Ghana: Current Issues and U.S. Relations

Changes from December 8, 2022 to April 17, 2023

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Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy
~~December 8, 2022~~April 17, 2023
Introduction. Ghana stands out in West Africa for its record of stability and peaceful electoral Ghana stands out in West Africa for its record of stability and peaceful electoral
turnovers of power since a transition to multiparty rule in the early 1990s. Rising insecurity and turnovers of power since a transition to multiparty rule in the early 1990s. Rising insecurity and
Tomás F. Husted
democratic backsliding elsewhere in West Africa have democratic backsliding elsewhere in West Africa have ~~burnished~~underscored the country’s reputation as a the country’s reputation as a
Analyst in African Affairs Analyst in African Affairs
~~pillar of democracy and stability~~stable democracy in a volatile sub-region. U.S.-Ghana relations are warm, in a volatile sub-region. U.S.-Ghana relations are warm,

~~premised on mutual respect for democracy, shared~~ premised on shared positions on many foreign policy issuespositions on many foreign policy issues, and and
growing counterterrorism cooperation. People-to-people and cultural ties also are robust; there is growing counterterrorism cooperation. People-to-people and cultural ties also are robust; there is

a sizable Ghanaian diaspora community in the a sizable Ghanaian diaspora community in the United States, and a growing population of U.S. United States, and a growing population of U.S.
citizens residing in Ghana, a citizens residing in Ghana, a ~~prominent~~major destination for heritage tourism and migration by Black Americans. Members of destination for heritage tourism and migration by Black Americans. Members of
~~Congress and other U.S. officials regularly visit the country~~Congress regularly visit the country; Vice President Harris visited in March 2023. Congressional attention on Ghana has grown amid U.S. concern . Congressional attention on Ghana has grown amid U.S. concern
over a over a ~~southward~~ spillover of Islamist extremist violence from West Africa’s Sahel region into coastal states.spillover of Islamist extremist violence from West Africa’s Sahel region into coastal states. ~~Several~~
~~Members formed a Congressional Ghana Caucus in late 2022.~~
Politics and Governance. The first sub-Saharan African country to gain liberation from colonial rule, Ghana experienced The first sub-Saharan African country to gain liberation from colonial rule, Ghana experienced
decades of military governance punctuated by repeated attempts to decades of military governance punctuated by repeated attempts to ~~restore~~establish multiparty democracy prior to the adoption of a multiparty democracy prior to the adoption of a
new multiparty constitution in 1992. Ghana has since held multiple competitive elections. President Nana Akufo-Addo took new multiparty constitution in 1992. Ghana has since held multiple competitive elections. President Nana Akufo-Addo took
office in 2017 and won reelection in 2020. Successive governments have generally respected civic freedoms; according to office in 2017 and won reelection in 2020. Successive governments have generally respected civic freedoms; according to
various indices, Ghana is one of the strongest democracies in Africa. Corruption, security force abuses, electoral violence, various indices, Ghana is one of the strongest democracies in Africa. Corruption, security force abuses, electoral violence,
and discrimination and attacks against sexual minorities nevertheless remain challenges. Journalists have faced harassment and discrimination and attacks against sexual minorities nevertheless remain challenges. Journalists have faced harassment
and physical violence, including assassinations, for reporting on politically sensitive matters. and physical violence, including assassinations, for reporting on politically sensitive matters.
Economy. Ghana’s economy is more diverse and dynamic than many in West Africa. Gold, crude oil, and cocoa are the Ghana’s economy is more diverse and dynamic than many in West Africa. Gold, crude oil, and cocoa are the
country’s leading export commodities. The services sector has burgeoned since the mid-2000s, underpinned by growing country’s leading export commodities. The services sector has burgeoned since the mid-2000s, underpinned by growing
banking, tourism, transportation, and information and communications technology industries. The economic shocks of the banking, tourism, transportation, and information and communications technology industries. The economic shocks of the
COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s war on Ukraine have aggravated preexisting challenges. Inflation reached record-high COVID-19 pandemic and Russia’s war on Ukraine have aggravated preexisting challenges. Inflation reached record-high
levels in levels in ~~late~~ 2022 amid increases in global food2022 amid increases in global food~~, fuel, and fertilizer~~ and fuel prices and a depreciation of Ghana’s currency, the prices and a depreciation of Ghana’s currency, the cedi. .
~~A rapid increase in~~ Ghana’s public Ghana’s public debt burden also surged, and Ghana defaulted on most external debt in December 2022~~debt burden has caused many rating agencies to downgrade the country’s sovereign credit~~
~~status, shutting the government out of global capital markets~~. The Akufo-Addo administration is . The Akufo-Addo administration is seeking to restructure the country’s debt, a precondition for a pending loan program~~seeking loan assistance~~ from from
the International Monetary Fundthe International Monetary Fund~~. Any such~~ (IMF). IMF support is likely to be contingent upon fiscal belt-tightening measures, which support is likely to be contingent upon fiscal belt-tightening measures, which
may prove politically challenging to implement.may prove politically challenging to implement.
China is a major player in Ghana’s economy, and is the largest bilateral lender to the country. Security. Ghana has never experienced a civil war, though disputes over land and succession to local chieftaincy positions Ghana has never experienced a civil war, though disputes over land and succession to local chieftaincy positions
have at times spurred wider insecurity. have at times spurred wider insecurity. ~~Elections also have been flashpoints for interparty violence and political thuggery,~~
~~albeit not to the extent of some other countries in West Africa.~~ The threat of Islamist extremist violence in Ghana has sparked The threat of Islamist extremist violence in Ghana has sparked
growing concern in Congress. growing concern in Congress. ~~Ghana~~There has not has not ~~experienced an~~been a proven extremist attack on extremist attack on ~~its~~Ghanaian soil to date, but Ghanaian authorities soil to date, but Ghanaian authorities
warn that armed groups based in Burkina Faso, to Ghana’s north, may seek to expand into northern Ghana, as they have done warn that armed groups based in Burkina Faso, to Ghana’s north, may seek to expand into northern Ghana, as they have done
in neighboring Côte d’Ivoire and Togo, as well as in Benin. Ghana also faces challenges related to low maritime domain in neighboring Côte d’Ivoire and Togo, as well as in Benin. Ghana also faces challenges related to low maritime domain
awareness and maritime insecurity. Researchers have accused Chinese firms of involvement in illicit fishing in Ghana. awareness and maritime insecurity. Researchers have accused Chinese firms of involvement in illicit fishing in Ghana.
U.S. Assistance and Engagement. U.S. assistance supports a range of development, governance, and security programs, and U.S. assistance supports a range of development, governance, and security programs, and
Ghana is a priority country under several U.S. foreign assistance initiatives. In 2022, the Biden Administration designated Ghana is a priority country under several U.S. foreign assistance initiatives. In 2022, the Biden Administration designated
Ghana as a priority for engagement under the Global Fragility Act (GFA, Title V of Div. J, P.L. 116-94), alongside other Ghana as a priority for engagement under the Global Fragility Act (GFA, Title V of Div. J, P.L. 116-94), alongside other
coastal West Africa countries. Ghana also is a focus country under the President’s Malaria Initiative and Feed the Future and coastal West Africa countries. Ghana also is a focus country under the President’s Malaria Initiative and Feed the Future and
has had two Millennium Challenge Corporation compacts, the second of which (a power project) concluded in June 2022. has had two Millennium Challenge Corporation compacts, the second of which (a power project) concluded in June 2022.
Ghana is a hub for U.S. diplomatic engagement and assistance in the region: the country’s capital, Accra, hosts USAID’s Ghana is a hub for U.S. diplomatic engagement and assistance in the region: the country’s capital, Accra, hosts USAID’s
West Africa Regional Mission, one of four Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) Regional Leadership Centers in Africa, West Africa Regional Mission, one of four Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) Regional Leadership Centers in Africa,
and one of two State Department International Law Enforcement Academy regional training centers on the continent. Ghana and one of two State Department International Law Enforcement Academy regional training centers on the continent. Ghana
routinely participates in U.S. military training exercises in the region, and in routinely participates in U.S. military training exercises in the region, and in ~~2023 is slated to host~~March 2023 co-hosted Flintlock, U.S. Africa Flintlock, U.S. Africa
Command’s premier annual special operations exerciseCommand’s premier annual special operations exercise, along with neighboring Côte d’Ivoire. .

