile Forces with an Eye on China,” Breaking Defense, December 1, 2021; Bill Gertz, “Marine Commandant Reveals New Mission Preparing for China Conflict,” Washington Times, April 21, 2021; Megan Eckstein, “CMC Berger Outlines How Marines Could Fight Submarines in the Future,” USNI News, December 8, 2020; David Axe, “Meet Your New Island-Hopping, Missile-Slinging U.S. Marine Corps,” Forbes, May 14, 2020; Shawn Snow, “New Marine Littoral Regiment, Designed to Fight in Contested Maritime Environment, Congressional Research Service 6 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program LSMs would be instrumental to these operations, with LSMs embarking, transporting, landing, and subsequently reembarking these small Marine Corps units. embarking, transporting, landing, and subsequently reembarking these small Marine Corps units.
An August 27, 2020, press report states, “Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary An August 27, 2020, press report states, “Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary
warfare on the chief of naval operations’ staff (OPNAV N95), said today that LAW was perhaps warfare on the chief of naval operations’ staff (OPNAV N95), said today that LAW was perhaps
the most important investment the Marine Corps was making to optimize itself for expeditionary the most important investment the Marine Corps was making to optimize itself for expeditionary
advance base operations (EABO).”advance base operations (EABO).”2625 A February 2021 Marine Corps tentative manual on EABO A February 2021 Marine Corps tentative manual on EABO
states states
Littoral maneuver will rely heavily on surface platforms such as the light amphibious Littoral maneuver will rely heavily on surface platforms such as the light amphibious
warship (LAW) and a range of surface connectors, as well as aviation assets. The LAW is warship (LAW) and a range of surface connectors, as well as aviation assets. The LAW is
envisioned as the principal littoral maneuver vessel of the littoral force.… envisioned as the principal littoral maneuver vessel of the littoral force.…
The LAW supports the day-to-day maneuver of stand-in forces operating in the LOA The LAW supports the day-to-day maneuver of stand-in forces operating in the LOA
[littoral operations area]. It complements L-class amphibious [littoral operations area]. It complements L-class amphibious ~~ships27~~ships26 and other surface and other surface
connectors. Utilizing the LAW to transport forces of the surface reduces the impacts of connectors. Utilizing the LAW to transport forces of the surface reduces the impacts of
tactical vehicles on the road network, increases deception, and allows for the sustainment tactical vehicles on the road network, increases deception, and allows for the sustainment
of forces during embarkation. The range, endurance, and austere access of LAWs enable of forces during embarkation. The range, endurance, and austere access of LAWs enable
the littoral force to deliver personnel, equipment, and sustainment across a widely the littoral force to deliver personnel, equipment, and sustainment across a widely
distributed area. Shallow draft and beaching capability are keys to providing the volume distributed area. Shallow draft and beaching capability are keys to providing the volume
and agility to maneuver the required capabilities to key maritime terrain. and agility to maneuver the required capabilities to key maritime terrain.

~~24 Emailed statement from Marine Corps as quoted in Shawn Snow, “New Marine Littoral Regiment, Designed to Fight~~
~~in Contested Maritime Environment, Coming to Hawaii,” Marine Times, May 14, 2020. See also David H. Berger,~~
~~“Preparing for the Future, Marine Corps Support to Joint Operations in Contested Littorals,” Military Review, April~~
~~2021, 8 pp.~~
~~25 For press articles discussing these envisioned operations, see, for example, Jeff Schogol, “Inside the US Military’s~~
~~Modern ‘Island Hopping’ Campaign to Take on China,” Task and Purpose, June 16, 2022; Justin Katz, “Marines’ New~~
~~Warfighting Concept Focuses on Small, Agile Forces with an Eye on China,” Breaking Defense, December 1, 2021;~~
~~Bill Gertz, “Marine Commandant Reveals New Mission Preparing for China Conflict,” Washington Times, April 21,~~
~~2021; Megan Eckstein, “CMC Berger Outlines How Marines Could Fight Submarines in the Future,” USNI News,~~
~~December 8, 2020; David Axe, “Meet Your New Island-Hopping, Missile-Slinging U.S. Marine Corps,” Forbes, May~~
~~14, 2020; Shawn Snow, “New Marine Littoral Regiment, Designed to Fight in Contested Maritime Environment,~~
LAW employment requires reconnaissance and prior planning relating to the bathymetry of the littoral environment. Effective LAW employment relies on knowledge of the beach makeup, slope, currents, tidal effects, and other environment factors. As envisioned and when properly postured, LAWs possess the range, endurance, speed, sea-keeping, and C4ISR capabilities to support and conduct complementary operations with, but not as part of, US Navy tactical groups, including an expeditionary strike group (ESG) or amphibious ready group (ARG). Forward-positioned LAWs may augment the capabilities of deploying ARG/MEUs during regional engagement and response to crises or contingencies. The LAW with embarked forces, generates and/or enables the following effects:  Rapidly maneuver forces from shore-to-shore in a contested environment  Sustain a combat-credible force ashore  Conduct enduring operations  Enable persistent joint-force operations and power projection  Provide increased and capable forward presence27 The survivability of the LSMs would come from their ability to hide among islands and other sea traffic, from defensive support they would receive from other U.S. Navy forces, and from the ability of their associated Marine Corps units to fire missiles at Chinese ships and aircraft that Coming to Hawaii,” Coming to Hawaii,” Marine Times, May 14, 2020; William Cole (Honolulu Star-Advertiser), “The Marine Corps Is , May 14, 2020; William Cole (Honolulu Star-Advertiser), “The Marine Corps Is
Forming a First-of-its-Kind Regiment in Hawaii,” Forming a First-of-its-Kind Regiment in Hawaii,” Military.com, May 12, 2020; Joseph Trevithick, “Marines To , May 12, 2020; Joseph Trevithick, “Marines To
Radically Remodel Force, Cutting Tanks, Howitzers In Favor Of Drones, Missiles,” Radically Remodel Force, Cutting Tanks, Howitzers In Favor Of Drones, Missiles,” The Drive, March 23, 2020; Chris , March 23, 2020; Chris
“Ox” Harmer, “Marine Boss’s Audacious Plan To Transform The Corps By Giving Up Big Amphibious Ships,” “Ox” Harmer, “Marine Boss’s Audacious Plan To Transform The Corps By Giving Up Big Amphibious Ships,” The
Drive, September 5, 2019. , September 5, 2019.
2625 Megan Eckstein, “Marines Already In Industry Studies for Light Amphibious Warship, In Bid to Field Them Megan Eckstein, “Marines Already In Industry Studies for Light Amphibious Warship, In Bid to Field Them
ASAP,” ASAP,” USNI News, August 27 (updated August 28), 2020. See also Paul McLeary, “‘If It Floats, It Fights:’ Navy’s , August 27 (updated August 28), 2020. See also Paul McLeary, “‘If It Floats, It Fights:’ Navy’s
New Small Ship Strategy,” New Small Ship Strategy,” Breaking Defense, August 28, 2020. , August 28, 2020.
2726 The term The term L-class amphibious ships refers to the Navy’s LHA/LHD- and LPD-type amphibious ships, whose refers to the Navy’s LHA/LHD- and LPD-type amphibious ships, whose
designation begins with the letter L in reference to amphibious designation begins with the letter L in reference to amphibious landing. .
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~~LAW employment requires reconnaissance and prior planning relating to the bathymetry~~
~~of the littoral environment. Effective LAW employment relies on knowledge of the beach~~
~~makeup, slope, currents, tidal effects, and other environment factors.~~
~~As envisioned and when properly postured, LAWs possess the range, endurance, speed,~~
~~sea-keeping, and C4ISR capabilities to support and conduct complementary operations~~
~~with, but not as part of, US Navy tactical groups, including an expeditionary strike group~~
~~(ESG) or amphibious ready group (ARG). Forward-positioned LAWs may augment the~~
~~capabilities of deploying ARG/MEUs during regional engagement and response to crises~~
~~or contingencies.~~
~~The LAW with embarked forces, generates and/or enables the following effects:~~

~~Rapidly maneuver forces from shore-to-shore in a contested environment~~

~~Sustain a combat-credible force ashore~~

~~Conduct enduring operations~~

~~Enable persistent joint-force operations and power projection~~

~~Provide increased and capable forward presence28~~
~~The survivability of the LAW ships would come from their ability to hide among islands and~~
~~other sea traffic, from defensive support they would receive from other U.S. Navy forces, and~~
~~from the ability of their associated Marine Corps units to fire missiles at Chinese ships and~~
~~aircraft that~~ 27 Department of the Navy, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, Tentative Manual for Expeditionary Advanced Base Operations, February 2021, pp. 7-9 to 7-10. Congressional Research Service 7 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program could attack them with their own missiles (which can be viewed as an application of could attack them with their own missiles (which can be viewed as an application of
the notion that the best defense is a good offense). the notion that the best defense is a good offense).
As a key platform for implementing EABO, the As a key platform for implementing EABO, the ~~LAW~~LSM program forms a part of Force Design program forms a part of Force Design
2030, the Marine Corps’ overall plan for plan for redesigning its units and equipment to meet 2030, the Marine Corps’ overall plan for plan for redesigning its units and equipment to meet
future mission demands.future mission demands.2928
Ship Design
~~Overview~~
~~The Navy wants LAWs~~Design Features as Initially Conceived in 202029 As initially conceived in 2020, the Navy wanted LSMs to be a relatively simple and relatively inexpensive ships with the to be a relatively simple and relatively inexpensive ships with the
following features, among others: following features, among others:
 a length of 200 feet to 400 feet;30  a length of 200 feet to 400 feet;30
 a maximum draft of 12 feet;  a maximum draft of 12 feet;
 a displacement of up to 4,000 tons;31  a displacement of up to 4,000 tons;31
 a ship’s crew of no more than 40 Navy sailors;32  a ship’s crew of no more than 40 Navy sailors;32

~~28 Department of the Navy, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps,~~ ~~Tentative Manual for Expeditionary Advanced Base~~
~~Operations, February 2021, pp. 7-9 to 7-10.~~
~~29 For more on Force Design 2030, see CRS Insight IN11281,~~ ~~New U.S. Marine Corps Force Design Initiative: Force~~
~~Design 2030, by Andrew Feickert.~~
~~30 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News,~~
~~November 19, 2020.~~
~~31 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News,~~
~~November 19, 2020.~~
~~32 A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law program that Navy~~
~~released on October 16, 2020, states that “The ship shall be capable of at least 11 day missions without replenishment~~
~~for 40 crew and 50 embarked personnel.” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of Requirements (CoR), Draft~~
~~for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI: DRAFT US Navy Light~~
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~~ an ability to embark at least 75 Marines;~~
~~ 4,000 to 8,000 square feet of cargo area for the Marines’ weapons, equipment,~~
~~and supplies;33~~
~~ a stern or bow landing ramp for moving the Marines and their weapons,~~
~~equipment, and supplies the ship to shore (and vice versa) across a beach;~~
~~ a modest suite of C4I equipment;34~~
 an ability to embark at least 75 Marines;  4,000 to 8,000 square feet of cargo area for the Marines’ weapons, equipment, and supplies;33  a stern or bow landing ramp for moving the Marines and their weapons, equipment, and supplies the ship to shore (and vice versa) across a beach;  a modest suite of C4I equipment;34 28 For more on Force Design 2030, see CRS Insight IN11281, New U.S. Marine Corps Force Design Initiative: Force Design 2030, by Andrew Feickert. 29 Unless otherwise stated, information in this section about the LSM is taken from Navy briefing slides and Navy answers to industry questions from LSM program industry days that were held on March 4 and April 9, 2020. For the March 4, 2020, briefing slides and associated Navy answers to industry question, see “RFI: US Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW),” Instant Markets, accessed April 13, 2023, at https://www.instantmarkets.com/view/ID241536789711670668083773673995473423370/RFI_US_Navy_Light_Amphibious_Warship_LAW. 30 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, November 19, 2020. 31 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, November 19, 2020. 32 A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that “The ship shall be capable of at least 11 day missions without replenishment for 40 crew and 50 embarked personnel.” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI: DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov, accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.) 33 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that the “ship shall have a cargo deck capable of carrying 648 ST [short tons] and a minimum deck area of 8000” square feet. (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 5 of 19, attachment to “RFI: DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov, accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.) 34 C4I is command and control, communications, computers, and intelligence. Congressional Research Service 8 link to page 6 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program  a 25mm or 30mm gun system and .50 caliber machine guns for self-defense;  a 25mm or 30mm gun system and .50 caliber machine guns for self-defense;
 a transit speed of at least 14 knots, and preferably 15 knots;35  a transit speed of at least 14 knots, and preferably 15 knots;35
 a minimum unrefueled transit range of 3,500 nautical miles;36  a minimum unrefueled transit range of 3,500 nautical miles;36
 a “Tier 2+” plus level of survivability (i.e., ruggedness for withstanding battle  a “Tier 2+” plus level of survivability (i.e., ruggedness for withstanding battle
damage)—a level, broadly comparable to that of a smaller U.S. Navy surface damage)—a level, broadly comparable to that of a smaller U.S. Navy surface
combatant (i.e., a corvette or frigate), that would permit the ship to absorb a hit combatant (i.e., a corvette or frigate), that would permit the ship to absorb a hit
from an enemy weapon and keep the crew safe until they and their equipment from an enemy weapon and keep the crew safe until they and their equipment
and supplies can be transferred to another and supplies can be transferred to another ~~LAW~~LSM;37 ;37
 an ability to operate within fleet groups or deploy independently; and  an ability to operate within fleet groups or deploy independently; and
 a 20-year expected service life.38  a 20-year expected service life.38
In addition to the above points, the Navy In addition to the above points, the Navy ~~states~~stated that the that the ~~LAW~~LSM’s design ’s design ~~can~~could be based on a commercial-ship design. A ship fitting the requirements listed above would be only a fraction as large as the Navy’s current amphibious ships. The Navy’s LHA/LHD-type ships are 844 to 855 feet long and have a full load displacements between 40,000 and 45,000 tons, while its and LPD-17 class ships are 684 feet long and have a full load displacement of 24,900 tons. As noted in the third bullet point above, the LSM is to have a displacement of up to 4,000 tons—about 1/10th or 1/11th the displacement of an LHA/LHD-type ship, and about 1/6th the displacement of an LPD-17 class ships. The above-listed maximum draft of 12 feet is intended to permit the ship to transit shallow waters on its way to and from landing beaches. The Navy’s preference was that the ship’s cargo space be in the form of open deck storage. Unlike most of the Navy’s current amphibious ships, the LSM would not have a well deck.39 The above-listed transit speed of about 15 knots would be less than the approximate 22-knot maximum sustained speed of larger U.S. Navy amphibious ships, but would be a relatively fuel-efficient speed for moving ships through water,40 which would permit ~~be based on a~~
~~commercial-ship design.~~