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Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy

Introduction
By several measures, Ghana is a democratic leader in Africa and an island of stability in a sub-By several measures, Ghana is a democratic leader in Africa and an island of stability in a sub-
region where insecurity and military seizures of power have proliferated over the past decade. region where insecurity and military seizures of power have proliferated over the past decade.
Since a transition from military rule to multiparty politics in the early 1990s, Ghana has held Since a transition from military rule to multiparty politics in the early 1990s, Ghana has held
multiple competitive elections and peaceful transfers of power between parties, and successive multiple competitive elections and peaceful transfers of power between parties, and successive
governments have broadly respected civic freedoms. Corruption, attacks on press freedoms, and governments have broadly respected civic freedoms. Corruption, attacks on press freedoms, and
discrimination against sexual minorities nevertheless remain problems. discrimination against sexual minorities nevertheless remain problems.
Ghana’s economy is more diverse than many in West Africa. Gold, crude oil, and cocoa are the Ghana’s economy is more diverse than many in West Africa. Gold, crude oil, and cocoa are the
country’s most important export commodities; Ghana is the world’s second largest exporter of country’s most important export commodities; Ghana is the world’s second largest exporter of
cocoa beans, behind neighboring Côte d’Ivoire. The shocks of COVID-19 and Russia’s war on cocoa beans, behind neighboring Côte d’Ivoire. The shocks of COVID-19 and Russia’s war on
Ukraine have aggravated economic vulnerabilities in Ghana, spurring Ukraine have aggravated economic vulnerabilities in Ghana, spurring ~~soaring~~record-high inflation and a inflation and a
rapid increase of Ghana’s debt burden. The economic crisis and tightening fiscal conditions have rapid increase of Ghana’s debt burden. The economic crisis and tightening fiscal conditions have
raised challenges for the pursuit of President Nana Akufo-Addo’s flagship development programs raised challenges for the pursuit of President Nana Akufo-Addo’s flagship development programs
as the government has scaled back spending to ease the deficit and restore debt sustainability. as the government has scaled back spending to ease the deficit and restore debt sustainability.
U.S.-Ghana relations have historically been warm, based on shared democratic ideals and close U.S.-Ghana relations have historically been warm, based on shared democratic ideals and close
people-to-people ties. There is a sizable Ghanaian-American diaspora community in the United people-to-people ties. There is a sizable Ghanaian-American diaspora community in the United
States, and several thousand African Americans live in Ghana; the Akufo-Addo administration States, and several thousand African Americans live in Ghana; the Akufo-Addo administration
has sought to attract heritage tourism and migration to the country by Black Americans. Congress has sought to attract heritage tourism and migration to the country by Black Americans. Congress
funds a diverse range of U.S. assistance programs in the country, with activities to improve health funds a diverse range of U.S. assistance programs in the country, with activities to improve health
outcomes, spur agricultural development, enhance outcomes, spur agricultural development, enhance public service delivery, curb child labor in the cocoa service delivery, curb child labor in the cocoa
industry, and strengthen Ghana’s security services. Countering violent extremism (CVE) is industry, and strengthen Ghana’s security services. Countering violent extremism (CVE) is a a
growing focus of bilateral ties and U.S. aid, amid a southward expansion of Islamist extremist growing focus of bilateral ties and U.S. aid, amid a southward expansion of Islamist extremist
violence from West Africa’s Sahel region. In June 2022, the Biden Administration designated violence from West Africa’s Sahel region. In June 2022, the Biden Administration designated
Ghana as a priority country under the Global Fragility Act (GFA, Title V of Div. J, P.L. 116-94) as Ghana as a priority country under the Global Fragility Act (GFA, Title V of Div. J, P.L. 116-94) as
part of a “Coastal West Africa” sub-region that also includes Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, and part of a “Coastal West Africa” sub-region that also includes Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, and
Togo. Several Members had previously voiced concern over the expanding threat of extremism in Togo. Several Members had previously voiced concern over the expanding threat of extremism in
coastal West Africa and coastal West Africa and ~~have~~ expressed support for the sub-region’s prioritization under GFA.1 expressed support for the sub-region’s prioritization under GFA.1
Congress has shaped U.S. relations with Ghana through its appropriation and oversight of foreign Congress has shaped U.S. relations with Ghana through its appropriation and oversight of foreign
assistance, though legislative action directly related to Ghana has been limited. Regular Member assistance, though legislative action directly related to Ghana has been limited. Regular Member
and staff travel to the country has been a leading avenue of congressional engagement. Ghana’s and staff travel to the country has been a leading avenue of congressional engagement. Ghana’s
increasingly isolated position as a stable democracy in a region beset by escalating insecurity and increasingly isolated position as a stable democracy in a region beset by escalating insecurity and
authoritarian rule in many countries may spur heightened attention and favor the pursuit of closer authoritarian rule in many countries may spur heightened attention and favor the pursuit of closer
U.S.-Ghanaian cooperation. With GFA engagement in coastal West Africa poised to expand in the U.S.-Ghanaian cooperation. With GFA engagement in coastal West Africa poised to expand in the
coming years, funding and oversight of U.S. CVE and security assistance may offer opportunities coming years, funding and oversight of U.S. CVE and security assistance may offer opportunities
for Members to shape, direct, evaluate, and articulate their views on U.S. engagement in Ghana.2 for Members to shape, direct, evaluate, and articulate their views on U.S. engagement in Ghana.2

1 See, e.g., remarks by Representative Michael McCaul in House Foreign Affairs Committee (HFAC), “The Biden 1 See, e.g., remarks by Representative Michael McCaul in House Foreign Affairs Committee (HFAC), “The Biden
Administration’s Foreign Assistance Priorities and USAID’s FY22 Budget Request,” hearing, 117th Cong., 1st sess., Administration’s Foreign Assistance Priorities and USAID’s FY22 Budget Request,” hearing, 117th Cong., 1st sess.,
July 14, 2021; remarks by Representative Sara Jacobs in House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa, Global July 14, 2021; remarks by Representative Sara Jacobs in House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Africa, Global
Health, and Global Human Rights, “FY2022 Budget and U.S.-Africa Relations,” hearing, 117th Cong., 1st sess., Health, and Global Human Rights, “FY2022 Budget and U.S.-Africa Relations,” hearing, 117th Cong., 1st sess.,
December 1, 2021; remarks by Representative Sara Jacobs in HFAC, “The State Department's Foreign Policy Priorities December 1, 2021; remarks by Representative Sara Jacobs in HFAC, “The State Department's Foreign Policy Priorities
and the FY23 Budget Request,” hearing, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., April 28, 2022. and the FY23 Budget Request,” hearing, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., April 28, 2022.
2 See House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Development, International Organizations and Global 2 See House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Development, International Organizations and Global
Corporate Social Impact, “Improving the United States’ Ability to Prevent and Stabilize Conflict: Global Fragility Act Corporate Social Impact, “Improving the United States’ Ability to Prevent and Stabilize Conflict: Global Fragility Act
Implementation,” hearing, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., May 11, 2022; and CRS Insight IN11938, Implementation,” hearing, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., May 11, 2022; and CRS Insight IN11938, Responding to State
“Fragility” in Coastal West Africa, by Tomás F. Husted and Alexis Arieff. , by Tomás F. Husted and Alexis Arieff.
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~~Alongside regional security challenges, human~~Human rights issues in Ghana and growing U.S.-Ghanaian rights issues in Ghana and growing U.S.-Ghanaian
~~cultural engagement may spark enhanced congressional consideration. Amid enduring concern in~~
~~Congress over foreign corruption, for instance, some Members may seek to assess the extent of~~
~~official graft in Ghana, the implications for U.S. commercial engagement, and the effectiveness of~~
~~U.S. responses in light of the Biden Administration’s prioritization of countering corruption as a~~
~~“core national security interest.”3 Some in Congress also might consider attacks on journalists in~~
~~Ghana in the context of efforts to promote global press freedom,4 and rising violence against~~
~~lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) Ghanaians as they weigh~~
~~responses to threats against sexual minorities globally.5~~cultural engagement may also attract enhanced congressional consideration and shape bilateral ties. Some Members have expressed concern over a draft law under consideration by Ghana’s parliament that would impose severe penalties on lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) individuals, and over attacks on journalists and press freedom in the country.3 On the other hand, Ghana’s efforts to attract heritage tourism Ghana’s efforts to attract heritage tourism
and migration by Black Americans, premised in part on diasporic legacies of the transatlantic and migration by Black Americans, premised in part on diasporic legacies of the transatlantic
slave trade, slave trade, ~~also may~~may enable closer bilateral ties and offer opportunities for engagement by Members offer opportunities for engagement by Members orand their constituents. A new their constituents. A new
Congressional Ghana Caucus, launched in late 2022, reflects increased congressional attention on Congressional Ghana Caucus, launched in late 2022, reflects increased congressional attention on
issues in the bilateral relationship. issues in the bilateral relationship.
Background and Politics
Ghana was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to gain liberation from colonial rule, winning Ghana was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to gain liberation from colonial rule, winning
independence from Britain in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah, a socialist scholar and politician who led independence from Britain in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah, a socialist scholar and politician who led
the anti-colonial struggle, became Ghana’s leader at independence. Nkrumah spearheaded efforts the anti-colonial struggle, became Ghana’s leader at independence. Nkrumah spearheaded efforts
to modernize Ghana’s economy and bureaucracy and inculcate Pan-African and socialist values to modernize Ghana’s economy and bureaucracy and inculcate Pan-African and socialist values
in its citizenry, while establishing Ghana as a one-party state and increasingly repressing dissent.in its citizenry, while establishing Ghana as a one-party state and increasingly repressing dissent.64
In 1966, military officers overthrew Nkrumah, setting off two decades of military rule punctuated In 1966, military officers overthrew Nkrumah, setting off two decades of military rule punctuated
by intermittent attempts to restore civilian authority that were subverted by multiple coups. by intermittent attempts to restore civilian authority that were subverted by multiple coups.
Ghana transitioned to multiparty politics in 1992; today, according to various indices, it is one of Ghana transitioned to multiparty politics in 1992; today, according to various indices, it is one of
the strongest democracies in Africa.the strongest democracies in Africa.7 Freedom House, in its 2023 Freedom in the World index of political rights and civil liberties, ranked Ghana fourth in Africa and classified it as “free.”5 It has a de facto two-party system. Political power has alternated between President Akufo- Political power has alternated between President Akufo-
Addo’s New Patriotic Party (NPP), which touts itself as Addo’s New Patriotic Party (NPP), which touts itself as an economically liberaleconomically liberal ~~party~~, and the , and the
nominally social-democratic National Democratic Congress (NDC). In practice, the NPP and nominally social-democratic National Democratic Congress (NDC). In practice, the NPP and
NDC have pursued similar policies, focused on reducing poverty, improving services, attracting NDC have pursued similar policies, focused on reducing poverty, improving services, attracting
foreign investment, and fostering industrialization and infrastructure development. Unlike many foreign investment, and fostering industrialization and infrastructure development. Unlike many
other legislatures in Africa, Ghana’s Parliament has at times demonstrated an ability to serve as other legislatures in Africa, Ghana’s Parliament has at times demonstrated an ability to serve as
an effective check on the executive, though it arguably remains weak vis-à-vis the presidency.an effective check on the executive, though it arguably remains weak vis-à-vis the presidency.86

3 3 ~~White House, United States Strategy on Countering Corruption, December 2021.~~
~~4 Several pieces of legislation introduced in the 117th Congress would aim to promote press freedom globally. S.Res.~~
~~241, introduced in May 2021, would note death threats against Ghanaian journalist Manasseh Azure Awuni~~In the 118th Congress, H.R. 1833 and S. 1007 would establish a Special Envoy for the Human Rights of LGBTQI+ Peoples, noting Ghana’s draft bill as one as one
~~example of threats to press freedom in Africa. Related legislation under consideration in the 117th Congress includes S.~~
~~204, S. 226, H.R. 839, S. 1478, S. 1495, S.Res. 609, H.R. 7650, and H.Res. 1095.~~
~~5 For related bills in the 117th Congress, see H.R. 3485, H.R. 3800, S. 424, H.R. 1201, H.Res. 1128, and H.Res. 405.~~
6example of anti-LGBTQI+ developments worldwide. In the 117th Congress, S.Res. 241, recognizing threats to press freedom and free expression worldwide, would have noted death threats against Ghanaian journalist Manasseh Azure Awuni as one example of attacks on freedom of the media in Africa. 4 Nkrumah remains a towering figure in Pan-African social commentary and Ghanaian political discourse, though his Nkrumah remains a towering figure in Pan-African social commentary and Ghanaian political discourse, though his
legacy continues to be debated. For a scholarly account of his administration, see Jeffrey S. Ahlman, legacy continues to be debated. For a scholarly account of his administration, see Jeffrey S. Ahlman, Living with
Nkrumahism: Nation, State, and Pan-Africanism in Ghana (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2017). (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2017).
75 Freedom House, Freedom House, ~~in its 2022 Freedom in the World index of political rights and civil liberties, ranked Ghana fourth in~~
~~Africa and classified it as “free” in its three-tier ranking of social freedoms~~Freedom in the World 2023, 2023. The Economist Intelligence Unit, in its . The Economist Intelligence Unit, in its
Democracy Index ~~2021~~2022, ranked Ghana sixth in Africa, classifying the country as a “flawed democracy.” , ranked Ghana sixth in Africa, classifying the country as a “flawed democracy.”
86 Clement Sefa-Nyarko, “Ghana’s Fourth Republic has been the best the country’s had. But it could be better,” Clement Sefa-Nyarko, “Ghana’s Fourth Republic has been the best the country’s had. But it could be better,” The
Conversation, June 15, 2022; Ken O. Opalo, “The Politics of Legislative Development,” in Gabrielle Lynch and Peter , June 15, 2022; Ken O. Opalo, “The Politics of Legislative Development,” in Gabrielle Lynch and Peter
VonDoepp, eds. VonDoepp, eds. Routledge Handbook of Democratization in Africa (London: Routledge, 2019): 131-146. (London: Routledge, 2019): 131-146.
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Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy

Ghana outperforms many sub-regional peers Ghana outperforms many sub-regional peers
on measures of governance and institutional on measures of governance and institutional
Figure 1. Ghana
capacity. capacity.97 Northern Ghana lags the south in Northern Ghana lags the south in
many development indicators, many development indicators, however, a a pattern pattern
Ghanaian and international observers often Ghanaian and international observers often
refer to as Ghana’s “north-south divide.” refer to as Ghana’s “north-south divide.”
~~According to~~ Administrative strength also is more limited outside of urban zones; according to one analysis, “the state’s one analysis, “the state’s
administration extends to the entire country administration extends to the entire country
but varies in quality [...] despite but varies in quality [...] despite
administrative reforms in recent years, the administrative reforms in recent years, the
visibility of the state is limited in rural visibility of the state is limited in rural
areas.”areas.”108 Poverty rates are highest in Ghana’s Poverty rates are highest in Ghana’s
Northern, Upper West, and Upper East Northern, Upper West, and Upper East
regions and lowest in Greater Accra, regions and lowest in Greater Accra,
surrounding the capital (see surrounding the capital (see Fig. 1).).11 9 The The
rising threat of a spillover of Islamist rising threat of a spillover of Islamist
extremist violence from Burkina Faso into extremist violence from Burkina Faso into
Ghana’s north (see Ghana’s north (see “Security Issues”) has has
renewed attention to regional disparities in renewed attention to regional disparities in
Ghana and spurred the Ghanaian government Ghana and spurred the Ghanaian government
and its international partners, including the and its international partners, including the
United States, to intensify development United States, to intensify development
efforts in the north.efforts in the north.1210
The Akufo-Addo
Administration (2017-Present)

~~President Akufo-Addo took office in 2017~~
Source: CRS; data from State Department and Esri. CRS; data from State Department and Esri.
President Akufo-Addo took office in 2017 and began a second term in January 2021.and began a second term in January 2021.1311 He has identified He has identified ~~economic recovery and~~ “structural “structural
transformation to value-added activities,” transformation to value-added activities,” ~~investment in roads and other infrastructure~~infrastructure investment, education, , education,
and improving access to electricity and water as among his top priorities.and improving access to electricity and water as among his top priorities.1412 His administration has His administration has
embarked on a series of flagship development initiatives, including the Free Senior High School embarked on a series of flagship development initiatives, including the Free Senior High School
program, which publicly funds education past ninth grade; program, which publicly funds education past ninth grade; ~~the~~ One District, One FactoryOne District, One Factory
~~initiative~~, to establish factories in each of Ghana’s 275 districts; and Agenda 111, , to establish factories in each of Ghana’s 275 districts; and Agenda 111, ~~a plan~~ to build to build
or rehabilitate 111 health facilitiesor rehabilitate 111 health facilities.

9 across the country. In public remarks and strategy documents, President Akufo-Addo has placed an emphasis on 7 See, for instance, Bertelsmann Stiftung, Bertelsmann Stiftung, Ghana Country Report 2022, 2022; and Mo Ibrahim Foundation, , 2022; and Mo Ibrahim Foundation, ~~2020~~ 2022 Ibrahim Index of
African Governance: Index Report, , ~~2020.~~
102023. 8 Bertelsmann Stiftung, Bertelsmann Stiftung, Ghana Country Report 2022. .
119 Ghana Statistical Service, Ghana Statistical Service, Multidimensional Poverty – Ghana, 2020. , 2020.
1210 USAID’s Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) for Ghana for 2020-2025 identifies accelerating USAID’s Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) for Ghana for 2020-2025 identifies accelerating
development in northern Ghana as one of three development objectives. USAID, development in northern Ghana as one of three development objectives. USAID, Ghana CDCS 2020-2025, 2020. , 2020.
~~13 President~~11 Akufo-Addo won reelection in December 2020, in a rematch with former President John Mahama of the Akufo-Addo won reelection in December 2020, in a rematch with former President John Mahama of the
NDC, whom Akufo-Addo defeated in 2016. European Union (EU) observers NDC, whom Akufo-Addo defeated in 2016. European Union (EU) observers ~~assessed the campaign environment to be~~
~~free and competitive, and~~ found the elections generally credible and transparent, though five people reportedly died in found the elections generally credible and transparent, though five people reportedly died in
election-related violence. EU Election Observation Mission, election-related violence. EU Election Observation Mission, Final Report: Ghana, Presidential and Parliamentary
Elections,, 7 December 2020, 2021. 2021.
14 12 Inaugural Address by Inaugural Address by ~~The~~the President President ~~Of The~~of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, January 7, 2021; Message Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, January 7, 2021; Message
on the State of the Nation by the President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, March 30, 2021. on the State of the Nation by the President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, March 30, 2021.
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realizing a “Ghana Beyond Aid,” entailing structural economic reforms and a “change in mindset and attitudes” aimed at reducing Ghana’s reliance on donor assistance.13 The Akufo-Addo administration tapped debt markets to finance its agenda, leading to an increase The Akufo-Addo administration tapped debt markets to finance its agenda, leading to an increase
in Ghana’s debt burden even before the economic shocks of the COVID-19 pandemic prompted a in Ghana’s debt burden even before the economic shocks of the COVID-19 pandemic prompted a
surge in deficit spending. surge in deficit spending. ~~(Tax revenue generation is limited in Ghana; the country’s tax-to-gross~~
~~domestic product ratio ranks in the bottom dozen in Africa.15) The ensuing economic crisis,~~
~~discussed in greater detail below~~The ensuing economic crisis (see (see “The Economy and Development Issues”)) has forced the has forced the
~~Akufo-Addo administration~~government to cut spending, dimming prospects for its to cut spending, dimming prospects for its ~~major~~ social programs.social programs.16
President Akufo-Addo has also struggled to advance President Akufo-Addo has also struggled to advance parts of his agenda in Parliament, where his NPP his agenda in Parliament, where his NPP
~~holds a one-seat advantage (138 of 275). In late 2021, opposition NDC lawmakers rejected the~~
~~administration’s draft 2022 budget after NPP members walked out of the chamber to protest a~~
~~procedural dispute, marking Ghana’s first rejected budget in decades. NDC resistance to the draft~~
~~centered on the government’s proposal to introduce a 1.75% “e-levy” on electronic financial~~
~~transactions, a centerpiece of its~~holds a one-seat advantage over the opposition NDC (138 of 275 seats). Notably, NDC resistance to a new “e-levy” on electronic transactions—a centerpiece of Akufo-Addo’s efforts to efforts to raise tax revenues—delayed the levy’s implementation and pressured the NPP to lower the levy rate, causing the government to miss revenue targets in 2022. Surveys suggest widespread disapproval of the e-levy, which the government has lowered further in 2023.14 ~~raise tax revenues.17 NPP lawmakers pushed the bill~~
~~through the following week. Debate over a bill to enact the e-levy led to a physical altercation~~
~~between NPP and NDC lawmakers in December 2021. NPP lawmakers ultimately reduced the~~
~~levy to 1.5% and enacted the bill in March 2022. The delay in passage and levy reduction caused~~
~~the government to lower its projections for revenue from the e-levy this year.18~~
Public discontent with economic hardship and alleged poor governance has spurred protests and Public discontent with economic hardship and alleged poor governance has spurred protests and
labor unrest. In labor unrest. In ~~late 2021, thousands of protesters demonstrated in Accra, accusing both parties of~~
~~failing to improve living conditions and address~~2021, thousands protested in Accra over poor living conditions, corruption, power and water shortages, and corruption, power and water shortages, and
unemployment. Anunemployment. An ~~April~~ 2022 survey by Afrobarometer, a nongovernmental polling organization 2022 survey by Afrobarometer, a nongovernmental polling organization
based in Accra, found that nearly 9 in 10 Ghanaians assessed that the country was heading in the based in Accra, found that nearly 9 in 10 Ghanaians assessed that the country was heading in the
wrong direction, and that a large majority stated that the government was performing poorly in wrong direction, and that a large majority stated that the government was performing poorly in
economic affairs.economic affairs.~~19 Discontent with rising costs~~15 Anger over the cost of living prompted further protests in June prompted further protests in June and November 2022. How the 2022. How the
~~Akufo-Addo administration manages~~government continues to manage dissatisfaction with a dissatisfaction with a ~~faltering~~struggling economy, while navigating economy, while navigating
parliamentary gridlock, may shape the NPP’s fortunes in the next parliamentary gridlock, may shape the NPP’s fortunes in the next ~~general~~presidential and parliamentary elections, due in 2024. elections, due in 2024.
Foreign Relations
President Akufo-Addo has President Akufo-Addo has ~~been an outspoken advocate on various topics in regional and global~~
~~affairs. Among other efforts, he has~~ called for sweeping action to alleviate the debt burdens of called for sweeping action to alleviate the debt burdens of
African countries and restructure global capital markets to facilitate greater access to financing African countries and restructure global capital markets to facilitate greater access to financing
among African borrowersamong African borrowers~~, and for~~ .16 He also has been an outspoken advocate for much greater investment from Western countries to support climate greater investment from Western countries to support climate
~~change adaptation in Africa.20 He also has been a strong proponent of African countries reducing~~
~~their reliance on foreign aid; domestically, he has committed to realizing a “Ghana Beyond Aid,”~~