~~Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov, accessed November 23,~~
~~2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.)~~
~~33 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News,~~
~~November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law~~
~~program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that the “ship shall have a cargo deck capable of carrying 648~~
~~ST [short tons] and a minimum deck area of 8000” square feet. (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of~~
~~Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 5 of 19, attachment to “RFI:~~
~~DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov,~~
~~accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.)~~
~~34 C4I is command and control, communications, computers, and intelligence.~~
35 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” 35 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, ,
November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law
program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that the “ship shall be capable of a minimum transit speed of program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that the “ship shall be capable of a minimum transit speed of
14 knots in Sea State three (SS3) at the ship’s full load condition….” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of 14 knots in Sea State three (SS3) at the ship’s full load condition….” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of
Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI: Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI:
DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov, DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov,
accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.) accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.)
36 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” 36 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, ,
November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law November 19, 2020. A draft circular of requirements (CoR) attached to a request for information (RFI) on the Law
program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that The ship shall be capable of 3500 nautical miles endurance program that Navy released on October 16, 2020, states that The ship shall be capable of 3500 nautical miles endurance
at 14 knots without refueling at the ship’s full load condition….” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of at 14 knots without refueling at the ship’s full load condition….” (“Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Circular of
Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI: Requirements (CoR), Draft for Preliminary Design RFI, Ver 0.12, 10-13-20, PDF page 6 of 19, attachment to “RFI:
DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov, DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” Beta.sam.gov,
accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.) accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?index=opp.)
37 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” 37 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, ,
November 19, 2020. November 19, 2020.
38 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” 38 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, ,
November 19, 2020. See also Mallory Shelbourne and Sam LaGrone, “Navy, Marines Want the Light Amphibious November 19, 2020. See also Mallory Shelbourne and Sam LaGrone, “Navy, Marines Want the Light Amphibious
Warship to Haul 75 Marines for $150M or Less,” Warship to Haul 75 Marines for $150M or Less,” USNI News, February 10, 2022. , February 10, 2022.
~~Congressional Research Service~~
8

~~link to page 6~~ ~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~A ship fitting the requirements listed above would be only a fraction as large as the Navy’s~~
~~current amphibious ships. The Navy’s LHA/LHD-type ships are 844 to 855 feet long and have a~~
~~full load displacements between 40,000 and 45,000 tons, while its and LPD-17 class ships are 684~~
~~feet long and have a full load displacement of 24,900 tons. As noted in the third bullet point~~
~~above, the LAW is to have a displacement of up to 4,000 tons—about 1/10th or 1/11th the~~
~~displacement of an LHA/LHD-type ship, and about 1/6th the displacement of an LPD-17 class~~
~~ships.~~
~~The LAW’s maximum draft of 12 feet is intended to permit the ship to transit shallow waters on~~
~~its way to and from landing beaches. The Navy prefers that the ship’s cargo space be in the form~~
~~of open deck storage. Unlike most of the Navy’s current amphibious ships, the LAW would not~~
~~have a well deck.39 A transit speed of about 15 knots would be less than the approximate 22-knot~~
~~maximum sustained speed of larger U.S. Navy amphibious ships, but it is a relatively fuel-~~
~~efficient speed for moving ships through water,40 which would permit~~ 39 As noted in footnote 4, a well deck is a large, covered, garage-like space in the stern of the ship. It can be flooded with water so that landing craft can leave or return to the ship. Access to the well deck is protected by a large stern gate that is somewhat like a garage door. 40 Due to the density of water, fuel consumption for moving monohull ships through the water tends to increase steeply Congressional Research Service 9 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program the ship to be equipped the ship to be equipped
with a less powerful and consequently less expensive propulsion plant. with a less powerful and consequently less expensive propulsion plant. The above-listed ~~The~~ 20-year expected 20-year expected
service life is less than the 30- to 45-year expected service lives of larger U.S. Navy amphibious service life is less than the 30- to 45-year expected service lives of larger U.S. Navy amphibious
ships—a difference that could reduce the ships—a difference that could reduce the ~~LAW~~LSM’s construction cost for a ship of its type and ’s construction cost for a ship of its type and
size—and closer to the 25-year expected service life of the Navy’s Littoral Combat Ships size—and closer to the 25-year expected service life of the Navy’s Littoral Combat Ships
(LCSs).41 (LCSs).41
Subsequent Navy-Marine Corps Discussion on ~~LAW~~LSM Design Features
The Navy and Marine Corps reportedly have been discussing and debating some of The Navy and Marine Corps reportedly have been discussing and debating some of ~~LAW~~LSM’s ’s
design features, with a key issue being the amount of combat survivability to be incorporated into design features, with a key issue being the amount of combat survivability to be incorporated into
the the ~~LAW~~LSM’s design, and the impact this would have on the ’s design, and the impact this would have on the ~~LAW~~LSM’s unit procurement cost.’s unit procurement cost. A
A September 14, 2022, press report stated September 14, 2022, press report stated
The Marine Corps and Navy remain at an impasse over the future of the Light Amphibious The Marine Corps and Navy remain at an impasse over the future of the Light Amphibious
Warship, as skepticism about the program’s viability mounts due to the internal division, Warship, as skepticism about the program’s viability mounts due to the internal division,
sources familiar with the program have told USNI News.... sources familiar with the program have told USNI News....
The division between the two services largely comes down to survivability, or what types The division between the two services largely comes down to survivability, or what types
of weapons and armors to place on a ship that would operate in the first island chain,42 of weapons and armors to place on a ship that would operate in the first island chain,42
within range of Chinese missiles. within range of Chinese missiles.
Adding more weapons and armor to LAW makes the ship more expensive. Projections in Adding more weapons and armor to LAW makes the ship more expensive. Projections in
2020 called for each LAW to cost $100 million, a number described as unrealistic by the 2020 called for each LAW to cost $100 million, a number described as unrealistic by the
person familiar with program discussions. Now the Marine Corps wants the ship to cost person familiar with program discussions. Now the Marine Corps wants the ship to cost
around $150 million apiece so it can buy more of them, while the Navy is pushing for a around $150 million apiece so it can buy more of them, while the Navy is pushing for a
more survivable ship that would end up costing about $300 million each.43 more survivable ship that would end up costing about $300 million each.43

~~39 As noted in footnote 4, a well deck is a large, covered, garage-like space in the stern of the ship. It can be flooded~~
~~with water so that landing craft can leave or return to the ship. Access to the well deck is protected by a large stern gate~~
~~that is somewhat like a garage door.~~
~~40 Due to the density of water, fuel consumption for moving monohull ships through the water tends to increase steeply~~
An October 5, 2022, press report states The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, facing a decision point early next year on the light amphibious warship, are working to balance the Corps’ focus on affordability with the Navy’s push for survivability. Lt. Gen. Karsten Heckl, the deputy commandant for combat development and integration, told Defense News the two services are emerging from an initial disagreement about the cost and capabilities of this new platform. The Marine Corps, since the early days of the light amphibious warship program, has aimed for a price of $100 million to $130 million a copy. But the Navy—whose sailors would drive and maintain the ship—and the Office of the Secretary of Defense wanted much greater protection for the personnel onboard, tripling the cost and leading the Navy to plan to buy just 18 instead of the Marines’ stated objective of 35. “What should be a $120-$130 million ship should not be north of $350 million a copy,” Heckl said. for speeds above 14 to 16 knots. for speeds above 14 to 16 knots.
41 For more on the LCS program, see CRS Report RL33741, 41 For more on the LCS program, see CRS Report RL33741, Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) Program: Background
and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. , by Ronald O'Rourke.
42 The term 42 The term first island chain refers to the large and small islands that together enclose China’s near-seas region, refers to the large and small islands that together enclose China’s near-seas region,
including the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. For a map showing the first island chain, see including the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. For a map showing the first island chain, see
Department of Defense, Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2022, Annual
Report to Congress, released on November 29, 2022, p. 67. , released on November 29, 2022, p. 67.
43 Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps, Navy Remain Split Over Design, Number of Future Light Amphibious 43 Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps, Navy Remain Split Over Design, Number of Future Light Amphibious
Warship, Divide Risks Stalling Program,” Warship, Divide Risks Stalling Program,” USNI News, September 14 (updated September 15), 2022. , September 14 (updated September 15), 2022.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
910

Navy ~~Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~An October 5, 2022, press report states~~
~~The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps, facing a decision point early next year on the light~~
~~amphibious warship, are working to balance the Corps’ focus on affordability with the~~
~~Navy’s push for survivability.~~
~~Lt. Gen. Karsten Heckl, the deputy commandant for combat development and integration,~~
~~told Defense News the two services are emerging from an initial disagreement about the~~
~~cost and capabilities of this new platform.~~
~~The Marine Corps, since the early days of the light amphibious warship program, has aimed~~
~~for a price of $100 million to $130 million a copy. But the Navy—whose sailors would~~
~~drive and maintain the ship—and the Office of the Secretary of Defense wanted much~~
~~greater protection for the personnel onboard, tripling the cost and leading the Navy to plan~~
~~to buy just 18 instead of the Marines’ stated objective of 35.~~
~~“What should be a $120-$130 million ship should not be north of $350 million a copy,”~~
~~Heckl said.~~Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program
Though the platforms will have to be tougher than a commercial vessel, Heckl said the Though the platforms will have to be tougher than a commercial vessel, Heckl said the
light amphib is meant to appear like a commercial craft—to “hide in plain sight.” light amphib is meant to appear like a commercial craft—to “hide in plain sight.”
“The [Indo-Pacific] sea lines of communication are the most traversed sea lines in the “The [Indo-Pacific] sea lines of communication are the most traversed sea lines in the
world; it would be a challenge for any power to surveil everything all the time in that area,” world; it would be a challenge for any power to surveil everything all the time in that area,”
he said. “However, if you don’t look like everything else you’re trying to blend in with, he said. “However, if you don’t look like everything else you’re trying to blend in with,
you make your adversary’s problem set much simpler.” you make your adversary’s problem set much simpler.”
The Marines don’t envision using this vessel during combat operations either, the general The Marines don’t envision using this vessel during combat operations either, the general
said. said.
If there are indications a conflict may break out, the combatant commander would order If there are indications a conflict may break out, the combatant commander would order
the light amphibious warships, or LAW, to quickly relocate Marines or resupply units, “and the light amphibious warships, or LAW, to quickly relocate Marines or resupply units, “and
then it goes into hiding, it goes into bed-down somewhere. Nowhere do we envision the then it goes into hiding, it goes into bed-down somewhere. Nowhere do we envision the
LAW out transiting the sea lanes in the middle of a kinetic fight.” LAW out transiting the sea lanes in the middle of a kinetic fight.”
After several meetings between Heckl’s team and the Navy’s Program Executive Office After several meetings between Heckl’s team and the Navy’s Program Executive Office
for Ships and the assistant secretary for research, development and acquisition, Heckl said for Ships and the assistant secretary for research, development and acquisition, Heckl said
the group agreed “there is a lot of maneuver space” to come to an agreement and keep the the group agreed “there is a lot of maneuver space” to come to an agreement and keep the
program on track for its planned fiscal 2025 start of construction. program on track for its planned fiscal 2025 start of construction.
Five companies are working on preliminary designs following a June 2021 contract award, Five companies are working on preliminary designs following a June 2021 contract award,
and the Navy-Marine team will review those designs in January, Heckl said. At that point, and the Navy-Marine team will review those designs in January, Heckl said. At that point,
with industry input in hand and an agreement in place over the right balance of survivability with industry input in hand and an agreement in place over the right balance of survivability
versus cost, he said the team will be in a better place to decide what that balance of versus cost, he said the team will be in a better place to decide what that balance of
survivability and affordability looks like and which companies are equipped to build that survivability and affordability looks like and which companies are equipped to build that
vessel.... vessel....
[Lt. Gen. David Furness, the deputy commandant for plans, policies and operations] said [Lt. Gen. David Furness, the deputy commandant for plans, policies and operations] said
the way the light amphibious warships operate would mitigate the risk China defeats them. the way the light amphibious warships operate would mitigate the risk China defeats them.
These ships would operate in and around the 7,000 islands of the Philippines, for example, These ships would operate in and around the 7,000 islands of the Philippines, for example,
blending in with local commercial craft and not likely to become a target for Chinese blending in with local commercial craft and not likely to become a target for Chinese
precision missiles. precision missiles.
Heckl acknowledged the ships might be operating within the range of Chinese anti-ship Heckl acknowledged the ships might be operating within the range of Chinese anti-ship
missiles, but said the military too often focuses “on worst-case scenario, which drives us missiles, but said the military too often focuses “on worst-case scenario, which drives us
into situations where the force becomes just simply unaffordable and unattainable.”44 into situations where the force becomes just simply unaffordable and unattainable.”44

~~44 Megan Eckstein, “Marines, Navy Near Agreement on Light Amphibious Warship Features,” Navy Times, October 5,~~
~~2022.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
10