~~15 OECD, African Union Commission, and African Tax Administration Forum, Revenue Statistics in Africa 2021.~~
~~16 Cooper Inveen and Christian Akorlie, “Ghana announces sweeping spending cuts to tackle deficit,” Reuters, March~~
~~24, 2022.~~
~~17 Republic of Ghana,~~ ~~The Budget Statement and Economic Policy of the Government of Ghana for the 2022 Financial~~
~~Year, 2021; see also Reuters, “Ghana's parliament votes down 2022 budget over electronic tax,” November 27, 2021.~~
~~18 Moses Mozart Dzawu, “Ghana Cuts Revenue Forecast From E-Levy After Political Fallout,” Bloomberg, July 27,~~
~~2022.~~
19change adaptation in Africa.17 Russia. President Akufo-Addo has been critical of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and has blamed the impacts of the war on global food and fuel prices for harming Ghana’s economic outlook.18 A non-permanent member of the U.N. Security Council (UNSC) through 2023, Ghana voted in favor of a UNSC resolution in February 2022 to condemn Russia’s aggression. Russia vetoed the measure. Ghana has since voted in favor of four U.S.-backed UNGA resolutions related to the war, but (like many African countries) abstained from an UNGA resolution suspending Russia from the UN Human Rights Council.19 President Akufo-Addo also has expressed concern over the role of Russian private military contractor the Wagner Group in Africa, and in December 2022 13 See, for instance, Government of Ghana, Ghana Beyond Aid (GBA) Charter and Strategy Document, April 2019. 14 Afrobarometer, “Majority of Ghanaians oppose e-levy, not confident it will fund development programmes, new Afrobarometer study shows,” July 13, 2022. 15 Afrobarometer, “Ghanaians bemoan economic conditions, say country is heading in the wrong direction, new Afrobarometer, “Ghanaians bemoan economic conditions, say country is heading in the wrong direction, new
Afrobarometer study shows,” July 19, 2022. Afrobarometer study shows,” July 19, 2022.
~~20 On debt and credit market issues, see~~ 16 See, e.g., , e.g., Remarks by the President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-
Addo, at the 2022 Annual Meetings of the African Development Bank, May 24, 2022. 17 Al Jazeera, “‘Not fair’: Ghana slams West over low funding for climate change,” October 11, 2022. 18 Message on the State of the Nation by the President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo. 19 Specifically, Ghana voted in favor of UNGA Resolutions ES-11/1, ES-11/2, ES-11/4, and ES-11/5, and abstained from UNGA Resolution ES-11/3. Congressional Research Service 4 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy publicly accused neighboring Burkina Faso of hiring “Russian mercenaries.”20 Burkinabe authorities denied the allegation and summoned Ghana’s ambassador over the claim. China. The People’s Republic of China (PRC, or China) is one of Ghana’s top trade partners, and PRC entities have financed several infrastructure developments in the country. These include one of Ghana’s largest hydroelectric dams, several other power projects, and various~~of the African Development Bank, May 24, 2022,; on climate finance, see~~ ~~Radio~~
~~France Internationale, “Climat: en visite à Paris, le président ghanéen tacle les pays du G20,” October 11, 2022.~~
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~entailing structural economic reforms and a “change in mindset and attitudes” aimed at reducing~~
~~reliance on donor assistance.21~~
~~President Akufo-Addo has been critical of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and has blamed the war~~
~~for worsening Ghana’s economic outlook.22 A non-permanent member of the U.N. Security~~
~~Council (UNSC) through 2023, Ghana voted in favor of a draft UNSC resolution in February that~~
~~would have condemned Russia’s aggression. Russia vetoed the resolution.23~~
~~Ghana’s Relationship with China~~
~~China is one of Ghana’s top trade partners, and Chinese state entities have financed several infrastructure projects~~
~~in the country. These include the $622 mil ion, 400-megawatt Bui Dam (largely financed by the Export-Import~~
~~Bank of China), several other electrification projects, and a number of~~ transportation transportation and communications investments. 21 Certain~~and information,~~
~~communications, and technology investments.24 Some~~ projects have been financed through resource-backed loans, projects have been financed through resource-backed loans,
in which in which ~~Chinese~~ financing has been financing has been ~~partly~~ repaid repaid ~~through~~or collateralized via sales of natural resources. sales of natural resources.25
~~China’s involvement in Ghana’s economy has in some cases attracted criticism related to the terms of repayment~~
~~or the social and environmental impact of Chinese-financed projects. In 2014, Ghana elected not to withdraw the~~
~~second half of a $3 bil ion line of credit from the China Development Bank (CDB)—partly col ateralized by oil~~
~~revenues—amid disagreements with CDB over the terms of the loan.26 More recently, opposition lawmakers have~~
~~criticized delays in implementation of a $2 bil ion bauxite-for-infrastructure deal, signed in 2018; that agreement~~
~~also sparked concern among environmental advocates over the impacts of bauxite mining on Ghana’s forests.27~~
~~The involvement of Chinese nationals in Il egal small-scale gold mining, a widespread practice known as galamsey,~~
Ghanaian public opinion toward the growing role of the PRC appears divided. Some Ghanaians have described China’s involvement in Ghana’s economy as unfavorable to Ghana, or expressed concern over the environmental impacts of PRC-financed projects.22 The involvement of PRC nationals in illegal gold mining, a practice known locally as galamsey, has been a focus of public criticism and press coveragehas been a focus of public criticism and press coverage;, as Ghanaian authorities have arrested hundreds of Ghanaian authorities have arrested hundreds of ~~Chinese~~
PRC nationals for nationals for ~~galamsey~~galamsey in the past decade. According to in the past decade. According to a 2022 Freedom HouseFreedom House report, “public opinion on China has increasingly , “public opinion on China has increasingly
turned negative over the turned negative over the ~~galamsey~~galamsey problem,” though “most Ghanaians are not overly critical toward the Chinese problem,” though “most Ghanaians are not overly critical toward the Chinese
government and instead hold the Ghanaian government primarily responsible.”government and instead hold the Ghanaian government primarily responsible.”~~28 Afrobarometer pol ing~~23 Observers also have accused PRC companies of extensive involvement in illicit fishing in Ghana, which is a top flag state for PRC distant-water fishing operations (see Text Box). Afrobarometer polling in 34 African countries suggests ~~suggests~~
that Ghana was one of only six countries that Ghana was one of only six countries ~~in Africa in which~~where positive perceptions of China significantly increased positive perceptions of China significantly increased
~~between surveys administered in~~ between 2014 and 2021, 2014 and 2021, but that ~~but~~ more Ghanaians more Ghanaians ~~stil favor~~still prefer the influence and development the influence and development
~~model of the United States, rather than China.29~~

~~21 See Government of Ghana, Ghana Beyond Aid (GBA) Charter and Strategy Document, April 2019.~~
~~22 Message on the State of the Nation by the President of the Republic, Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo, March 30,~~
~~2021, available at https://presidency.gov.gh/index.php/briefing-room/speeches/2168-message-on-the-state-of-the-~~
~~nation-by-the-president-akufo-addo.~~
~~23 Ghana voted in favor of U.N. General Assembly Resolution ES-11/1, calling for Russia to withdraw from Ukraine,~~
~~but abstained from a vote on Resolution ES-11/3, to suspend Russia’s membership in the U.N. Human Rights Council.~~
~~In late 2022, Ghana voted in favor of Resolution ES-11/4, condemning Russia’s annexation of part of eastern Ukraine.~~
~~24 For a list of Chinese-funded projects in Ghana, see Boston University Global Development Policy Center, “Chinese~~
~~Loans to Africa Database,” at https://www.bu.edu/gdp/chinese-loans-to-africa-database/.~~
~~25 For instance, in the case of the Bui Dam, Ghana agreed to sell a Chinese state-owned company 30,000 tons of cocoa~~
~~per year until 5 years after the dam was operational; payments for the cocoa were placed in an escrow account with~~
~~China ExIm Bank. For an analysis of the project, see Keyi Tang and Yingjiao Shen, “Do China-Financed Dams in Sub-~~
~~Saharan Africa Improve the Region's Social Welfare? A Case Study of the Impacts of Ghana's Bui Dam,” China Africa~~
~~Research Initiative at the School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS-CARI), Working Paper No. 25, 2019.~~
~~26 Thomas Chen, What Happened to China Development Bank's $3 Billion Loan to Ghana?, SAIS-CARI, Policy Brief~~
~~No. 10/2016, 2016.~~
~~27 Eric Olander, “Ghana: Growing concerns over status of bauxite-for-infrastructure deal,” The Africa Report,~~
~~September 30, 2021; Nosmot Gbadamosl, “Ghana’s Bauxite Boom,” Foreign Policy, January 28, 2020.~~
~~28 Freedom House, Beijing’s Global Media Influence 2022: Ghana, 2022.~~
29model of the United States.24 Chinese Involvement in Ghana’s Fishing Sector: Ghana’s Fisheries Act of 2002 prohibits foreign vessel ownership or foreign participation in joint ventures in most industrial fishing operations. Nonetheless, PRC nationals are reportedly extensively involved in Ghana’s fishing sector via joint ventures and beneficial ownership arrangements, although a lack of transparency regarding vessel ownership complicates definitive assessments of PRC fishing operations in the country. According to a 2018 study by the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF), a nongovernmental research and advocacy organization, “up to 90- 95% of Ghana’s trawl fleet may have some Chinese involvement,” with ships flagged to Ghana but beneficially owned by PRC-based companies.25 Ghana is also a centerpiece of China’s distant-water fishing (DWF) operations: the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), a UK-based think tank, assessed in 2020 that, after China, Ghana is the leading flag state globally for PRC DWF vessels.26 Human rights and environmental advocacy organizations have accused the PRC DWF fleet in Ghana of exploitative fishing practices, overfishing and ecological unsustainability, and labor abuses. A 2022 EJF study found that Ghana had recorded the highest number of IUU fishing offenses by PRC DWF vessels in West Africa from 2015-2019—a period during which, as a region, West Africa ranked as the top site of IUU incidents involving PRC DWF vessels globally.27 Of particular concern in Ghana has been the reported involvement by PRC-owned 20 BBC, “Wagner Group: Burkina Faso anger over Russian mercenary link,” December 16, 2022. 21 For a list of Chinese-funded projects in Ghana, see Boston University Global Development Policy Center, “Chinese Loans to Africa Database,” at https://www.bu.edu/gdp/chinese-loans-to-africa-database/. 22 Stacey Knott, “Mining Ghana’s bauxite would bring in billions from China. But it could also taint the water for 5 million people.” Washington Post, October 28, 2019; Amodani Gariba, “The $19 billion Ghana-China deal does not serve Ghana’s interest; review it,” Ghana Web, September 5, 2018. 23 Freedom House, Beijing’s Global Media Influence 2022: Ghana, 2022. 24 Josephine Appiah-Nyamekye Sanny and Edem Selorme, “Africans welcome China’s influence but maintain democratic aspirations,” Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 489, November 15, 2021. 25 EJF, China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A Spotlight on Illegal Practices within Ghana’s Industrial Trawl Sector, 2018, p. 4. 26 Miren Gutiérrez et al., China’s Distant-Water Fishing Fleet: Scale, Impact, and Governance, ODI, 2020. 27 EJF, The Ever-Widening Net: Mapping the Scale, Nature, and Corporate Structures of Illegal, Unreported and Congressional Research Service 5 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy trawlers in a practice known as saiko, entailing the capture of small pelagic fish—critical for fisheries sustainability, artisanal fishing livelihoods, and local food security—and the il icit transshipment of this bycatch to traders for sale onshore.28 EJF also has alleged widespread human rights abuses onboard PRC-owned trawlers in Ghana, including physical abuse, overworking, low and irregular pay, insufficient and poor quality food, and lack of medical care.29 Governance and Human Rights Issues Successive Ghanaian governments have broadly respected freedoms of association, assembly, and expression. The ~~Josephine Appiah-Nyamekye Sanny and Edem Selorme, “Africans welcome China’s influence but maintain~~
~~democratic aspirations,” Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 489, November 15, 2021.~~
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~Governance and Human Rights Issues~~
~~Successive Ghanaian governments have broadly respected freedoms of association, assembly, and~~
~~expression. Ghana is one of two West African countries rated as “free” in Freedom House’s 2022~~
Freedom in the World index of political rights and civil liberties (alongside Cabo Verde).30 The
country’s civil society is robust and diverse, nongovernmental organizations are generally at country’s civil society is robust and diverse, nongovernmental organizations are generally at
liberty to operate, and political commentators and opposition politicians routinely criticize and liberty to operate, and political commentators and opposition politicians routinely criticize and
make demands of the government. As noted above, Ghana’s state administrative apparatus is make demands of the government. As noted above, Ghana’s state administrative apparatus is
more capable than those of many other countries in West Africa, albeit with generally better more capable than those of many other countries in West Africa, albeit with generally better
service provision in the south compared to the north, and in cities as opposed to rural areas. service provision in the south compared to the north, and in cities as opposed to rural areas.
Official corruption has nonetheless been a chronic Official corruption has nonetheless been a chronic ~~challenge~~problem, and a source of public discontent , and a source of public discontent
and target of investigative reporting. Several high-level officials have been implicated in corrupt and target of investigative reporting. Several high-level officials have been implicated in corrupt
practices. In practices. In ~~November~~late 2022, for instance, President Akufo-Addo fired 2022, for instance, President Akufo-Addo fired his deputy finance minister deputy finance minister
~~Charles Adu Boahen~~ after an undercover journalist filmed after an undercover journalist filmed ~~Boahen~~him soliciting bribes from soliciting bribes from ~~mining~~
investors. Extortion and bribe-taking investors. Extortion and bribe-taking by police and other justice sector officials is reportedly pervasive; according to public opinion surveys, nearly three in five Ghanaians believe “most” or “all” police are corrupt.30~~by police and other justice sector officials is reportedly~~
~~extensive; Ghanaians report that rates of bribe-taking by police far outpace those of other public~~
~~officials, and nearly three in five Ghanaians believe “most” or “all” police are corrupt.31~~
~~According to the State Department, beyond corruption, human rights challenges in Ghana include~~
~~“arbitrary or unlawful killings by the government or its agents; cases of cruel, inhuman or~~
~~degrading treatment or punishment by the government or on behalf of the government; harsh and~~
~~life-threatening prison conditions; [and] arbitrary arrest or detention.”32 The government has held~~
~~some officers accountable for corruption and other human rights violations, but impunity persists.~~
Attacks on journalists and press freedom have become increasingly prevalent in Ghana, which Attacks on journalists and press freedom have become increasingly prevalent in Ghana, which
fell 30 places between the 2021 and 2022 editions of Reporters Without Borders’ fell 30 places between the 2021 and 2022 editions of Reporters Without Borders’ Press Freedom
Index, to 60 out of 180 countries. The , to 60 out of 180 countries. The ~~country has a robust media landscape in which~~
~~commentators often criticize the government, but the State Department reports that “there were~~
~~isolated attacks on~~State Department has documented “isolated attacks on and harassment and arrests of journalists by members of security forces journalists by members of security forces” as well as violence toward media personnel by political party supporters and unknown assailants.31 ~~as well as by unknown assailants~~
~~and occasional threats and intimidation” in 2021.33~~ Some politicians have threatened and harassed Some politicians have threatened and harassed
journalists, journalists, ~~particularly~~including those who report on corruption and other those who report on corruption and other ~~politically~~ sensitive topics. In sensitive topics. In
~~2019, for instance~~a prominent example, in 2019, assailants killed investigative journalist Ahmed Hussein-, assailants killed investigative journalist Ahmed Hussein-Suale; ~~Suale; in the months~~
prior to the killing, prior to the killing, aan NPP Member of Parliament Member of Parliament ~~had~~ publicized Hussein-Suale’s name, called for publicized Hussein-Suale’s name, called for ~~him~~
~~to be attacked, and pledged~~his attack, and offered to pay for “whatever happens.” to pay for “whatever happens.”3432 The killing remains The killing remains ~~unresolved.~~
unsolved. Human rights groups Human rights groups also have raised concern over increasing attacks and harassment targeting LGBTQI+ people in Ghana. Activists partly attribute the rise to the introduction of a draft bill in Ghana’s parliament in 2021 that, if enacted, would be among the most restrictive bills globally related to LGBTQI+ identity (see Text Box).33 Police have arrested LGBTQI+ individuals and raided gathering spaces for the LGBTQI+ community~~have raised concern over a growing trend of attacks, harassment, and other~~
~~abuses targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and intersex (LGBTQI+) people in~~
~~Ghana, where discrimination against sexual minorities is widespread~~. The State Department . The State Department
also reports that reports that ~~“beatings and public humiliation of~~“attacks by private citizens on LGBTQI+ persons LGBTQI+ persons~~...~~ were common and growing were common and growing
~~in number” in 2021, amid “a notable increase in anti-LGBTQI+ statements by political, religious,~~
~~and community leaders.”35 In early 2021, police raided a new LGBTQI+ community center in~~