~~link to page 15 link to page 16 link to page 16~~

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~Renderings of One Firm’s LAW Design~~
~~Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3~~ ~~show one firm’s LAW design~~ A February 17, 2023, press report stated: A top Marine Corps official here this week dismissed concerns the services new Medium Landing Ships (LSM), formerly called the Light Amphibious Warship (LAW), are not survivable enough, arguing there is always a balance. “Survivability is a discussion that I have all the time. Survivability is not binary. It’s not black or white, yes or no, zero or one. Things are made more survivable when you add resources to make their movements more secure. Nothing in and of itself is ‘survivable,’” Gen. Eric Smith, Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps (ACMC), said here Wednesday [February 15] during the annual WEST conference, sponsored by AFCEA International and the U.S. Naval Institute.45 A February 24, 2023, press report stated: 44 Megan Eckstein, “Marines, Navy Near Agreement on Light Amphibious Warship Features,” Navy Times, October 5, 2022. 45 Rich Abott, “Marine Official Dismisses Medium Amphib Survivability Concerns,” Defense Daily, February 17, 2023. Congressional Research Service 11 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Several Navy officials recently confirmed the Navy and Marine Corps compromised on designs for the new Landing Ship Medium (LSM) and laid out the upcoming schedule, but also said it will be a warship that goes into contested environments.... “That has been resolved…but in general, it’s like a marriage, compromise is important. And I will say that in the end everybody lined up on the requirements,” Tom Rivers, executive director at program executive office, ships, said during the National Defense Industrial Association’s (NDIA) annual Expeditionary Warfare Conference on Feb. 23. Angela Bonner, deputy program manager of the Amphibious Assault and Connectors program office, PMS-317, said that over the last year the two services agreed on the requirements for LSM and the Navy completed preliminary design.46 A February 28, 2023, press report stated: The Marine Corps will experiment on the commercial ship it leased to help decide what capabilities its planned medium landing ships will require, officials said. The Marine Corps Warfighting Lab plans to lease a total of three Stern Landing Vessels, or SLVs. The first has been heavily modified and is expected to arrive in San Diego for testing and evaluation in late March or early April. The other two are likely to be leased next year, and may sport different modifications. After the experiments, they will become part of a “bridging solution” for shore-to-shore operations.47 An April 4, 2023, press report states: The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps are nearing agreement on the requirements and cost of the Landing Ship Medium program, formerly called the Light Amphibious Warship, after the services previously diverged in their visions for this program, officials said. The capability development document for the program has been drafted and is working its way through the approval process now, Brig. Gen. Marcus Annibale, the director of expeditionary warfare on the chief of naval operations’ staff, said Tuesday [April 4] at the Navy League’s annual Sea Air Space conference.... Vice Adm. Scott Conn, the deputy chief of naval operations for warfighting requirements and capabilities, said during the same panel discussion that there had been a “healthy friction” over the requirements and cost of the ship but that “there is no daylight between us” on the importance of getting this small ship out to the fleet. Lt. Gen. Karsten Heckl, the deputy commandant of the Marine Corps for combat development and integration, said during the panel discussion that his office, working with Conn’s and Annibale’s teams and the Program Executive Office for Ships, “found some pretty good middle ground on recoverability and vulnerability additions we’re going to put into the medium landing ship, LSM, that I think are going to be very helpful.” “A very large part of the concept initially was, low cost, large numbers, hide in plain sight. We did not want to look like a military vessel. We’re talking about the most traversed maritime lanes in the world; we needed to look and sound like other vessels, to make it a little more difficult” for China or other adversaries to detect Marines on these ships. 46 Rich Abott, “Navy And Marine Corps Compromised On Medium Amphibs Requirements And Will Go Into Contested Environments, Officials Say,” Defense Daily, February 24, 2023. 47 Jennifer Hlad, “Leased Ship Will Shape USMC Amphib Requirements,” Defense One, February 28, 2023. See also Mallory Shelbourne, “Marines to Test Prototype Landing Ship to Support New Force Design,” USNI News, February 27 (updated March 1), 2023; Jennifer Hlad and Lauren C. Williams, “Marines to Begin Testing Leased Vessel for Pier-less Operations,” Defense One, February 22, 2023. Congressional Research Service 12 link to page 17 link to page 18 link to page 18 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Though the discussions with the Navy and the Office of the Secretary of Defense had previously led to much greater requirements for capability and survivability, and therefore much greater cost, “we’re coming back around to the size and correspondently the cost … where we initially had our sights,” Heckl said.... Annibale said PEO Ships commander Rear Adm. Tom Anderson will host an industry engagement day after the capability development document is signed. He hopes this will be a chance for the Navy and Marines to explain what they want to do with this ship and why, which may inspire better ideas from engineers than will the thick stack of paper outlining the formal requirements.48 Renderings of One Firm’s LSM Design as of 2021 Figure 1, Figure 2, and Figure 3 show one firm’s LSM design as of 2021. The design reportedly has a . The design reportedly has a
length of 120 meters (about 394 feet), a displacement of 4,500 tons, and 10,500 square feet of length of 120 meters (about 394 feet), a displacement of 4,500 tons, and 10,500 square feet of
deck space for rolling stock or other cargoes.deck space for rolling stock or other cargoes.4549 The Navy’s eventual preferred design for the The Navy’s eventual preferred design for the ~~LAW~~
LSM might or might not look like this design. might or might not look like this design.
~~Potential Builders~~
~~The LAW as outlined by the Navy could be built by any of several U.S. shipyards.~~
Figure 1. One Firm’s Design for ~~LAW~~LSM
Artist’s rendering Artist’s rendering

Source: Cropped version of il ustration of Austal USA’s design for Cropped version of il ustration of Austal USA’s design for ~~LAW~~LSM accompanying Martin Manaranche, accompanying Martin Manaranche,
“Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Naval News, August 3, 2021. A caption credits the , August 3, 2021. A caption credits the
il ustration to Austal. il ustration to Austal.

4548 Megan Eckstein, “Landing Ship Medium Requirements in Final Approvals with Navy, Marines,” Defense News, April 4, 2023. 49 Martin Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Martin Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Naval News, August 3, 2021. See , August 3, 2021. See
also Thomas Newdick, “Austal’s Light Amphibious Warship Design Is A Throwback To WWII’s Tank Landing also Thomas Newdick, “Austal’s Light Amphibious Warship Design Is A Throwback To WWII’s Tank Landing
Ships,” Ships,” The Drive, August 6, 2021. , August 6, 2021.
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Figure 2. One Firm’s Design for ~~LAW~~LSM
Photograph of model displayed at trade show Photograph of model displayed at trade show

Source: Cropped version of photograph of model of Austal USA’s design for Cropped version of photograph of model of Austal USA’s design for ~~LAW~~LSM accompanying Martin accompanying Martin
Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Naval News, August 3, 2021. The model , August 3, 2021. The model
was displayed at the Sea Air Space 2021 exposition. was displayed at the Sea Air Space 2021 exposition.
Figure 3. One Firm’s Design for ~~LAW~~LSM
Photograph of model displayed at trade show Photograph of model displayed at trade show

Source: Cropped version of photograph of model of Austal USA’s design for Cropped version of photograph of model of Austal USA’s design for ~~LAW~~LSM accompanying Martin accompanying Martin
Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Manaranche, “Sea Air Space 2021: Austal USA Unveils Its LAW Design,” Naval News, August 3, 2021. The model , August 3, 2021. The model
was displayed at the Sea Air Space 2021 exposition. was displayed at the Sea Air Space 2021 exposition.
Potential Builders The LSM as outlined by the Navy could be built by any of several U.S. shipyards. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
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Acquisition Strategy
Overview
The Navy’s baseline preference is to have a single shipyard build all the ships in the The Navy’s baseline preference is to have a single shipyard build all the ships in the ~~LAW~~LSM
program, but the Navy is open to having program, but the Navy is open to having ~~LAWs~~LSMs built in multiple yards to the same design if doing built in multiple yards to the same design if doing
so could permit the program to be implemented more quickly and/or less expensively.so could permit the program to be implemented more quickly and/or less expensively.4650 As noted As noted
earlier, the Navy’s earlier, the Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget submission states that the contract for the construction of the budget submission states that the contract for the construction of the
first first ~~LAW~~LSM would be awarded in would be awarded in ~~December 2024~~March 2025. .
Reported July 2020 Contract Awards
An October 6, 2020, press report stated that the Navy in July 2020 awarded contracts for An October 6, 2020, press report stated that the Navy in July 2020 awarded contracts for ~~LAW~~LSM
concept design studies to 15 firms, with the studies due in November 2020. According to the concept design studies to 15 firms, with the studies due in November 2020. According to the
press report, the 15 companies awarded contracts included Austal USE, BMT Designers, press report, the 15 companies awarded contracts included Austal USE, BMT Designers,
Bollinger Shipyards, Crescere Marine Engineering, Damen, Hyak Marine, Independent Maritime Bollinger Shipyards, Crescere Marine Engineering, Damen, Hyak Marine, Independent Maritime
Assessment Associates, Nichols Brothers Boat Builders, Sea Transport, Serco, St John Assessment Associates, Nichols Brothers Boat Builders, Sea Transport, Serco, St John
Shipbuilding, Swiftships, Technology Associates, Thoma-Sea, and VT Halter Marine. The studies Shipbuilding, Swiftships, Technology Associates, Thoma-Sea, and VT Halter Marine. The studies
reportedly were intended to help inform concepts of operation, technical risk, and cost estimates reportedly were intended to help inform concepts of operation, technical risk, and cost estimates
for the for the ~~LAW~~LSM program, in support of a planned lead-ship contract award in FY2022. An August program, in support of a planned lead-ship contract award in FY2022. An August
27, 2020, press report states 27, 2020, press report states
The Navy and Marine Corps’ new Light Amphibious Warship program is already in The Navy and Marine Corps’ new Light Amphibious Warship program is already in
industry studies, with the service pushing ahead as quickly as possible in an industry studies, with the service pushing ahead as quickly as possible in an
acknowledgement that they’re already behind in their transformation of the force. acknowledgement that they’re already behind in their transformation of the force.
Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary warfare on the chief of naval Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary warfare on the chief of naval
operations’ staff (OPNAV N95), saidoperations’ staff (OPNAV N95), said today that LAW was perhaps the most important today that LAW was perhaps the most important
investment the Marine Corps was making to optimize itself for expeditionary advance base investment the Marine Corps was making to optimize itself for expeditionary advance base
operations (EABO). operations (EABO).
“Having these LAWs out there as an extension of the fleet, under the watchful eye of our “Having these LAWs out there as an extension of the fleet, under the watchful eye of our
Navy, engaging with our partners and allies, building partner capacity, is what I think we Navy, engaging with our partners and allies, building partner capacity, is what I think we
need to be doing right now. I think we’re late to need with building the Light Amphibious need to be doing right now. I think we’re late to need with building the Light Amphibious
Warship, which is why we’re trying to go so quickly,” he said, saying that N95 was copying Warship, which is why we’re trying to go so quickly,” he said, saying that N95 was copying
the surface warfare directorate’s playbook from the frigate program, which moved quickly the surface warfare directorate’s playbook from the frigate program, which moved quickly

4650 The Q&A document from the Navy’s April 9, 2020, industry day on the LAW program (see footnote The Q&A document from the Navy’s April 9, 2020, industry day on the LAW program (see footnote 1729) states states
Q [from industry]: Once [the industry] studies are done, what is the likelihood of [the Navy Q [from industry]: Once [the industry] studies are done, what is the likelihood of [the Navy
making] multiple [contract] awards [for the next stage]? making] multiple [contract] awards [for the next stage]?
A [from Navy]: When the [industry] studies are done, there will be multiple [contract] awards for A [from Navy]: When the [industry] studies are done, there will be multiple [contract] awards for
preliminary design [work]. Then [the Navy will] down select for a [preferred] prototype. [There is] preliminary design [work]. Then [the Navy will] down select for a [preferred] prototype. [There is]
No plan for [building the ships at] multiple [ship]yards and [building them to multiple] designs like No plan for [building the ships at] multiple [ship]yards and [building them to multiple] designs like
[the] LCS [Littoral Combat Ship program]. It’s too hard of a logistics tail [to provide lifecycle [the] LCS [Littoral Combat Ship program]. It’s too hard of a logistics tail [to provide lifecycle
support for ships built to multiple designs]. But options are open if it is cheaper/faster. support for ships built to multiple designs]. But options are open if it is cheaper/faster.
Q [from industry]: Do you envision something similar to LCS variance [sic: variants]? Multiple Q [from industry]: Do you envision something similar to LCS variance [sic: variants]? Multiple
yards and designs? yards and designs?
A [from Navy]: No, it involves too much logistics and O&S [operation and support costs]. This A [from Navy]: No, it involves too much logistics and O&S [operation and support costs]. This
drives overall costs initially [i.e., locks higher life-cycle support costs into the program from the drives overall costs initially [i.e., locks higher life-cycle support costs into the program from the
outset of the program] and we’re not trying to go down that path. As we’ve said before, if studies outset of the program] and we’re not trying to go down that path. As we’ve said before, if studies
tell us we are wrong, if it’s affordable and fields faster, then we won’t ignore it. The data and cost tell us we are wrong, if it’s affordable and fields faster, then we won’t ignore it. The data and cost
drivers will help us decide. The Government wants to field [the ships] as rapidly as possible, and drivers will help us decide. The Government wants to field [the ships] as rapidly as possible, and
we believe that using multiple yards is not the best and most affordable path. we believe that using multiple yards is not the best and most affordable path.
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from requirements-development to design to getting under contract thanks to the use of from requirements-development to design to getting under contract thanks to the use of
mature technology and designs from industry.mature technology and designs from industry.4751
October 2020 Request for Information (RFI)
On October 16, 2020, the Navy released a request for information (RFI) to solicit industry input On October 16, 2020, the Navy released a request for information (RFI) to solicit industry input
on draft versions of documents relating to an eventual solicitation for conducting design work on on draft versions of documents relating to an eventual solicitation for conducting design work on
the ship.the ship.4852
November 2020 Press Report About Concept Designs
A November 9, 2020, press report stated that, as part of its A November 9, 2020, press report stated that, as part of its ~~LAW~~LSM industry studies, the Navy had industry studies, the Navy had
received nine received nine ~~LAW~~LSM concept designs from 16 design firms and shipyards, some of which have concept designs from 16 design firms and shipyards, some of which have
paired into teams. The report quoted a Navy official as stating that the following firms were paired into teams. The report quoted a Navy official as stating that the following firms were
participating in the industry studies: Austal USA, BMT Designers, Bollinger Shipyards, Crescere participating in the industry studies: Austal USA, BMT Designers, Bollinger Shipyards, Crescere
Marine Engineering, Damen, Hyak Marine, Independent Maritime Assessment Associates, Marine Engineering, Damen, Hyak Marine, Independent Maritime Assessment Associates,
Nichols Brothers Boat Builders, Sea Transport, Serco, St. John Shipbuilding, Swiftships, Nichols Brothers Boat Builders, Sea Transport, Serco, St. John Shipbuilding, Swiftships,
Technology Associates Inc., Thoma-Sea, VT Halter Marine and Fincantieri.Technology Associates Inc., Thoma-Sea, VT Halter Marine and Fincantieri.4953 A November 19, A November 19,
2020, press report stated that “about six industry teams are working with the sea services [i.e., the 2020, press report stated that “about six industry teams are working with the sea services [i.e., the
Navy and Marine Corps] after two industry days and industry studies over the summer.Navy and Marine Corps] after two industry days and industry studies over the summer.5054
A January 11, 2021, press report stated A January 11, 2021, press report stated
The Navy and Marine Corps are quickly seeking new ideas that allow Marines to support The Navy and Marine Corps are quickly seeking new ideas that allow Marines to support
the Navy in sea control and other maritime missions, including the rapid acquisition of a the Navy in sea control and other maritime missions, including the rapid acquisition of a
light amphibious ship and a movement toward using Marine weapons while at sea. light amphibious ship and a movement toward using Marine weapons while at sea.
Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary warfare on the chief of naval Maj. Gen. Tracy King, the director of expeditionary warfare on the chief of naval
operations’ staff (OPNAV N95), told USNI News during a Jan. 8 media call that the operations’ staff (OPNAV N95), told USNI News during a Jan. 8 media call that the
services are moving quickly to buy their first light amphibious warship (LAW) in Fiscal services are moving quickly to buy their first light amphibious warship (LAW) in Fiscal
Year 2022, as outlined in the recent long-range shipbuilding plan. Year 2022, as outlined in the recent long-range shipbuilding plan.
“We’re moving out at flank speed; I got a chance to brief the CNO and the commandant “We’re moving out at flank speed; I got a chance to brief the CNO and the commandant
recently, and they told me to maintain course and heading,” he said during the media call recently, and they told me to maintain course and heading,” he said during the media call
ahead of the annual Surface Navy Association symposium. ahead of the annual Surface Navy Association symposium.
“We’re going through the formal JCIDS (Joint Capabilities Integration and Development “We’re going through the formal JCIDS (Joint Capabilities Integration and Development
System) process right now. [Naval Sea Systems Command] has completed its second System) process right now. [Naval Sea Systems Command] has completed its second
industry studies, and we’re working on all those documents.” industry studies, and we’re working on all those documents.”
For now, 10 or 11 industry teams remain involved in the NAVSEA competition, which For now, 10 or 11 industry teams remain involved in the NAVSEA competition, which
recently held a second round of industry studies. NAVSEA is working with those teams to recently held a second round of industry studies. NAVSEA is working with those teams to
help iterate what King called “novel” designs, to ensure they were the right size and could help iterate what King called “novel” designs, to ensure they were the right size and could