~~30 Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2022: The Global Expansion of Authoritarian Rule, 2022.~~
31in number” in Unregulated Fishing by the Chinese Distant-Water Fleet, 2022. 28 Lieven Engelen, “Under cover of darkness: the damaging effects of illegal ‘saiko’ fishing,” The Guardian, October 17, 2022; EJF, Stolen at Sea: How Illegal ‘Saiko’ Fishing is Fuelling the Collapse of Ghana’s Fisheries, 2019. 29 EJF, Fear, Hunger, and Violence: Human Rights in Ghana’s Industrial Trawl Fleet, 2021. 30 Afrobarometer, Round 8 Surveys (2019). A 2021 survey by the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) found Afrobarometer, Round 8 Surveys (2019). A 2021 survey by the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) found
that over half of respondents who had had contact with police officers in the year prior to the survey had paid a bribe or that over half of respondents who had had contact with police officers in the year prior to the survey had paid a bribe or
been asked to pay a bribe (UNODC, been asked to pay a bribe (UNODC, Corruption in Ghana: People’s Experiences and Views, 2022). , 2022).
~~32 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ghana, 2022.~~
3331 Ibid. Ibid.
3432 Joel Gunter, “Murder in Accra: The life and death of Ahmed Hussein-Suale,” Joel Gunter, “Murder in Accra: The life and death of Ahmed Hussein-Suale,” BBC, January 30, 2019. , January 30, 2019.
~~35 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.~~
33 CRS interviews in Accra, Ghana, September 2023. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy

~~Accra, which remained closed as of December 2022. A draft bill introduced in 2021, if enacted,~~
would be among the most restrictive bills globally related to LGBTQI+ identity (see Text Box).2021-2022, amid a “notable increase in anti-LGBTQI+ statements by high-ranking political figures and by religious and community leaders.”34
Ghana’s Promotion of Proper Human Sexual Rights and Ghanaian Family Values Bill
In mid-2021, eight In mid-2021, eight ~~Members of Parliament (mostly of the opposition NDC)~~(mostly opposition) Members of Parliament introduced a bil that would introduced a bil that would ~~sharply~~
~~increase~~ dramatically expand penalties for being non-heterosexual. Ghanaian law already criminalizes “unnatural carnal knowledge,” penalties for being non-heterosexual. Ghanaian law already criminalizes “unnatural carnal knowledge,”
understood to include same-sex relations, as a misdemeanor punishable by up to three years in prison. The draft understood to include same-sex relations, as a misdemeanor punishable by up to three years in prison. The draft
“Promotion of Proper Human Sexual Rights and Ghanaian Family Values Bil ” would make identification as a non-“Promotion of Proper Human Sexual Rights and Ghanaian Family Values Bil ” would make identification as a non-
heterosexual person (broadly defined), engaging in same-sex intercourse, or identification as an ally of “the queer heterosexual person (broadly defined), engaging in same-sex intercourse, or identification as an ally of “the queer
community” a felony punishable by three to five years in prison.community” a felony punishable by three to five years in prison.~~36 If the bil is enacted, any~~35 Any association that association that
advocated on behalf of LGBTQI+ people would be disbanded; advocated on behalf of LGBTQI+ people would be disbanded; ~~forming or supporting~~participation in such groups would such groups would
henceforth be punishable by henceforth be punishable by ~~not less than 6 years and~~ up to 10 years in prison. up to 10 years in prison. Advocacy~~Advocacy or dissemination of~~
~~material~~ found to promote non-heterosexual identity or activity could also result in a 10-year prison sentence. found to promote non-heterosexual identity or activity could also result in a 10-year prison sentence. As
~~of November 2022, the draft bil remained in committee.~~
In public remarks during Vice President Kamala Harris’ visit to Ghana in March 2023 (discussed below), President Akufo-Addo stated that the Attorney General had consulted with the Parliament regarding the constitutionality of several provisions of the bil , and indicated that “substantial elements of the bil have already been modified as a result of the intervention of the Attorney General.”36 As of April 2023, the draft bil remained in committee. Child labor in the Ghanaian and Ivoirian cocoa sectors has been an enduring Child labor in the Ghanaian and Ivoirian cocoa sectors has been an enduring ~~challenge~~problem and area and area
of congressional engagementof congressional engagement ~~and U.S. aid. Child labor in Ghana’s cocoa industry~~. The practice primarily primarily
involves the employment of children on farms owned by relatives, often under hazardous working involves the employment of children on farms owned by relatives, often under hazardous working
~~conditions (e.g., labor involving exposure to chemicals and dangerous tools, or the bearing of~~
~~heavy loads)~~conditions. Forced child labor. Forced child labor ~~or child slavery~~, in which children are , in which children are ~~forced~~made to work by to work by
someone other than a relative, also occurs, but someone other than a relative, also occurs, but ~~is reportedly~~to a much more much more ~~limited.37 Pursuant to~~limited extent.37 Under the the
2001 Harkin-Engel Protocol, a voluntary public-private commitment 2001 Harkin-Engel Protocol, a voluntary public-private commitment ~~to eradicate the “worst~~
~~forms of child labor”38 in cocoa production, the cocoa and chocolate industries have instituted~~
~~measures to prevent and respond to the use of child labor in their supply chains, though~~witnessed by then-Representative Eliot Engel and then-Senators Tom Harkin and Herbert Kohl, major U.S. and European cocoa and chocolate industries committed to eradicating the “worst forms of child labor” in their supply chains.38 The Protocol expired in 2021 after agreed agreed
benchmarks and deadlines for action benchmarks and deadlines for action ~~have repeatedly been altered after not being fully met.39~~
were repeatedly altered, and child labor reportedly remains widespread in the industry.39 The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) ~~has administered aid programs to~~ continues to administer aid to strengthen state strengthen state
responses to child laborresponses to child labor ~~issues and improve child welfare, such as by expanding educational and~~
~~livelihood services. Nonetheless, the practice reportedly remains widespread.40 Stakeholders have~~
~~identified coordination of anti-child labor efforts and initiatives (e.g., between private and public~~
~~sectors) as a key challenge.41 Child labor also occurs in other agricultural industries and in non-~~
~~agricultural settings, such as domestic services.42 The State Department classified Ghana as a Tier~~
~~2 country on its 2022 Trafficking in Persons report, meaning Ghana does not meet minimum~~
~~standards for eliminating human trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so.~~