4751 Megan Eckstein, “Marines Already In Industry Studies for Light Amphibious Warship, In Bid to Field Them Megan Eckstein, “Marines Already In Industry Studies for Light Amphibious Warship, In Bid to Field Them
ASAP,” ASAP,” USNI News, August 27 (updated August 28), 2020. See also Rich Abott, “Marine Corps In Industry Studies , August 27 (updated August 28), 2020. See also Rich Abott, “Marine Corps In Industry Studies
For Light Amphibious Warship, Trying To Move Quickly,” For Light Amphibious Warship, Trying To Move Quickly,” Defense Daily, August 28, 2020. , August 28, 2020.
4852 See “RFI: DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,” See “RFI: DRAFT US Navy Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design/Contract Design Statement of Work,”
Beta.sam.gov, accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?Beta.sam.gov, accessed November 23, 2020, at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/c1c8a3900504442fa5ad3bac48cec001/view?
index=opp. See also Rich Abott, “Navy Issues RFI For Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design,” index=opp. See also Rich Abott, “Navy Issues RFI For Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Design,” Defense
Daily, October 19, 2020; Aidan Quigley, “Navy Solicits Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Designs,” , October 19, 2020; Aidan Quigley, “Navy Solicits Light Amphibious Warship Preliminary Designs,” Inside
Defense, October 19, 2020. , October 19, 2020.
4953 Aidan Quigley, “Nine Concept Designs Submitted for LAW Industry Studies,” Aidan Quigley, “Nine Concept Designs Submitted for LAW Industry Studies,” Inside Defense, November 9, 2020. ense, November 9, 2020.
5054 Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” Megan Eckstein, “Navy Officials Reveal Details of New $100M Light Amphibious Warship Concept,” USNI News, ,
November 19, 2020. November 19, 2020.
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achieve cost and performance requirements. Mid next year, he said, NAVSEA would achieve cost and performance requirements. Mid next year, he said, NAVSEA would
downselect to three teams for full design, and then would downselect to just one to build downselect to three teams for full design, and then would downselect to just one to build
the first LAW in late FY2022. the first LAW in late FY2022.
“My suspicion is that we’ll begin [research, development, test and evaluation] next year, “My suspicion is that we’ll begin [research, development, test and evaluation] next year,
and then we are aiming at lead ship construction in FY ’22, it’s going to be late in FY ’22 and then we are aiming at lead ship construction in FY ’22, it’s going to be late in FY ’22
,but I still consider that pretty fast,” King said. ,but I still consider that pretty fast,” King said.
“We’re just going to build one, get that out and start playing with it. We’ll probably build “We’re just going to build one, get that out and start playing with it. We’ll probably build
one the next year because we’ve got to get the doctrine right. The [Marine Littoral one the next year because we’ve got to get the doctrine right. The [Marine Littoral
Regiments] are going to start coming online at about the same time – first one’s in Hawaii, Regiments] are going to start coming online at about the same time – first one’s in Hawaii,
we’ll get it out there and let them play with it. And then we’ll go into a build profile of, I we’ll get it out there and let them play with it. And then we’ll go into a build profile of, I
don’t know, probably four or five a year or something like that is what we’re going to aim don’t know, probably four or five a year or something like that is what we’re going to aim
for.”for.”5155
June 2021 Contract Awards
A June 17, 2021, press report states A June 17, 2021, press report states
The Navy this week issued “concept design” contracts to five companies for the Light The Navy this week issued “concept design” contracts to five companies for the Light
Amphibious Warship ahead of the Fiscal Year 2023 design selection, a service spokesman Amphibious Warship ahead of the Fiscal Year 2023 design selection, a service spokesman
confirmed to USNI News. confirmed to USNI News.
Fincantieri, Austal USA, VT Halter Marine, Bollinger and TAI Engineers were selected Fincantieri, Austal USA, VT Halter Marine, Bollinger and TAI Engineers were selected
for the contracts, Naval Sea Systems Command spokesman Alan Baribeau said. for the contracts, Naval Sea Systems Command spokesman Alan Baribeau said.
“A Concept Studies (CS) contract has been awarded to five offerors with a follow-on “A Concept Studies (CS) contract has been awarded to five offerors with a follow-on
optionoption ~~for Preliminary Design (PD),” Baribeau said in a statement. “The CS/PD~~ for Preliminary Design (PD),” Baribeau said in a statement. “The CS/PD efforts efforts
include engineering analyses, tradeoff studies, and development of engineering and design include engineering analyses, tradeoff studies, and development of engineering and design
documentation defining concepts studies/preliminary designs.” documentation defining concepts studies/preliminary designs.”
The Navy did not disclose the amount of money each company received to perform the The Navy did not disclose the amount of money each company received to perform the
work, but Baribeau confirmed to USNI News that the total combined amount of the work, but Baribeau confirmed to USNI News that the total combined amount of the
contracts was less than $7.5 million.contracts was less than $7.5 million.5256
A February 10, 2022, press report states A February 10, 2022, press report states
Moving ahead, the services [i.e., the Navy and Marine Corps] expect a “full and open Moving ahead, the services [i.e., the Navy and Marine Corps] expect a “full and open
competition” once they issue the request for proposals for the detail[ed] design and competition” once they issue the request for proposals for the detail[ed] design and
construction phase, according to Tom Rivers, the executive director of the amphibious, construction phase, according to Tom Rivers, the executive director of the amphibious,
auxiliary and sealift office within the Program Executive Office for Ships. auxiliary and sealift office within the Program Executive Office for Ships.
After issuing five companies “concept design” contracts last year, those same five After issuing five companies “concept design” contracts last year, those same five
companies recently received options for the preliminary design phase, Rivers said. The companies recently received options for the preliminary design phase, Rivers said. The
companies working on the preliminary design are Fincantieri, Austal USA, VT Halter companies working on the preliminary design are Fincantieri, Austal USA, VT Halter
Marine, Bollinger and TAI Engineers. Marine, Bollinger and TAI Engineers.
“So LAW—the initial thought process is based upon parent designs [i.e., existing ship “So LAW—the initial thought process is based upon parent designs [i.e., existing ship
designs from which the design for LAW could be derived] that are already out there in the designs from which the design for LAW could be derived] that are already out there in the
world today to, again, to reduce our risks,” Rivers said at the conference. “As new world today to, again, to reduce our risks,” Rivers said at the conference. “As new
requirements are generated out of the Pentagon, we actually are sharing those with the requirements are generated out of the Pentagon, we actually are sharing those with the
shipyards so they can kind of see what we’re thinking about how it evolves over time and shipyards so they can kind of see what we’re thinking about how it evolves over time and

5155 Megan Eckstein, “Marines, Navy Moving Quickly on Light Amphib, Anti-Ship Missiles to Create More Warfighting Megan Eckstein, “Marines, Navy Moving Quickly on Light Amphib, Anti-Ship Missiles to Create More Warfighting
Options,” Options,” USNI News, January 11, 2021. Material in brackets as in original. See also Rich Abott, “Kilby Outlines , January 11, 2021. Material in brackets as in original. See also Rich Abott, “Kilby Outlines
Factors Leading To Faster New Light Amphib Development,” Factors Leading To Faster New Light Amphib Development,” Defense Daily, February 5, 2021. , February 5, 2021.
5256 Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy Awards 5 Companies Light Amphibious Warship ‘Concept Design’ Contracts,” Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy Awards 5 Companies Light Amphibious Warship ‘Concept Design’ Contracts,” USNI
News, June 17, 2021. , June 17, 2021.
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then they can kind of build that into the—and they come back to us and say, ‘hey here’s then they can kind of build that into the—and they come back to us and say, ‘hey here’s
the impact of that particular change on our configuration.’ Either it’s small orthe impact of that particular change on our configuration.’ Either it’s small or large and large and
then we take that in consideration into the final requirements.” then we take that in consideration into the final requirements.”
This type of process is helping the Navy determine what it can do with the various parent This type of process is helping the Navy determine what it can do with the various parent
designs, Rivers said.designs, Rivers said.53
~~FY2023~~57 FY2024 Funding Request
The Navy’s proposed The Navy’s proposed ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget requests $ budget requests $~~12.2~~14.7 million in research and development million in research and development
funding for the program. The funding is requested in Project 4044 (funding for the program. The funding is requested in Project 4044 (~~Next Generation Medium~~
~~Amphibious~~Medium Landing Ship) of PE (Program Element) Ship) of PE (Program Element) ~~0603563N (Ship Concept Advanced Design~~0603564N (Ship Preliminary Design and Feasibility Studies), which ), which
is lineis line ~~number~~ 46 in the Navy’s 46 in the Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 research and development account. research and development account.
Issues for Congress
The The ~~LAW~~LSM program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress, including those program poses a number of potential oversight matters for Congress, including those
discussed briefly in the sections below. discussed briefly in the sections below.
Analysis of Alternatives (AOA)
One issue for Congress concerns the analysis of alternatives (AOA) for the One issue for Congress concerns the analysis of alternatives (AOA) for the ~~LAW~~LSM program. An program. An
AOA is a formal study that examines broad options for meeting a mission requirement, AOA is a formal study that examines broad options for meeting a mission requirement,
determines whether that requirement would be best met through the procurement of a new determines whether that requirement would be best met through the procurement of a new
weapon system or platform (e.g., ship or aircraft), and if so, what that general features of that new weapon system or platform (e.g., ship or aircraft), and if so, what that general features of that new
weapon system or platform should be. A June 2022 Government Accountability Office (GAO) weapon system or platform should be. A June 2022 Government Accountability Office (GAO)
report assessing selected DOD weapon acquisition programs stated the following in its entry on report assessing selected DOD weapon acquisition programs stated the following in its entry on
the the ~~LAW~~LSM program: program:
The Navy plans to approve an analysis of alternatives—a key document that will help Navy The Navy plans to approve an analysis of alternatives—a key document that will help Navy
leadership decide whether a new ship class is necessary to meet mission needs—in support leadership decide whether a new ship class is necessary to meet mission needs—in support
of the program in early 2022. Nonetheless, the Navy is already in the process of defining of the program in early 2022. Nonetheless, the Navy is already in the process of defining
requirements for LAW and starting ship design efforts. Our prior work shows that moving requirements for LAW and starting ship design efforts. Our prior work shows that moving
forward before Navy leadership validates the need for a new ship class can increase the forward before Navy leadership validates the need for a new ship class can increase the
risk of acquiring ships that do not cost-effectively meet mission needs.... risk of acquiring ships that do not cost-effectively meet mission needs....
The [ The [~~LAW~~LSM] program office stated that the Navy is reviewing the analysis of alternatives ] program office stated that the Navy is reviewing the analysis of alternatives
report in advance of a meeting to decide whether it will approve the analysis of alternatives report in advance of a meeting to decide whether it will approve the analysis of alternatives
results. It added that moving forward with defining requirements through studies and results. It added that moving forward with defining requirements through studies and
collaboration with industry on preliminary design concepts are common Navy best collaboration with industry on preliminary design concepts are common Navy best
practices being used to ensure LAW delivers the capability needed to support the Marine practices being used to ensure LAW delivers the capability needed to support the Marine
Littoral Regiments.Littoral Regiments.54
~~Deferral of Lead Ship Procurement to FY2025~~58 Future Amphibious Ship Force-Level Goal Another issue for Congress concerns the future amphibious ship force-level goal, which could affect future procurement quantities for LSMs. As noted earlier, the issue of the future
~~Another issue for Congress concerns the date for procuring the first LAW. As noted earlier,~~
~~previous Navy plans envisioned starting procurement of LAWs in FY2023. Compared to the~~
~~previously envisioned start of procurement in FY2023, the Navy’s FY2023 five-year shipbuilding~~