~~36 The draft bill is available on the Parliament of Ghana’s website at https://www.parliament.gh/docs?type=Bills&OT.~~
and improve child welfare. The State Department, in its 2022 Trafficking in Persons report, classified Ghana as a Tier 2 country, meaning it does not meet minimum standards for eliminating human trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so. The Economy and Development Issues Ghana’s economy is more diverse than many in West Africa. Since the mid-2000s, the services sector has rapidly expanded as a share of gross domestic product (GDP), driven by growth in the banking, tourism, transportation, and information and communications technology industries. Agriculture’s share of GDP has steadily declined since the 1980s but it is still a major employer, 34 U.S. Department of State, 2022 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, 2023. 35 The draft bill is available on the Parliament of Ghana’s website at https://www.parliament.gh/docs?type=Bills&OT. 36 Nimi Princewill, “Ghana’s president softens country’s stance on draconian anti-LGBTQ bill as Kamala Harris visits,” CNN, March 29, 2023. 37 A 2018 study by Tulane University and the Walk Free Foundation, an anti-slavery initiative, estimated that 15,200 37 A 2018 study by Tulane University and the Walk Free Foundation, an anti-slavery initiative, estimated that 15,200
children aged 10-17 and 3,700 adults had experienced forced labor in the Ghanaian cocoa sector between 2013 and children aged 10-17 and 3,700 adults had experienced forced labor in the Ghanaian cocoa sector between 2013 and
2017, out of 708,000 children and 1.1 million adults working in surveyed areas. Elke de Buhr and Elise Gordon, 2017, out of 708,000 children and 1.1 million adults working in surveyed areas. Elke de Buhr and Elise Gordon, Bitter
Sweets: Prevalence of forced labour and child labour in the cocoa growing sectors of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, 2018. 2018.
38 The International Labor Organization (ILO) defines the “worst forms” of child labor to include forced or sexually 38 The International Labor Organization (ILO) defines the “worst forms” of child labor to include forced or sexually
exploitative labor, the use of children in illicit activities, and hazardous work. exploitative labor, the use of children in illicit activities, and hazardous work. ~~See ILO, Worst Forms of Child Labor~~
~~Convention, 1999 (Convention No. 182).~~
~~39 Then-Representative Eliot Engel, then-Senators Tom Harkin and Herbert Kohl, and representatives of the Ivoirian~~
~~government, the ILO, and anti-child labor and other civil society groups signed the Protocol as witnesses.~~
40 39 In 2020, Chicago University researchers estimated that there were roughly 766,000 children engaged in child labor in In 2020, Chicago University researchers estimated that there were roughly 766,000 children engaged in child labor in
cocoa-growing areas of Ghana, including 713,000 in hazardous work. NORC at the University of Chicago, cocoa-growing areas of Ghana, including 713,000 in hazardous work. NORC at the University of Chicago, Assessing
Progress in Reducing Child Labor in Cocoa Production in Cocoa Growing Areas of Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, 2020., 2020.
~~41 CRS interviews, Accra, Ghana, September 2022.~~
~~42 U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report: Ghana, 2022; DOL,~~ ~~2021 Findings on the Worst Forms of~~
~~Child Labor: Ghana, 2022.~~
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~The Economy and Development Issues~~
~~Ghana’s economy is more diverse than many in West Africa. Since the mid-2000s, the services~~
~~sector has rapidly expanded as a share of gross domestic product (GDP), driven by growth in the~~
~~banking, tourism, transportation, and information and communications technology industries.~~
~~Agriculture’s share of GDP has steadily declined since the 1980s but it is still a major employer,~~
Congressional Research Service 7 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy second to the services industry.second to the services industry.4340 Cocoa is the most important export crop, accounting for 19% of Cocoa is the most important export crop, accounting for 19% of
merchandise exports in 2021, and is an important source of jobs; Ghana is the world’s second-merchandise exports in 2021, and is an important source of jobs; Ghana is the world’s second-
largest cocoa exporter behind neighboring Côte d’Ivoire, accounting for some 20% of annual largest cocoa exporter behind neighboring Côte d’Ivoire, accounting for some 20% of annual
global production. Gold and crude oil, however, each contribute larger shares of exports than global production. Gold and crude oil, however, each contribute larger shares of exports than
cocoa, accounting for 34% and 27% of export earnings, respectively, in 2021.cocoa, accounting for 34% and 27% of export earnings, respectively, in 2021.4441
The economic shocks of the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted a period of strong growth, and the The economic shocks of the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted a period of strong growth, and the
country’s debt burden country’s debt burden ~~spiked~~swelled as the Akufo-Addo administration increased borrowing to finance emergency support to cushion the economy.42 Ghana was effectively shut out of international debt markets by late 2022 as rating agencies downgraded its sovereign bonds to highly speculative status, and the government suspended payment of most external debts in December 2022. A debt swap with domestic creditors, who reportedly hold about one-third of the country’s debt, closed in January 2023.43 Negotiations among Ghana’s bilateral creditors over external debt relief were ongoing as of mid-April 2023. Ghanaian authorities and U.S. and European diplomats have appeared to criticize China, Ghana’s largest bilateral lender, for holding up bilateral debt talks.44 The IMF has stated that financing assurances from Ghana’s bilateral creditors are necessary to unlock a $3 billion loan arrangement tentatively agreed to in December 2022.45 The pending IMF program, Ghana’s 17th IMF arrangement since the 1960s, is likely to focus on fiscal consolidation and improving debt sustainability and to require fiscal belt-tightening measures, such as spending cuts and tax increases, that may prove politically challenging to implement. ~~as the Akufo-Addo administration increased borrowing to finance~~
~~emergency support aimed at cushioning the economy.45 As of October 2022, the IMF estimated~~
~~Ghana’s gross government debt-to-GDP ratio at 91%, up from 63% shortly before the onset of~~
~~COVID-19.46 Commercial debt has accounted for a growing share of Ghana’s debt profile, as the~~
~~government has tapped domestic banks and global capital markets to raise financing, including~~
~~through regular Eurobond issuances. As of late 2022, as Ghana’s fiscal strains and debt servicing~~
~~costs had mounted, major credit rating agencies had downgraded the country’s bonds to highly~~
~~speculative status, and Ghana had been effectively shut out of international debt markets.47 The~~
~~government is pursuing efforts to restructure its debt, beginning with domestic bondholders.~~
~~In July 2022, the Akufo-Addo administration announced that it would pursue a loan arrangement~~
~~with the IMF—a major about-face for an administration that had previously sworn off IMF~~
~~assistance, calling it a symptom of fiscal indiscipline.48 (In 2019, Ghana completed a $918 million~~
~~IMF loan program, the country’s 16th IMF arrangement, entered into by Akufo-Addo’s~~
~~predecessor.) Discussions between Ghana and the IMF were ongoing as of December 2022. An~~
~~IMF lending package is likely to target fiscal consolidation and improving debt sustainability, and~~
~~may unlock assistance from other bilateral and multilateral lenders.~~
A spike in food and fuel prices in 2022, due in part to Russia’s war in Ukraine, sharply eroded A spike in food and fuel prices in 2022, due in part to Russia’s war in Ukraine, sharply eroded
local purchasing power. Consumer inflation reached local purchasing power. Consumer inflation reached ~~37% in September~~54% in December 2022, the highest level in 2022, the highest level in
decades, decades, ~~impelled~~propelled by a rapid depreciation of Ghana’s currency, the by a rapid depreciation of Ghana’s currency, the cedi, which , which iswas among the among the
worst performing currencies globally worst performing currencies globally ~~as of late 2022.49 Ghana’s central bank has raised interest~~
~~rates in an attempt to stem inflationary pressures.~~last year.46 Inflation has eased since January 2023 as food and fuel prices have fallen.47 As noted above, discontent over the rising cost As noted above, discontent over the rising cost
of living resulted in of living resulted in street protests in 2022. In response to planned strikes by teachers, health sector workers, and other public-sector employees, the government increased salaries and cost of living allowances for civil servants and exempted pensions from its domestic debt-swap program. Ghana has recorded a generally positive development trajectory, including a sustained, if slowing, reduction in poverty rates since 2005; the World Bank estimates that 10.2% of Ghanaians live on 40~~street protests in June and July 2022; also in July, a planned strike by~~

43 According to World Bank estimates, the share of agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Ghana’s GDP declined from According to World Bank estimates, the share of agriculture, forestry, and fishing in Ghana’s GDP declined from
60% in 1983 to 20% in 2021. World Bank, 60% in 1983 to 20% in 2021. World Bank, World Development Indicators database, accessed December 7, 2022. database, accessed December 7, 2022.
4441 Bank of Ghana, Bank of Ghana, Annual Report and Financial Statements 2021, 2022. , 2022.
~~45 Annual GDP growth averaged near 7% between 2017 and 2019 before dropping to 0.5% in 2020. International~~
~~Monetary Fund (IMF)~~42 As of April 2023, the IMF estimated Ghana’s gross government debt-to-GDP ratio at 99%, up from 58% shortly before the onset of COVID-19. IMF, World Economic Outlook database, , World Economic Outlook database, ~~October 2022 update.~~
~~46 IMF, World Economic Outlook database, October 2022 update, at https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-~~
~~database/2022/October.~~
~~47 Moses Mozart Dzawu, “Fitch Deepens Ghana Junk Rating on Debt-Restructuring Concerns,” Bloomberg, September~~
~~23, 2022.~~
48April 2023 update. 43 Christian Akorlie, “Ghana says domestic debt swap closed with 85% participation,” Reuters, February 15, 2023. 44 Treasury Department, “Remarks by Secretary of the Treasury Janet L. Yellen at Press Conference as Part of 2023 IMF-World Bank Annual Spring Meetings,” April 11, 2023; Christian Akorlie and Cooper Inveen, “China must join Ghana debt restructuring effort soon, Germany's Lindner says,” Reuters, February 4, 2023; Andrea Shalal, “Georgieva says she told China to 'speed up' work on debt restructuring,” Reuters, April 6, 2023. 45 IMF, “Key Questions on Ghana,” updated December 13, 2022. The Akufo-Addo administration’s decision to pursue IMF support represented an about-face for an administration that had previously sworn off IMF assistance, describing the need for IMF loans as a symptom of fiscal indiscipline; see, for instance, Ghana Presidency, “Ghana: 'Let Mahama's IMF Deal Be the Last' - President Akufo-Addo to Ghanaians,” March 31, Ghana Presidency, “Ghana: 'Let Mahama's IMF Deal Be the Last' - President Akufo-Addo to Ghanaians,” March 31,
2019. 2019.
4946 Ekow Dontoh and Moses Mozart Dzawu, “Ghana Inflation Exceeds 37% as Data Compilation Is Changed,” Ekow Dontoh and Moses Mozart Dzawu, “Ghana Inflation Exceeds 37% as Data Compilation Is Changed,”
Bloomberg, October 12, 2022. , October 12, 2022.
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~~link to page 17~~ ~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~teachers, health sector workers, and other public-sector employees was averted when the~~
~~government reached an agreement with unions to increase the cost of living allowance.50~~
~~Ghana has recorded a generally positive development trajectory, including a sustained, if slowing,~~
~~reduction in poverty rates since 2005; the World Bank estimates that 10.2% of Ghanaians live on~~
47 Ekow Dontoh, “Ghana Inflation Falls More Than Estimates on Lower Fuel, Food Costs,” Bloomberg, April 12, 2023. Congressional Research Service 8 link to page 17 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy less than $1.90 per day, below poverty levels in many other West African countries.less than $1.90 per day, below poverty levels in many other West African countries.5148 Ghana’s Ghana’s
literacy rates, estimated at 79% (84% for men, 75% for women) are higher than in many other literacy rates, estimated at 79% (84% for men, 75% for women) are higher than in many other
African countries, as are its average life expectancy at birth (69 years) and rates of access to African countries, as are its average life expectancy at birth (69 years) and rates of access to
improved water and sanitation facilities—notwithstanding disparities between north and south improved water and sanitation facilities—notwithstanding disparities between north and south
and rural and urban areas.and rural and urban areas.5249 Ghana ranked as a “medium human development” country on the Ghana ranked as a “medium human development” country on the
U.N. Development Program’s U.N. Development Program’s Human Development Report 2021/2022, placing 133 out of 191 , placing 133 out of 191
countries, seventh in sub-Saharan Africa and slightly behind India.countries, seventh in sub-Saharan Africa and slightly behind India.5350
Ghana relies on hydropower and thermal energy to meet most of its energy needs. Costly and Ghana relies on hydropower and thermal energy to meet most of its energy needs. Costly and
unreliable electricity access has been a barrier to economic growth: Ghana’s energy sector has unreliable electricity access has been a barrier to economic growth: Ghana’s energy sector has
faced recurrent electricity supply crises (both shortfalls and gluts), and is a major source of public faced recurrent electricity supply crises (both shortfalls and gluts), and is a major source of public
debt. Improving power distribution was the focus of Ghana’s second MCC compact, which debt. Improving power distribution was the focus of Ghana’s second MCC compact, which
closed in 2022 (see closed in 2022 (see “Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) Engagement,” ~~below)~~”). According . According
to the State Department, other business climate challenges include to the State Department, other business climate challenges include ~~“costly and difficult~~costly financial financial
~~services,” cumbersome and opaque~~services, cumbersome bureaucracy, complicated land tenure systems, poor bureaucracy, complicated land tenure systems, poor
infrastructure, and corruption.infrastructure, and corruption.54 51 Researchers have assessed that Ghana is at severe risk of the Researchers have assessed that Ghana is at severe risk of the
impacts of climate change (see impacts of climate change (see Text Box). ).
Climate Risks and Vulnerabilities in Ghana
According to the World Bank, “Ghana is vulnerable to increasing aridity, droughts and extreme rainfall events and According to the World Bank, “Ghana is vulnerable to increasing aridity, droughts and extreme rainfall events and
flooding, and faces significant challenges from a changing climate [.. ] to its ecology, economy, and society.”flooding, and faces significant challenges from a changing climate [.. ] to its ecology, economy, and society.”5552 In the In the
south, Accra and other fast-growing coastal cities face a number of risks associated with rising sea levels, such as south, Accra and other fast-growing coastal cities face a number of risks associated with rising sea levels, such as
flooding, damage to infrastructure, coastal erosion and environmental degradation, and heightened exposure to flooding, damage to infrastructure, coastal erosion and environmental degradation, and heightened exposure to
waterborne public health threats.waterborne public health threats.5653 Many urban areas are highly informal, with poor infrastructure and low access Many urban areas are highly informal, with poor infrastructure and low access
to public services, making them particularly vulnerable to natural disasters.to public services, making them particularly vulnerable to natural disasters.5754 Ghana’s north, where grasslands and Ghana’s north, where grasslands and
dispersed tree-cover ecosystems transition into the southern edge of the Sahel, is at elevated risk of both drought dispersed tree-cover ecosystems transition into the southern edge of the Sahel, is at elevated risk of both drought
and flooding. As much of Ghana’s agricultural activity is rain-fed, and flooding. As much of Ghana’s agricultural activity is rain-fed, ~~any~~an increase in precipitation variability or the increase in precipitation variability or the
intensity of rainfall events may intensity of rainfall events may ~~have severe impacts on~~negatively affect food production and local livelihoods. food production and local livelihoods.
In remarks at the 27th U.N. Climate Change Conference of Parties (COP27), President Akufo-Addo called on In remarks at the 27th U.N. Climate Change Conference of Parties (COP27), President Akufo-Addo called on
developed countries to fol ow up on a pledge made at the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15, held in 2009), to developed countries to fol ow up on a pledge made at the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15, held in 2009), to
mobilize $100 bil ion per year for climate-related action in the developing world.mobilize $100 bil ion per year for climate-related action in the developing world.5855 He also referred to “loss and He also referred to “loss and