5357 Mallory Shelbourne and Sam LaGrone, “Navy, Marines Want the Light Amphibious Warship to Haul 75 Marines for Mallory Shelbourne and Sam LaGrone, “Navy, Marines Want the Light Amphibious Warship to Haul 75 Marines for
$150M or Less,” $150M or Less,” USNI News, February 10, 2022. See also Aidan Quigley, “Five Shipbuilders Emerge as Leading Light , February 10, 2022. See also Aidan Quigley, “Five Shipbuilders Emerge as Leading Light
Amphibious Warship Contenders,” Amphibious Warship Contenders,” Inside Defense, February 2, 2022. , February 2, 2022.
5458 Government Accountability Office, Government Accountability Office, Weapon Systems Annual Assessment[:] Challenges to Fielding Capabilities
Faster Persist, GAO-22-105230, June 2022, p. 194. , GAO-22-105230, June 2022, p. 194.
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~~plan in effect defers the start of LAW procurement two years, to FY2025. A March 30, 2022,~~
~~press report stated~~
~~“The Marine Corps and the Department are getting the requirements tight on that ship~~
~~before we choose to put it in our [shipbuilding appropriations account]. So there is funding~~
~~in R&D for LAW,” Rear Adm. John Gumbleton, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Navy~~
~~for Budget, told reporters during a roundtable ahead of the [FY2023] budget release~~
~~Monday [March 28].55~~
Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program amphibious ship force level goal reportedly has been a matter of debate within the Defense Department.59 A related potential oversight issue for Congress concerns how the LSM would fit into the Navy’s overall future fleet architecture. Potential oversight questions for Congress include the following: Potential oversight questions for Congress include the following:
  ~~Why does the Navy need an additional two years of time to study requirements~~
~~for the LAW? What has changed that would require that much additional time for~~
~~the study of operational requirements?~~
~~ What impact will the two-year deferral have in terms of reducing technical,~~
~~schedule, and cost risk in the LAW program? What impact will it have on Navy-~~
~~Marine Corps capabilities and operational risks over the next several years?~~
~~Future Amphibious Ship Force-Level Goal~~
~~Another issue for Congress concerns the future amphibious ship force-level goal, which could~~
~~affect future procurement quantities for LAWs. As noted earlier, the issue of the future~~
~~amphibious ship force level goal reportedly has been a matter of debate within the Defense~~
~~Department.56 A related potential oversight issue for Congress concerns how the LAW would fit~~
~~into the Navy’s overall future fleet architecture. Potential oversight questions for Congress~~
~~include the following:~~
~~ What is the analytical basis for the envisioned procurement quantity of 18 to 35~~
~~LAWs?57~~
~~ How well can the cost-effectiveness of a force of 18 to 35 LAWs be assessed if~~
~~the remainder of the Navy’s amphibious ship fleet architecture is not yet fully~~
~~known?~~
~~The issue of the future amphibious ship force-level goal is discussed further in the CRS report on~~
~~the Navy’s LPD-17 Flight II and LHA-class amphibious shipbuilding programs.58~~
~~Force Design 2030 and EABO Operational Concept~~
~~Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the merits of Force Design 2030 and the~~
~~EABO operational concept that the LAW is intended to help implement. Debate on the merits of~~
~~Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept has been vigorous and concerns issues such as~~

~~55 Rich Abott, “First Light Amphibious Warship Purchase Pushed Back To 2025,” Defense Daily, March 30, 2022.~~
56What is the analytical basis for the envisioned procurement quantity of 18 to 35 LSMs?60  How well can the cost-effectiveness of a force of 18 to 35 LSMs be assessed if the remainder of the Navy’s amphibious ship fleet architecture is not yet fully known? A February 16, 2023, press report stated: The Marine Corps’ latest requirements call for nine smaller amphibious ships per regiment to shuttle Marines and equipment between islands and shorelines, service officials said today. The service has said for months that it needs 35 Landing Ship Mediums—previously known as the Light Amphibious Warship—for the type of operations it envisions in the Indo-Pacific region. The idea is that the three Marine Littoral Regiments operating in the Indo-Pacific would each have nine LSMs, while leaving room for eight ships that would inevitably get tied up in maintenance periods, according to a new Marine Corps video about requirements. The Marine Corps came up with this requirement after modeling and simulations, deputy commandant for combat development and integration Lt. Gen. Karsten Heckl said Tuesday [Feruary 14] at the WEST 2023 conference, co-hosted by the U.S. Naval Institute and AFCEA. “It doesn’t necessarily need to be a Marine Littoral Regiment,” he said. “So the square footage, the cargo—and that’s where we came up with the requirements—berthing, fuel, all of it,” Heckl said. The requirements focused on tonnage, square footage for cargo and the need for Marines to move around the region on their own, without the benefit of long runways or ports and piers.... While the Marine Corps says it needs 35 LSMs, Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Mike Gilday’s navigation plan called for 18 LAWs, the previous name for the program. Asked about that difference, Heckl said he and deputy chief of naval operations for warfighting requirements and capabilities (OPNAV N9) Vice Adm. Scott Conn crafted requirement language that says the ultimate requirement is 35, but “the initial operational inventory will be 18.”61 A January 17, 2023, press report stated: 59 See Megan Eckstein, “White House Steps in as Navy, Pentagon Feud over Amphibious Ship Study,” See Megan Eckstein, “White House Steps in as Navy, Pentagon Feud over Amphibious Ship Study,” Defense News, ,
December 8, 2022. See also Justin Katz, “Del Toro: Navy-Marine Corps Amphib Study in ‘Final Stages,’ Being December 8, 2022. See also Justin Katz, “Del Toro: Navy-Marine Corps Amphib Study in ‘Final Stages,’ Being
Briefed to Leadership,” Briefed to Leadership,” Breaking Defense, December 6, 2022; Lee Hudson, “Senators Press Del Toro for Update on , December 6, 2022; Lee Hudson, “Senators Press Del Toro for Update on
Amphib Study,” Amphib Study,” Politico Pro, November 14, 2022. , November 14, 2022.
5760 For an article that raises questions concerning the analytical foundation for the LAW program, see Daniel Goure, “Light Amphibious Warship: A Mistake For The U.S. Marine Corps And Navy?” 19FortyFive, July 27, 2021. 61 Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps Requirements Call for 9 Light Amphibious Ships per Regiment,” USNI News, February 14 (updated March 1), 2023. See also Rich Abott, “Marine Corps’ 35-Ship Medium Amphib Requirement Means Nine Per Regiment, Based On Space Needs,” Defense Daily, February 16, 2023. Congressional Research Service 19 link to page 29 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program The Navy is planning to secure a plan to procure 18 Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) in the department’s 2025 budget planning process, a top Navy official said last week during the Surface Navy Association’s annual symposium on Jan. 11 During a panel discussion, Marine Brig. Gen. Marcus Annibale, director of expeditionary warfare (OPNAV N95), reiterated the Chief of Naval Operations NAVPLAN set a goal of 18 LAWs that the service intends to “lock in” in the Defense Department’s Program Objective Memorandum [POM] [for the fiscal year] 2025 [budget submission].62 The issue of the future amphibious ship force-level goal is discussed further in the CRS report on the Navy’s LPD-17 Flight II and LHA-class amphibious shipbuilding programs.63 Force Design 2030 and EABO Operational Concept Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the merits of Force Design 2030 and the EABO operational concept that the LSM is intended to help implement. Debate on the merits of Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept has been vigorous and concerns issues such as  whether Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept are focused too exclusively on potential conflict scenarios with China at the expense of other kinds of potential Marine Corps missions;  the ability of Marine forces to gain access to the islands from which they would operate;  the ability to resupply Marine forces that are operating on the islands;  the survivability of Marine forces on the islands and in surrounding waters;  how much of a contribution the envisioned operations by Marine forces would make in contributing to overall U.S. sea-denial operations; and  potential alternative ways of using the funding and personnel that would be needed to implement EABO.64 Potential oversight questions for Congress include the following:  What are the potential benefits, costs, and risks of the EABO concept?  What work have the Navy and Marine Corps done in terms of analyses and war games to develop and test the concept?  Would EABO be more cost effective to implement than other potential uses of the funding and personnel? 62 Rich Abott, “Navy Planning To Procure 18 LAWs in FY 2025 Plans,” Defense Daily, January 17, 2023. 63 CRS Report R43543, Navy LPD-17 Flight II and LHA Amphibious Ship Programs: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke. 64 For a CRS report on Force Design 2030, see CRS Insight IN11281, New U.S. Marine Corps Force Design Initiative: Force Design 2030, by Andrew Feickert. See also CRS In Focus IF12200, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert. For examples of press reports published since April 2021 discussing the merits of Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept, see the Appendix. Congressional Research Service 20 link to page 25 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Accuracy of Estimated Procurement Cost Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the accuracy of the Navy’s estimated procurement cost target for the LSM. Potential oversight questions for Congress include the following:  Is the Navy’s estimate reasonable, given the features the Navy wants the ship to have?  As the LSM program proceeds, will the operational requirements (and thus procurement cost) of the LSM increase? Potential Alternative of Adapting Existing Army LSVs Another potential issue for Congress is whether at least some portion of the operational requirements for the LSM program could be met cost effectively met by adapting existing U.S. military ships rather than building new LSMs. Some observers, for example, argue that at least some portion of the operational requirements for the LSM program could be met more cost-effectively by transferring existing Army watercraft known as Logistics Support Vessels (LSVs) (Figure 4) to the Navy and adapting these LSVs to the LSM ~~For an article that raises questions concerning the analytical foundation for the LAW program, see Daniel Goure,~~
~~“Light Amphibious Warship: A Mistake For The U.S. Marine Corps And Navy?” 19FortyFive, July 27, 2021.~~
~~58 CRS Report R43543,~~ ~~Navy LPD-17 Flight II and LHA Amphibious Ship Programs: Background and Issues for~~
~~Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
17

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~ whether Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept are focused too exclusively~~
~~on potential conflict scenarios with China at the expense of other kinds of~~
~~potential Marine Corps missions;~~
~~ the ability of Marine forces to gain access to the islands from which they would~~
~~operate;~~
~~ the ability to resupply Marine forces that are operating on the islands;~~
~~ the survivability of Marine forces on the islands and in surrounding waters;~~
~~ how much of a contribution the envisioned operations by Marine forces would~~
~~make in contributing to overall U.S. sea-denial operations; and~~
~~ potential alternative ways of using the funding and personnel that would be~~
~~needed to implement EABO.59~~

~~59 For a CRS report on Force Design 2030, see CRS Insight IN11281,~~ ~~New U.S. Marine Corps Force Design Initiative:~~
~~Force Design 2030, by Andrew Feickert. See also CRS In Focus IF12200,~~ ~~The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral~~
~~Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert, The U.S. Marine Corps Marine Littoral Regiment (MLR), by Andrew Feickert.~~
~~For examples of press reports published since August 2022 discussing the merits of Force Design 2030 and the EABO~~
~~concept, see Paul Van Riper, “This Is the Marine Corps Debate We Should Be Having,” Marine Corps Times,~~
~~December 7, 2022; Harry W. Jenkins, “The Ugly Truth: Can the Light Amphibious Warship Survive War with China?”~~
The Hill, November 2, 2022; Dakota Wood, “The U.S. Marine Corps Has a Choice: Transform or Die,” Defense One,
~~October 16, 2022; Stephen Baird and Timothy Wells, “Why Marine Corps Forces Are Becoming Less Relevant to~~
~~Combatant Commanders,” The Hill, October 13, 2022; Paula Thornhill, “Civilians Will Choose the Marine Corps’~~
~~Future—and Soon, And They Will Do It by Selecting the Next Commandant and Other Four- And Three-Star~~
~~Generals,” Defense One, October 13, 2022; Gary Anderson, “Can Congress Save the Marine Corps from Itself?”~~
Military.com, October 5, 2022; John Sattely and Jason A. Paredes, “Sustainment of the Stand-In Force,” ~~War on the~~
~~Rocks, September 12, 2022.~~
~~For examples of press reports published between June and August 2022, see Jonathan Lehrfeld, “Former Marine~~
~~Officials, Experts Praise Force Design 2030,” Defense News, August 26, 2022; Gary Anderson, “Creating a Real~~
~~Deterrent to Defend Taiwan,” Military.com, August 25, 2022; James A. Warren, “If the Marine Corps Isn’t Broken—~~
~~and It Isn’t—Why Fix It?” Daily Beast, August 20 (updated August 21), 2022; Richard R. Burgess, “Navy’s Light~~
~~Amphibious Warship Will Be A ‘Great Enabler’ for Marine Littoral Regiments, General Says,” Seapower, August 19,~~
~~2022; Franz J. Gayl, “The Marine Corps’ New Plan Will Not Beat China in a Fight for Taiwan,” Marine Corps Times,~~
~~August 4, 2022; Gary “GI” Wilson, William A. Woods, and Michael D. Wyly, “Send in the Marines? Reconsider Force~~
~~Design 2030 Beforehand,” Defense News, August 4, 2022; Michelle Macander Grace Hwang, “Marine Corps Force~~
~~Design 2030: Examining the Capabilities and Critiques,” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), July 22,~~
~~2022; Max Boot, “The Top Marine Faces Unprecedented Opposition. He Says That’s ‘Positive.’” Washington Post,~~
~~July 20, 2022; Scott Cuomo, “On-the-Ground Truth and Force Design 2030 Reconciliation: A Way Forward,”~~ ~~War on~~
~~the Rocks, July 12, 2022; John F. Schmitt, “The Marine Corps’ Latest Idea for Countering China Has Major Problems,”~~
Task and Purpose, July 7, 2022; Mark Cancian, “Analyzing the Biggest Changes in the Marine Corps Force Design
~~2030 Update,” Breaking Defense, June 14, 2022; Worth Parker, “How the Marine Corps Went to War with Itself over~~
~~the Next War,” Task and Purpose, June 10, 2022; Jesse Schmitt, “When Only a Chisel Will Do: Marine Corps Force~~
~~Design for the Modern Era,” Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC), June 2, 2022; Stuart Scheller, “The~~
~~Marine Corps’ Debate with Its Generals Is Amusing, but Dangerous,” Marine Corps Times, June 1, 2022.~~
~~For examples of press reports published during the second half of May 2022, see Brent Stricker, “Marine Corps~~
~~Metamorphosis: Legal Considerations,” Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC), May 31, 2022; Charles~~
~~C. Krulak, “Whose Marine Corps? Why a Force Design Battle Is Losing Sight of the Basics,” Marine Corps Times,~~
~~May 27, 2022; Owen West, “Are the Marines Inventing the Edsel or the Mustang?” War on the Rocks, May 27, 2022;~~
~~David E. Johnson, “Ending the Civil War over the Future of the US Marine Corps,” Breaking Defense, May 24, 2022;~~
~~Elliot Ackerman, “A Whole Age of Warfare Sank With the Moskva, A Fierce Debate Is Raging within the U.S. Marine~~
~~Corps about What Comes Next.” Atlantic, May 22, 2022; CDR Salamander, “Force Design 2030: Futurism, Imbroglio,~~
~~or Creative Friction?” CDR Salamander, May 17, 2022; Todd South, “Lethal and Survivable or Irrelevant and~~
~~Vulnerable? Marine Redesign Debate Rages,” Marine Corps Times, May 16, 2022.~~
~~For examples of press reports published during the first half of May 2022, see Robert Work, “USMC Force Design~~
~~2030: Threat Or Opportunity?” 19FortyFive, May 15, 2022; Tom Hanson, “Rather Than Wreck It, Berger’s Vision~~
~~Will Save the Marine Corps from Itself,” Marine Corps Times, May 10, 2022; John Vandiver, “Marines Unveil Force~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
18

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~Potential oversight questions for Congress include the following:~~
~~ What are the potential benefits, costs, and risks of the EABO concept?~~
~~ What work have the Navy and Marine Corps done in terms of analyses and war~~
~~games to develop and test the concept?~~
~~ Would EABO be more cost effective to implement than other potential uses of~~
~~the funding and personnel?~~
~~Accuracy of Estimated Procurement Cost~~
~~Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the accuracy of the navy’s estimated~~
~~procurement cost target for the LAW. Potential oversight questions for Congress include the~~
~~following:~~
~~ Is the Navy’s estimate reasonable, given the features the Navy wants the ship to~~
~~have?~~
~~ As the LAW program proceeds, will the operational requirements (and thus~~
~~procurement cost) of the LAW increase?~~
~~As noted earlier, a September 14, 2022, press report stated~~
~~The Marine Corps and Navy remain at an impasse over the future of the Light Amphibious~~
~~Warship, as skepticism about the program’s viability mounts due to the internal division,~~
~~sources familiar with the program have told USNI News....~~
~~The division between the two services largely comes down to survivability, or what types~~
~~of weapons and armors to place on a ship that would operate in the first island chain,60~~
~~within range of Chinese missiles.~~

~~Structure Update amid Opposition from Retired Generals about Service’s Direction,” Stars and Stripes, May 10, 2022;~~
~~Will McGee, “Forcing Design or Designing Force? The Reinvention of the Marine Corps,” Small Wars Journal, May~~
~~7, 2022; Howard Altman, “Marines Based Inside China’s Striking Distance Key To Deterrence General Says,”~~ ~~The~~
~~Drive, May 5, 2022; Audrey Decker, “Heckl: Force Design 2030 Will Make It ‘Damn Hard’ for China to Make a~~
~~Move,” Inside Defense, May 4, 2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Marines Committed to New Force Design, Despite~~
~~Criticism From Retired Generals,” USNI News, May 4, 2022.~~
~~For examples of press reports published through the end of April 2022, see Gary Anderson, “The Marine Corps’~~
~~Intellectual Civil War,” Military.com, April 28, 2022; Charles Krulak, Jack Sheehan, and Anthony Zinni, “War Is a~~
~~Dirty Business. Will the Marine Corps Be Ready for the Next One?” Washington Post, April 22, 2022; P. K. Van~~
~~Riper, “The Marine Corps’ Plan to Redesign the Force Will Only End Up Breaking It,” Task and Purpose, April 20,~~
~~2022; Anthony Zinni, “What Is the Role of the Marine Corps in Today’s Global Security Environment?”~~ ~~Task and~~
~~Purpose, April 19, 2022; Philip Athey, “First to Fight: Is This the End of the Corps as America’s 911 Force?”~~ ~~Marine~~
~~Corps Times, April 12, 2022; Otto Kreisher, “Controversial EABO Concept Has Potential but Will Be Vetted, Speakers~~
~~Say,” Seapower, April 5, 2022; Konstantin Toropin, “After a Barrage of Editorials and Critiques, Marine Leaders~~
~~Defend Restructuring Plan,” Military.com, April 5, 2022; Craig Hooper, “Let The Marine Corps Build The New Light~~
~~Amphibious Warship,” Forbes, April 3, 2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious~~
~~Fleet’s Future as Delays and Cancellations Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” USNI News, April 3, 2022; Paul~~
~~McLeary and Lee Hudson, “How Two Dozen Retired Generals Are Trying to Stop an Overhaul of the Marines,”~~
Politico, April 1, 2022; Noel Williams, “Insights for Marine (and Beyond) Force Design from the Russo-Ukrainian
~~War,” War on the Rocks, March 31, 2022; Jim Webb, “Momentous Changes in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Force~~
~~Organization Deserve Debate,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2022; Paul K. Van Riper, “Jeopardizing national~~
~~security: What is happening to our Marine Corps?” Marine Corps Times, March 21, 2022; John M. Doyle, “Navy,~~
~~Marine Corps Labs Exploring How to Keep Advanced Bases Supplied and Safe,” Seapower, February 10, 2022; John~~
~~M. Doyle, “Berger Says Supporting a Widely Distributed Maritime Force Will Be a Challenge,” Seapower, May 14,~~
~~2021; Yasmin Tadjdeh, “Light Amphibious Warships Face Survivability Questions,” National Defense, April 23, 2021.~~
~~60 The term first island chain refers to the large and small islands that together enclose China’s near-seas region,~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
19

~~link to page 24~~

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~

~~Adding more weapons and armor to LAW makes the ship more expensive. Projections in~~
~~2020 called for each LAW to cost $100 million, a number described as unrealistic by the~~
~~person familiar with program discussions. Now the Marine Corps wants the ship to cost~~
~~around $150 million apiece so it can buy more of them, while the Navy is pushing for a~~
~~more survivable ship that would end up costing about $300 million each.61~~
~~Potential Alternative of Adapting Existing Army LSVs~~
~~Another potential issue for Congress is whether at least some portion of the operational~~
~~requirements for the LAW program could be met cost effectively met by adapting existing U.S.~~
~~military ships rather than building new LAWs. Some observers, for example, argue that at least~~
~~some portion of the operational requirements for the LAW program could be met more cost-~~
~~effectively by transferring existing Army watercraft known as Logistics Support Vessels (LSVs)~~
~~(Figure 4)~~ ~~to the Navy and adapting these LSVs to the LAW~~ mission. mission.
Figure 4. Besson-Class Logistics Support Vessel (LSV)

Source: Cropped version of photograph accompanying Walker D. Mil s and Joseph Hanacek, “The US Navy and Cropped version of photograph accompanying Walker D. Mil s and Joseph Hanacek, “The US Navy and
Marine Corps Should Acquire Army Watercraft,” Marine Corps Should Acquire Army Watercraft,” Defense News, June 22, 2020. The caption to the photograph , June 22, 2020. The caption to the photograph
credits the photograph to the U.S. Navy and states, “U.S. Navy sailors conduct a simulated disaster relief supply credits the photograph to the U.S. Navy and states, “U.S. Navy sailors conduct a simulated disaster relief supply
offload from a General Frank S. Besson-class logistics support vessel at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam on July offload from a General Frank S. Besson-class logistics support vessel at Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam on July
10, 2016.” 10, 2016.”
A June 22, 2020, opinion piece discussing this idea states A June 22, 2020, opinion piece discussing this idea states
The Navy intends to acquire up to 30 new light amphibious warships, or LAW, to support The Navy intends to acquire up to 30 new light amphibious warships, or LAW, to support
new Marine Corps requirements.… Rather than accepting a new amphibious design built new Marine Corps requirements.… Rather than accepting a new amphibious design built
from the ground up, however, decision-makers should take advantage of the fact that manyfrom the ground up, however, decision-makers should take advantage of the fact that many

~~including the Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea. For a map showing the first island chain, see~~
~~Department of Defense,~~ ~~Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2022, Annual~~
~~Report to Congress, released on November 29, 2022, p. 67.~~
~~61 Mallory Shelbourne, “Marine Corps, Navy Remain Split Over Design, Number of Future Light Amphibious~~
~~Warship, Divide Risks Stalling Program,” USNI News, September 14 (updated September 15), 2022.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
20

~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~ Congressional Research Service 21 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program

key requirements of the new vessels are very similar to the capabilities of vessels operated key requirements of the new vessels are very similar to the capabilities of vessels operated
by U.S. Army Transportation Command. by U.S. Army Transportation Command.
The Navy and Marine Corps should delay any new construction and immediately acquire The Navy and Marine Corps should delay any new construction and immediately acquire
some of these existing vessels to drive experimentation and better inform their some of these existing vessels to drive experimentation and better inform their
requirements for the LAW program…. requirements for the LAW program….
U.S. Army Transportation Command has over 100 vessels, and dozens have similar U.S. Army Transportation Command has over 100 vessels, and dozens have similar
capabilities to those required of the LAW. The Army’s LCU-2000s, also called the capabilities to those required of the LAW. The Army’s LCU-2000s, also called the
Runnymede-class large landing crafts, are smaller, with roughly half of the cargo space Runnymede-class large landing crafts, are smaller, with roughly half of the cargo space
designed for the LAW and slightly slower, but they boast nearly double the range. The designed for the LAW and slightly slower, but they boast nearly double the range. The
Runnymede-class vessels have nearly 4,000 square feet of cargo space and can travel 6,500 Runnymede-class vessels have nearly 4,000 square feet of cargo space and can travel 6,500
miles when loaded and at 12 knots; and they can unload at the beach with their bow ramp. miles when loaded and at 12 knots; and they can unload at the beach with their bow ramp.
The Army’s General Frank S. Besson-class logistics support vessels are larger than the The Army’s General Frank S. Besson-class logistics support vessels are larger than the
future LAW, at 273 feet in length but can claim 10,500 square feet of cargo space and a future LAW, at 273 feet in length but can claim 10,500 square feet of cargo space and a
6,500-mile range loaded to match the LCU-2000. These vessels also have both a bow and 6,500-mile range loaded to match the LCU-2000. These vessels also have both a bow and
stern ramp for roll-on/roll-off capability at the beach or ship-to-ship docking at sea. The stern ramp for roll-on/roll-off capability at the beach or ship-to-ship docking at sea. The
version built for the Phillipine military also has a helipad. version built for the Phillipine military also has a helipad.
Army Transportation Command has 32 Runnymede-class and eight General Frank S. Army Transportation Command has 32 Runnymede-class and eight General Frank S.
Besson-class vessels in service. Mostly built in the 1990s, both classes of vessel have many Besson-class vessels in service. Mostly built in the 1990s, both classes of vessel have many
years left in their life expectancy and more than meet the Navy’s 10-year life expectancy years left in their life expectancy and more than meet the Navy’s 10-year life expectancy
for the LAW. for the LAW.
These vessels are operable today and could be transferred from the Army to the Navy or These vessels are operable today and could be transferred from the Army to the Navy or
Marine Corps tomorrow. In fact, the Army was attempting to divest itself of these Marine Corps tomorrow. In fact, the Army was attempting to divest itself of these
watercraft less than a year ago, which underscores the importance of this opportunity even watercraft less than a year ago, which underscores the importance of this opportunity even
further. Congress is firmly set against the Army getting rid of valuable, seaworthy vessels further. Congress is firmly set against the Army getting rid of valuable, seaworthy vessels
and has quashed all of the Army’s efforts to do so thus far, but transferring this equipment and has quashed all of the Army’s efforts to do so thus far, but transferring this equipment
to the Navy is a reasonable course of action that should satisfy all parties involved…. to the Navy is a reasonable course of action that should satisfy all parties involved….
By acquiring a watercraft that meets most of their requirements from the Army, the Navy By acquiring a watercraft that meets most of their requirements from the Army, the Navy
and Marine Corps simultaneously fill current capability gaps and obtain an invaluable and Marine Corps simultaneously fill current capability gaps and obtain an invaluable
series of assets they can use to support the evaluation and experimentation of new designs series of assets they can use to support the evaluation and experimentation of new designs
and concepts. This will allow Navy and Marine leaders to give their units the maximum and concepts. This will allow Navy and Marine leaders to give their units the maximum
amount of time to evaluate and experiment with new designs to get a better idea of what amount of time to evaluate and experiment with new designs to get a better idea of what
they need both in future amphibious craft as well as operational and support equipment…. they need both in future amphibious craft as well as operational and support equipment….
Often overlooked, the availability of surplus vessels is absolutely critical to the process of Often overlooked, the availability of surplus vessels is absolutely critical to the process of
developing new technologies, developing the tactics to employ them, conducting training, developing new technologies, developing the tactics to employ them, conducting training,
and providing decision-makers the requisite capacity to remain flexible in the face of and providing decision-makers the requisite capacity to remain flexible in the face of
unexpected challenges…. unexpected challenges….
[The Navy and Marine Corps have] long been in need of a boost in their amphibious [The Navy and Marine Corps have] long been in need of a boost in their amphibious
capabilities so as to be better positioned to meet the demands of today and prepare for the capabilities so as to be better positioned to meet the demands of today and prepare for the
challenges of tomorrow, and taking possession of the Army’s Runnymede- and Frank S. challenges of tomorrow, and taking possession of the Army’s Runnymede- and Frank S.
Benson-class vessels is a solution on a silver platter.Benson-class vessels is a solution on a silver platter.6265
In a May 2022 update to its Force Design 2030 plan, the Marine Corps stated that it would In a May 2022 update to its Force Design 2030 plan, the Marine Corps stated that it would
“Provide and sustain bridging solutions for littoral mobility for MLR experimentation and “Provide and sustain bridging solutions for littoral mobility for MLR experimentation and
training until the LAW is fielded,” and that training until the LAW is fielded,” and that

6265 Walker D. Mills and Joseph Hanacek, “The US Navy and Marine Corps Should Acquire Army Watercraft,” Walker D. Mills and Joseph Hanacek, “The US Navy and Marine Corps Should Acquire Army Watercraft,” Defense
News, June 22, 2020. See also William Cole, “Army Vessels Could Be Transferred To Marines To Counter China , June 22, 2020. See also William Cole, “Army Vessels Could Be Transferred To Marines To Counter China
Threat,” Threat,” Honolulu Star-Advertiser, February 7, 2022; Chris Bernotavicius, Michelle Macander, Danielle Ngo, and John , February 7, 2022; Chris Bernotavicius, Michelle Macander, Danielle Ngo, and John
Schaus, “You Go to War with the Watercraft You Have,” Schaus, “You Go to War with the Watercraft You Have,” War on the Rocks, July 26, 2022. , July 26, 2022.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
2122

Navy ~~Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program

While we await the delivery of LSM While we await the delivery of LSM ~~[i.e., LAW]~~, which post-dates the planned operational , which post-dates the planned operational
~~readiness of our MLRs, we will explore a family of systems bridging~~ readiness of our MLRs, we will explore a family of systems bridging plan—including, plan—including,
Expeditionary Transfer Dock (ESB), Expeditionary Fast Transport (T-EPF), Landing Craft Expeditionary Transfer Dock (ESB), Expeditionary Fast Transport (T-EPF), Landing Craft
Utility (LCU), and leased hulls—that can provide a basic level of mobility. Although not Utility (LCU), and leased hulls—that can provide a basic level of mobility. Although not
optimal, such vessels will provide both operational capability and a sound basis for live optimal, such vessels will provide both operational capability and a sound basis for live
experimentation and refining detailed requirements for the experimentation and refining detailed requirements for the ~~LAW~~LSM program. program.6366
In June 2022, the Marine Corps stated that pending the delivery of the first In June 2022, the Marine Corps stated that pending the delivery of the first ~~LAWs~~LSMs, it will likely , it will likely
use three civilian stern landing vessels to inform the design of the use three civilian stern landing vessels to inform the design of the ~~LAW~~LSM hull form and experiment hull form and experiment
with and confirm operational concepts for the with and confirm operational concepts for the ~~LAW~~LSM program. program.6467
Potential questions for Congress include the following: Potential questions for Congress include the following:
 How many of these watercraft would be available for transfer to the Navy for use  How many of these watercraft would be available for transfer to the Navy for use
in meeting the operational requirements of the in meeting the operational requirements of the ~~LAW~~LSM program? program?
 How do the capabilities of these watercraft compare with those required for the  How do the capabilities of these watercraft compare with those required for the
~~LAW~~LSM? ?
 How much remaining service life do these watercraft have?  How much remaining service life do these watercraft have?
 Given the number of these watercraft that would be available for transfer to the  Given the number of these watercraft that would be available for transfer to the
Navy, their operational capabilities, and their remaining service life, what portion Navy, their operational capabilities, and their remaining service life, what portion
of the of the ~~LAW~~LSM program’s operational requirements could transferred watercraft program’s operational requirements could transferred watercraft
meet? How many meet? How many ~~LAWs~~LSMs, if any, would still need to be built to fully or , if any, would still need to be built to fully or
substantially meet the substantially meet the ~~LAW~~LSM program’s operational requirements? program’s operational requirements?
 How do the acquisition and operation and support (O&S) costs of these  How do the acquisition and operation and support (O&S) costs of these
watercraft compare to the estimated acquisition and O&S costs of the watercraft compare to the estimated acquisition and O&S costs of the ~~LAWs~~LSMs they they
would replace? would replace?
 Taking into account capabilities, acquisition costs, and O&S costs, how does the  Taking into account capabilities, acquisition costs, and O&S costs, how does the
cost effectiveness of an approach involving the transfer of these watercraft cost effectiveness of an approach involving the transfer of these watercraft
compare to that of the Navy’s baseline approach of meeting the compare to that of the Navy’s baseline approach of meeting the ~~LAW~~LSM program’s program’s
requirements through the acquisition of 24 to 35 new requirements through the acquisition of 24 to 35 new ~~LAWs~~LSMs? ?
 What would be the potential industrial-base implications of using transferred  What would be the potential industrial-base implications of using transferred
watercraft to meet at least some portion of the watercraft to meet at least some portion of the ~~LAW~~LSM program’s operational program’s operational
needs? needs?
Industrial-Base Implications
Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the potential industrial-base implications Another potential oversight issue for Congress concerns the potential industrial-base implications
of the of the ~~LAW~~LSM program. In recent years, all Navy amphibious ships have been built by the Ingalls program. In recent years, all Navy amphibious ships have been built by the Ingalls
shipyard of Pascagoula, MS, a part of Huntington Ingalls Industries (HII/Ingalls). As noted shipyard of Pascagoula, MS, a part of Huntington Ingalls Industries (HII/Ingalls). As noted
earlier, earlier, ~~LAWs~~LSMs could be built by multiple U.S. shipyards. could be built by multiple U.S. shipyards.6568 Potential oversight questions for Potential oversight questions for
Congress include the following: Congress include the following:

6366 U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Marine Corps, Force Design 2030, Annual Update, May 2022, pp. 8 and 15. See also Megan Eckstein, “The , May 2022, pp. 8 and 15. See also Megan Eckstein, “The
Light Amphibious Warship Is Delayed, but the Marine Corps Has a Temporary Solution,” Light Amphibious Warship Is Delayed, but the Marine Corps Has a Temporary Solution,” Defense News, May 10, , May 10,
2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Marines Look to EPFs, ESBs as Interim Solution for Light Amphibious Warship,” 2022; Mallory Shelbourne, “Marines Look to EPFs, ESBs as Interim Solution for Light Amphibious Warship,” USNI
News, May 10 (updated May 11), 2022. , May 10 (updated May 11), 2022.
6467 Audrey Decker, “Smith: Marine Corps Likely to Contract Three Stern Landing Vessels,” Audrey Decker, “Smith: Marine Corps Likely to Contract Three Stern Landing Vessels,” Inside Defense, June 16, , June 16,
2022. 2022.
6568 10 U.S.C. §8679 requires that, subject to a presidential waiver for the national security interest, “no vessel to be 10 U.S.C. §8679 requires that, subject to a presidential waiver for the national security interest, “no vessel to be
constructed for any of the armed forces, and no major component of the hull or superstructure of any such vessel, may constructed for any of the armed forces, and no major component of the hull or superstructure of any such vessel, may
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link to page link to page 27 ~~Navy Light Amphibious Warship (LAW) Program: Background and Issues for Congress~~28 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program

 What implications might the  What implications might the ~~LAW~~LSM program have for the distribution of Navy program have for the distribution of Navy
shipbuilding work among U.S. shipyards? shipbuilding work among U.S. shipyards?
 How many jobs would the  How many jobs would the ~~LAW~~LSM program create at the shipyard that builds the program create at the shipyard that builds the
ships, at associated supplier firms, and indirectly in surrounding communities? ships, at associated supplier firms, and indirectly in surrounding communities?
 In a situation of finite defense resources, what impact, if any, would funding the  In a situation of finite defense resources, what impact, if any, would funding the
procurement of procurement of ~~LAWs~~LSMs have on funding available for procuring other types of have on funding available for procuring other types of
amphibious ships, and thus on workloads and employment levels at HII/Ingalls, amphibious ships, and thus on workloads and employment levels at HII/Ingalls,
its associated supplier firms, and their surrounding communities?its associated supplier firms, and their surrounding communities?6669
Legislative Activity for ~~FY2023~~FY2024
Summary of Congressional Action on ~~FY2023~~FY2024 Funding Request
Table 1 summarizes congressional action on the summarizes congressional action on the ~~FY2023~~FY2024 procurement funding request for the procurement funding request for the
~~LAW~~LSM program. program.
Table 1. Congressional Action on ~~FY2023~~FY2024 Procurement Funding Request
Millions of dollars, rounded to nearest tenth Millions of dollars, rounded to nearest tenth

Authorization
Appropriation
~~HASC-~~
~~SASC~~
~~HAC-~~

Request
HASC
SASC
~~Agreement~~Final
HAC
SAC
~~SAC~~Final
Research and development Research and development
~~12.2~~
~~16.2~~
~~12.2~~
~~16.2~~
~~12.2~~
~~12.2~~
~~12.2~~
Source: Table prepared by CRS based on Navy’s Table prepared by CRS based on Navy’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget submission, committee and conference budget submission, committee and conference
reports, and explanatory statements on reports, and explanatory statements on ~~FY2023~~FY2024 National Defense Authorization Act and National Defense Authorization Act and ~~FY2023~~FY2024 DOD DOD
Appropriations Act. The funding is requested in Project 4044 (Appropriations Act. The funding is requested in Project 4044 (~~Next Generation Medium Amphibious~~Medium Landing Ship) of PE Ship) of PE
(Program Element) (Program Element) ~~0603563N (Ship Concept Advanced Design~~0603564N (Ship Preliminary Design and Feasibility Studies), which is line 46 in the Navy), which is line 46 in the Navy~~‘s FY2023~~’s FY2024 research research
and development account. and development account.
Notes: HASC is House Armed Services Committee; is House Armed Services Committee; SASC is Senate Armed Services Committee; is Senate Armed Services Committee; HAC is is
House Appropriations Committee; House Appropriations Committee; SAC is Senate Appropriations Committee. is Senate Appropriations Committee.

be constructed in a foreign shipyard.” In addition, the paragraph in the annual DOD appropriations act that makes be constructed in a foreign shipyard.” In addition, the paragraph in the annual DOD appropriations act that makes
appropriations for the Navy’s shipbuilding account (the Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy account) typically contains appropriations for the Navy’s shipbuilding account (the Shipbuilding and Conversion, Navy account) typically contains
these provisos: “ … these provisos: “ … Provided further, That none of the funds provided under this heading for the construction or , That none of the funds provided under this heading for the construction or
conversion of any naval vessel to be constructed in shipyards in the United States shall be expended in foreign facilities conversion of any naval vessel to be constructed in shipyards in the United States shall be expended in foreign facilities
for the construction of major components of such vessel: for the construction of major components of such vessel: Provided further, That none of the funds provided under this , That none of the funds provided under this
heading shall be used for the construction of any naval vessel in foreign shipyards….” heading shall be used for the construction of any naval vessel in foreign shipyards….”
6669 Two observers argue that shifting the Navy to a fleet architecture that includes a larger proportion of smaller ships Two observers argue that shifting the Navy to a fleet architecture that includes a larger proportion of smaller ships
would have beneficial impacts on U.S. shipbuilding industry’s ability to support Navy shipbuilding needs. See Bryan would have beneficial impacts on U.S. shipbuilding industry’s ability to support Navy shipbuilding needs. See Bryan
Clark and Timothy A. Walton, “Shipbuilding Suppliers Need More Than Market Forces to Stay Afloat,” Clark and Timothy A. Walton, “Shipbuilding Suppliers Need More Than Market Forces to Stay Afloat,” Defense News, ,
May 20, 2020. May 20, 2020.
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~~FY2023 National Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 7900/S. 4543/H.R.~~
~~7776)~~
~~House~~
~~The House Armed Services Committee, in its report (H.Rept. 117-397 of July 1, 2022) on H.R.~~
~~7900, recommended the funding level shown in the HASC column of Table 1. The recommended~~
~~increase of $4.0 million is for “Advance LAW development.” (Page 473)~~
Section 1021 of H.R. 7900 as reported by the committee states
~~SEC. 1021. NAVY CONSULTATION WITH MARINE CORPS ON MAJOR~~
~~DECISIONS DIRECTLY CONCERNING MARINE CORPS AMPHIBIOUS FORCE~~
~~STRUCTURE AND CAPABILITY.~~
~~(a) IN GENERAL.—Section 8026 of title 10, United States Code, is amended by inserting~~
~~‘‘or amphibious force structure and capability’’ after ‘‘Marine Corps aviation’’.~~
~~(b) CLERICAL AMENDMENTS.—~~
~~(1) SECTION HEADING.—The heading of such section is amended by inserting ‘‘or~~
~~amphibious force structure and capability’’.~~
~~(2) TABLE OF SECTIONS.—The table of sections at the beginning of chapter 803 of such~~
~~title is amended by striking the item relating to section 8026 and inserting the following~~
~~new item:~~
~~‘‘8026. Consultation with Commandant of the Marine Corps on major decisions directly~~
~~concerning Marine Corps aviation or amphibious force structure and capability.’’.~~
Section 1022 of H.R. 7900 as reported by the committee states
~~SEC. 1022. NUMBER OF NAVY OPERATIONAL AMPHIBIOUS SHIPS.~~
~~Section 8062 of title 10, United States Code, is amended by adding at the end the following~~
~~new subsection:~~
~~‘‘(g) The naval combat forces of the Navy shall include not less than 31 operational~~
~~amphibious ships, comprised of LSD–41 class ships, LSD–49 class ships, LPD–17 class~~
~~ships, LPD–17 Flight II class ships, LHD–1 class ships, LHA–6 Flight 0 class ships, and~~
~~LHA–6 Flight I class ships. For purposes of this subsection, an operational amphibious~~
~~ship includes an amphibious ship that is temporarily unavailable for worldwide deployment~~
~~due to routine or scheduled maintenance or repair.’’.~~
~~H.Rept. 117-397 states~~
~~Assessment of the Navy’s amphibious warfare fleet~~
~~The Navy and Marine Corps have identified amphibious capabilities as an area of emphasis~~
~~in future conflicts and are reviewing the requirements and acquisition of the fleet of assets~~
~~dedicated to this mission. The committee is concerned about the potential impacts this has~~
~~for the acquisition of amphibious ships that are best suited for prosecuting a future~~
~~amphibious invasion. Further, the committee is also concerned about the broader~~
~~implications of the importance of amphibious warfare capabilities, the probability of such~~
~~a conflict, and the cost of building and maintaining a fleet that can prosecute such a conflict.~~
~~The committee is interested to learn more about the analysis, decision-making processes,~~
~~and the frequency with which the Navy and Marine Corps review requirements for~~
~~amphibious warfare and align these requirements with acquisition programs. Specifically,~~
~~the committee seeks to understand how the potential changes to requirements would impact~~
~~the acquisition plans identified in the most recent 30-year shipbuilding plan.~~
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~~Therefore, the committee directs the Comptroller General of the United States to review~~
~~the Navy’s plans for the future amphibious warfare fleet. At a minimum, the review shall~~
~~address the following elements:~~
~~(1) analysis of the current amphibious warfare fleet;~~
~~(2) Navy and Marine Corps future plans for the fleet and how it will be positioned to evolve~~
~~as technology changes;~~
~~(3) an assessment of the costs of building and maintaining a fleet whose primary mission~~
~~is amphibious conflict, such as the light amphibious warship, large deck amphibious ships,~~
~~and LPD-class ships; and~~
~~(4) other items the Comptroller General determines appropriate.~~
~~The committee further directs the Comptroller General to provide a briefing to the House~~
~~Committee on Armed Services not later than March 1, 2023, on the Comptroller General’s~~
~~preliminary findings and to present final results in a format and timeframe agreed to at the~~
~~time of the briefing. (Page 15)~~
~~Senate~~
~~The Senate Armed Services Committee, in its report (S.Rept. 117-130 of July 18, 2022) on S.~~
~~4543, recommended the funding level shown in the SASC column of Table 1.~~
Section 1022 of S. 4543 as reported by the committee states
~~SEC. 1022. AMPHIBIOUS WARSHIP FORCE STRUCTURE.~~
~~Section 8062 of title 10, United States Code, is amended—~~
~~(1) in subsection (b)—~~
~~(A) in the first sentence, by inserting ‘‘and not less than 31 operational amphibious warfare~~
~~ships, of which not less than 10 shall be amphibious assault ships’’ before the period; and~~
~~(B) in the second sentence—~~
~~(i) by inserting ‘‘or amphibious warfare ship’’ before ‘‘includes’’; and~~
~~(ii) by inserting ‘‘or amphibious warfare ship’’ before ‘‘that is temporarily unavailable’’;~~
~~(2) in subsection (e)—~~
~~(A) in paragraph (2) by striking ‘‘; and’’ and inserting a semicolon;~~
~~(B) in paragraph (3) by striking the period at the end and inserting ‘‘; and’’; and~~
~~(C) by adding at the end the following new paragraph:~~
~~‘‘(4) the Navy adjusts scheduled maintenance and repair actions to maintain a minimum of~~
~~24 amphibious warfare ships operationally available for worldwide deployment.’’; and~~
~~(3) by adding at the end the following new subsection:~~
~~‘‘(g) In this section, the term ‘amphibious warfare ship’ means a ship that is classified as~~
~~an amphibious assault ship (general purpose) (LHA), an amphibious assault ship (multi-~~
~~purpose) (LHD), an amphibious transport dock (LPD), or a dock landing ship (LSD).’’.~~
~~Regarding Section 1022, S.Rept. 117-130 states~~
~~Amphibious warship force structure (sec. 1022)~~
~~The committee recommends a provision that would amend section 8062 of title 10, United~~
~~States Code, to require that the naval combat force should include not less than 31~~
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~~operational amphibious warfare ships, of which not less than 10 should be amphibious~~
~~assault ships, and make other related changes. (Page 222)~~
~~House-Senate Agreement~~
~~The joint explanatory statement for H.R. 7776 recommended the funding level shown in the~~
~~HASC-SASC Agreement column of Table 1. The recommended increase of $4 million is for~~
~~“Advance LAW development” (PDF page 516 of 748).~~
Section 1022 of H.R. 7776 states
~~SEC. 1022. NAVY CONSULTATION WITH MARINE CORPS ON MAJOR~~
~~DECISIONS DIRECTLY CONCERNING MARINE CORPS AMPHIBIOUS FORCE~~
~~STRUCTURE AND CAPABILITY.~~
~~(a) In General.--Section 8026 of title 10, United States Code, is amended by inserting ``or~~
~~amphibious force structure and capability'' after ``Marine Corps aviation''.~~
~~(b) Clerical Amendments.--~~
~~(1) Section heading.--The heading of such section is amended by inserting ``or amphibious~~
~~force structure and capability'' after ``aviation''.~~
~~(2) Table of sections.--The table of sections at the beginning of chapter 803 of such title is~~
~~amended by striking the item relating to section 8026 and inserting the following new item:~~
~~``8026. Consultation with Commandant of the Marine Corps on major decisions directly~~
~~concerning Marine Corps aviation or amphibious force structure and capability.''.~~
Section 1023 of H.R. 7776 states
~~SEC. 1023. AMPHIBIOUS WARSHIP FORCE STRUCTURE.~~
~~Section 8062 of title 10, United States Code, is amended--~~
~~(1) in subsection (b)--~~
~~(A) in the first sentence, by inserting ``and not less than 31 operational amphibious warfare~~
~~ships, of which not less than 10 shall be amphibious assault ships'' before the period; and~~
~~(B) in the second sentence--~~
~~(i) by inserting ``or amphibious warfare ship'' before ``includes''; and~~
~~(ii) by inserting ``or amphibious warfare ship'' before ``that is temporarily unavailable'';~~
~~and~~
~~(2) by adding at the end the following new subsection:~~
~~``(g) In this section, the term `amphibious warfare ship' means a ship that is classified as~~
~~an amphibious assault ship (general purpose) (LHA), an amphibious assault ship (multi-~~
~~purpose) (LHD), an amphibious transport dock (LPD), or a dock landing ship (LSD).''.~~
~~Regarding Section 1023, the joint explanatory statement states~~
~~Sec. 1023 - Amphibious warship force structure~~
~~The House bill contained a provision (sec. 1022) that would require the Navy to maintain~~
~~an inventory of not less than 31 operational amphibious ships.~~
~~The Senate amendment contained a similar provision (sec. 1022) that would further require~~
~~no fewer than 10 of the 31 required vessels to be amphibious assault ships and specify that~~
~~the Navy maintain no fewer than 24 amphibious ships in an operationally ready status.~~
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~~The agreement includes the Senate provision with an amendment that would delete the~~
~~requirement to maintain 24 amphibious ships in an operationally ready status.~~
~~We urge the Secretary of the Navy to maintain the classes of battle force ships at relatively~~
~~equal levels of readiness to support global force management and operational plans.~~
~~We direct the Commandant of the Marine Corps to brief progress made in achieving Force~~
~~Design 2030 to the Committees on Armed Services of the Senate and the House of~~
~~Representatives every six months beginning April 1, 2023 and ending April 1, 2026. Each~~
~~such briefing shall include: (1) Capabilities divested by the Marine Corps as part of Force~~
~~Design 2030 (e.g., bridging, explosive ordnance disposal, route clearance and tanks); (2)~~
~~The extent to which the Marine Corps is relying on the Army to provide such capabilities;~~
~~(3) Specific actions the Marine Corps has taken to ensure such divested capabilities are~~
~~available to the Marine Corps; and (4) A current timeline for fielding capabilities required~~
~~to implement Force Design 2030. (PDF page 230 of 748)~~
Section 1025 of H.R. 7776 states
~~SEC. 1025. AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE SHIP ASSESSMENT AND REQUIREMENTS.~~
~~Section 8695 of title 10, United States Code, is amended by adding at the end the following~~
~~new subsection:~~
~~``(e) Amphibious Warfare Ships.--In preparing each assessment and requirement under~~
~~subsection (a), the Commandant of the Marine Corps shall be specifically responsible for~~
~~developing the requirements relating to amphibious warfare ships.''.~~
~~FY2023 DOD Appropriations Act (H.R. 8236/S. 4663/Division C of~~
~~H.R. 2617)~~
~~House~~
~~The House Appropriations Committee, in its report (H.Rept. 117-388 of June 24, 2022) on H.R.~~
~~8236, recommended the funding level shown in the HAC column of Table 1. The committee’s~~
~~recommended funding level for line 46 as a whole includes a recommended reduction of $5.0~~
~~million for “Historical underexecution.” (Page 198) It is not clear how much of this reduction, if~~
~~any, would apply to the LAW program.~~
~~Senate~~
~~The explanatory statement for S. 4663 released by the Senate Appropriations Committee on July~~
~~28, 2022, recommended the funding level shown in the SAC column of Table 1.~~
~~House-Senate~~
~~The explanatory statement for the FY2023 DOD Appropriations Act (Division C of H.R. 2617) as~~
~~released by the Senate Appropriations Committee on December 19, 2022, provides the funding~~
~~level shown in the HAC-SAC column of Table 1.~~

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24 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Appendix. Press Reports Regarding Debate on Merits of Force Design 2030 and EABO This appendix presents examples of press reports published since April 2021 discussing the merits of Force Design 2030 and the EABO concept, starting with the most recent on top. Press Reports Since August 2022 Christopher Owens, “Congress Must Restore Order to the Navy’s Amphibious Ship Program,” Defense News, February 6, 2023. Bryan McGrath, “The Navy Put Its Next Amphib on Hold. Good,” Defense One, January 20, 2023. Martin Steele, “A better plan for the Marine Corps and the nation: Vision 2035,” Marine Corps Times, January 4, 2023. J. Noel Williams, “What Force Design 2030 Really Does,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, January 2023. Justin Katz, “The Year the Marine Corps’ Force Design 2030 Came into Its Own: 2022 in Review,” Breaking Defense, December 22, 2022. Terrence R. Dake and Charles E. Wilhelm, “Reduce the Risk to National Security: Abandon ‘Force Design 2030,’” The Hill, December 21, 2022. Paul Van Riper, “This Is the Marine Corps Debate We Should Be Having,” Marine Corps Times, December 7, 2022. Harry W. Jenkins, “The Ugly Truth: Can the Light Amphibious Warship Survive War with China?” The Hill, November 2, 2022. Dakota Wood, “The U.S. Marine Corps Has a Choice: Transform or Die,” Defense One, October 16, 2022. Stephen Baird and Timothy Wells, “Why Marine Corps Forces Are Becoming Less Relevant to Combatant Commanders,” The Hill, October 13, 2022. Paula Thornhill, “Civilians Will Choose the Marine Corps’ Future—and Soon, And They Will Do It by Selecting the Next Commandant and Other Four- And Three-Star Generals,” Defense One, October 13, 2022. Gary Anderson, “Can Congress Save the Marine Corps from Itself?” Military.com, October 5, 2022;. John Sattely and Jason A. Paredes, “Sustainment of the Stand-In Force,” War on the Rocks, September 12, 2022. Press Reports from June Through August 2022 Jonathan Lehrfeld, “Former Marine Officials, Experts Praise Force Design 2030,” Defense News, August 26, 2022. Gary Anderson, “Creating a Real Deterrent to Defend Taiwan,” Military.com, August 25, 2022. Congressional Research Service 25 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program James A. Warren, “If the Marine Corps Isn’t Broken—and It Isn’t—Why Fix It?” Daily Beast, August 20 (updated August 21), 2022. Richard R. Burgess, “Navy’s Light Amphibious Warship Will Be A ‘Great Enabler’ for Marine Littoral Regiments, General Says,” Seapower, August 19, 2022. Franz J. Gayl, “The Marine Corps’ New Plan Will Not Beat China in a Fight for Taiwan,” Marine Corps Times, August 4, 2022. Gary “GI” Wilson, William A. Woods, and Michael D. Wyly, “Send in the Marines? Reconsider Force Design 2030 Beforehand,” Defense News, August 4, 2022. Michelle Macander Grace Hwang, “Marine Corps Force Design 2030: Examining the Capabilities and Critiques,” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), July 22, 2022. Max Boot, “The Top Marine Faces Unprecedented Opposition. He Says That’s ‘Positive.’” Washington Post, July 20, 2022. Scott Cuomo, “On-the-Ground Truth and Force Design 2030 Reconciliation: A Way Forward,” War on the Rocks, July 12, 2022. John F. Schmitt, “The Marine Corps’ Latest Idea for Countering China Has Major Problems,” Task and Purpose, July 7, 2022. Mark Cancian, “Analyzing the Biggest Changes in the Marine Corps Force Design 2030 Update,” Breaking Defense, June 14, 2022. Worth Parker, “How the Marine Corps Went to War with Itself over the Next War,” Task and Purpose, June 10, 2022. Jesse Schmitt, “When Only a Chisel Will Do: Marine Corps Force Design for the Modern Era,” Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC), June 2, 2022. Stuart Scheller, “The Marine Corps’ Debate with Its Generals Is Amusing, but Dangerous,” Marine Corps Times, June 1, 2022. Press Reports During May 2022 Brent Stricker, “Marine Corps Metamorphosis: Legal Considerations,” Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC), May 31, 2022. Charles C. Krulak, “Whose Marine Corps? Why a Force Design Battle Is Losing Sight of the Basics,” Marine Corps Times, May 27, 2022. Owen West, “Are the Marines Inventing the Edsel or the Mustang?” War on the Rocks, May 27, 2022. David E. Johnson, “Ending the Civil War over the Future of the US Marine Corps,” Breaking Defense, May 24, 2022. Elliot Ackerman, “A Whole Age of Warfare Sank With the Moskva, A Fierce Debate Is Raging within the U.S. Marine Corps about What Comes Next.” Atlantic, May 22, 2022. CDR Salamander, “Force Design 2030: Futurism, Imbroglio, or Creative Friction?” CDR Salamander, May 17, 2022. Todd South, “Lethal and Survivable or Irrelevant and Vulnerable? Marine Redesign Debate Rages,” Marine Corps Times, May 16, 2022. Robert Work, “USMC Force Design 2030: Threat Or Opportunity?” 19FortyFive, May 15, 2022. Congressional Research Service 26 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program Tom Hanson, “Rather Than Wreck It, Berger’s Vision Will Save the Marine Corps from Itself,” Marine Corps Times, May 10, 2022. John Vandiver, “Marines Unveil Force Structure Update amid Opposition from Retired Generals about Service’s Direction,” Stars and Stripes, May 10, 2022. Will McGee, “Forcing Design or Designing Force? The Reinvention of the Marine Corps,” Small Wars Journal, May 7, 2022. Howard Altman, “Marines Based Inside China’s Striking Distance Key To Deterrence General Says,” The Drive, May 5, 2022. Audrey Decker, “Heckl: Force Design 2030 Will Make It ‘Damn Hard’ for China to Make a Move,” Inside Defense, May 4, 2022. Mallory Shelbourne, “Marines Committed to New Force Design, Despite Criticism From Retired Generals,” USNI News, May 4, 2022. Press Reports from April 2021 Through April 2022 Gary Anderson, “The Marine Corps’ Intellectual Civil War,” Military.com, April 28, 2022. Charles Krulak, Jack Sheehan, and Anthony Zinni, “War Is a Dirty Business. Will the Marine Corps Be Ready for the Next One?” Washington Post, April 22, 2022. P. K. Van Riper, “The Marine Corps’ Plan to Redesign the Force Will Only End Up Breaking It,” Task and Purpose, April 20, 2022. Anthony Zinni, “What Is the Role of the Marine Corps in Today’s Global Security Environment?” Task and Purpose, April 19, 2022. Philip Athey, “First to Fight: Is This the End of the Corps as America’s 911 Force?” Marine Corps Times, April 12, 2022. Otto Kreisher, “Controversial EABO Concept Has Potential but Will Be Vetted, Speakers Say,” Seapower, April 5, 2022. Konstantin Toropin, “After a Barrage of Editorials and Critiques, Marine Leaders Defend Restructuring Plan,” Military.com, April 5, 2022. Craig Hooper, “Let The Marine Corps Build The New Light Amphibious Warship,” Forbes, April 3, 2022. Mallory Shelbourne, “Navy and Marines Divided Over the Amphibious Fleet’s Future as Delays and Cancellations Mount in FY 2023 Budget Request,” USNI News, April 3, 2022. Paul McLeary and Lee Hudson, “How Two Dozen Retired Generals Are Trying to Stop an Overhaul of the Marines,” Politico, April 1, 2022. Noel Williams, “Insights for Marine (and Beyond) Force Design from the Russo-Ukrainian War,” War on the Rocks, March 31, 2022. Jim Webb, “Momentous Changes in the U.S. Marine Corps’ Force Organization Deserve Debate,” Wall Street Journal, March 25, 2022. Paul K. Van Riper, “Jeopardizing National Security: What Is Happening to Our Marine Corps?” Marine Corps Times, March 21, 2022. John M. Doyle, “Navy, Marine Corps Labs Exploring How to Keep Advanced Bases Supplied and Safe,” Seapower, February 10, 2022. Congressional Research Service 27 Navy Medium Landing Ship (LSM) Program John M. Doyle, “Berger Says Supporting a Widely Distributed Maritime Force Will Be a Challenge,” Seapower, May 14, 2021. Yasmin Tadjdeh, “Light Amphibious Warships Face Survivability Questions,” National Defense, April 23, 2021.
Author Information

Ronald O'Rourke Ronald O'Rourke

Specialist in Naval Affairs Specialist in Naval Affairs

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