~~50 Reuters, “Ghana government averts strike, reaching allowance deal with trade unions,” July 15, 2022.~~
~~51 World Bank, Macro Poverty Outlook: Ghana, April 2021.~~
~~52 CIA World Factbook, accessed November 15, 2022.~~
53damage” funding to support countries facing adverse effects of climate change as “payment overdue” by “the rich and pol uting nations,” and reiterated calls for a restructuring of the global financial system.56 According to several studies, Ghanaian women face multiple overlapping barriers to political and economic inclusion. The constitution and other laws prohibit sex-based discrimination, yet—as in 48 World Bank, Macro Poverty Outlook: Ghana, April 2021. 49 CIA World Factbook, accessed November 15, 2022. 50 U.N. Development Program, U.N. Development Program, Human Development Report 2021/2022: Uncertain Times, Unsettles Lives; Shaping
our Future in a Transforming World, 2022. , 2022.
5451 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, 2022 Investment Climate Statements: Ghana, 2022. , 2022.
5552 World Bank, World Bank, Climate Risk Country Profile: Ghana, 2021, p. 11, at https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org , 2021, p. 11, at https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org
/sites/default/files/2021-06/15857-WB_Ghana%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf. /sites/default/files/2021-06/15857-WB_Ghana%20Country%20Profile-WEB.pdf.
5653 Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “Rising Sea Levels Besieging Africa’s Booming Coastal Cities,” November 8, Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “Rising Sea Levels Besieging Africa’s Booming Coastal Cities,” November 8,
2022. 2022.
5754 Louise Fox and Danielle Resnick, “Africa’s informal cities need more than green infrastructure to weather the effects Louise Fox and Danielle Resnick, “Africa’s informal cities need more than green infrastructure to weather the effects
of climate change,” Brookings, November 14, 2022. of climate change,” Brookings, November 14, 2022.
5855 National Statement by President Akufo-Addo at the COP27 World Leaders’ Summit, November 8, 2022, at National Statement by President Akufo-Addo at the COP27 World Leaders’ Summit, November 8, 2022, at
https://unfccc.int/documents/623325. https://unfccc.int/documents/623325.
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~damage” funding to support countries facing adverse effects of climate change as “payment overdue” by “the rich~~
~~and pol uting nations,” and reiterated calls for a restructuring of the global financial system.59~~
~~According to several studies, Ghanaian women face multiple overlapping barriers to political and~~
~~economic inclusion. The constitution and other laws prohibit sex-based discrimination, yet—as in~~
56 Statement by President Akufo-Addo at the COP27 Climate Prosperity Plans Flagship Event, at https://thecvf.org/statement-for-cpp-flagship-event-akufo-addo. Congressional Research Service 9 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy many countries globally—prevailing gender norms that emphasize women’s roles in the home (as many countries globally—prevailing gender norms that emphasize women’s roles in the home (as
mothers and wives) result in de facto impediments to gender equity.mothers and wives) result in de facto impediments to gender equity.6057 Chiefs and other traditional Chiefs and other traditional
leaders, who are predominately male and who regulate access to land in their respective areas of leaders, who are predominately male and who regulate access to land in their respective areas of
authority, tend to restrict women’s control over land, making it more difficult for women to obtain authority, tend to restrict women’s control over land, making it more difficult for women to obtain
credit, increase their earnings, and adapt to shocks.credit, increase their earnings, and adapt to shocks.6158 Women often lose access to land and other Women often lose access to land and other
property in the event of divorce or the death of their spouse, owing to customary land tenure property in the event of divorce or the death of their spouse, owing to customary land tenure
arrangements that favor male control and inheritance of assets.arrangements that favor male control and inheritance of assets.~~62 According to the State~~
~~Department’s human rights report for 2021, “women in urban centers and those with skills and~~
~~training encountered little overt bias, but resistance persisted to women entering nontraditional~~
~~fields or seeking related vocational education or training.”63~~59 Gender-based violence is Gender-based violence is
widespread, and domestic violence is reportedly socially permissible in many communities.widespread, and domestic violence is reportedly socially permissible in many communities.6460
Security Issues
Ghana has earned a reputation as Ghana has earned a reputation as ~~a bulwark~~an island of stability in a sub-region in which of stability in a sub-region in which ~~several~~multiple countries countries
have faced military coups, internal conflict, and rising Islamist violent extremism. Ghana has have faced military coups, internal conflict, and rising Islamist violent extremism. Ghana has
never experienced a civil war, and it ranks among the top ten contributors of military and police never experienced a civil war, and it ranks among the top ten contributors of military and police
personnel to U.N. peacekeeping missions.personnel to U.N. peacekeeping missions.6561 In the 2022 In the 2022 Global Peace Index, an assessment of , an assessment of
countries’ peacefulness based on measures of conflict, social harmony, and defense expenditures countries’ peacefulness based on measures of conflict, social harmony, and defense expenditures
and capabilities, Ghana ranked 40th globally and 2nd in sub-Saharan Africa, behind Mauritius.and capabilities, Ghana ranked 40th globally and 2nd in sub-Saharan Africa, behind Mauritius.66
~~Localized conflict nevertheless remains a challenge. According to the State Department’s human~~
~~rights report for 2021, “chieftaincy disputes, which frequently resulted from lack of a clear chain~~
~~of succession, competing claims regarding land and other natural resources, and internal rivalries~~
~~and feuds, continued to result in deaths, injuries, and destruction of property.”67 Elections also~~
~~have been flashpoints for violence, though not to the extent of some other West African countries.~~
~~In past elections, politicians have recruited agents (typically young men) known as “political~~
~~vigilantes” to intimidate opponents and their supporters and engage in electoral fraud, alongside~~
~~legitimate canvassing and electoral support activities.68 Five Ghanaians died and more than a~~
~~dozen were injured in electoral violence surrounding the most recent general elections, in 2020.~~

~~59 Statement by President Akufo-Addo at the COP27 Climate Prosperity Plans Flagship Event, at~~
~~https://thecvf.org/statement-for-cpp-flagship-event-akufo-addo.~~
~~60 Banyan Global (produced for USAID/Ghana), Gender Analysis Report, 2020, pp. 11-15.~~
~~61 Women and Girls Empowered Consortium, Preliminary Gender and Inclusion Analysis for Ghana, 2022, pp. 19-20.~~
~~62 Ibid, p. 20.~~
~~63 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Ghana.~~
~~64 ActionAid, Falling Through the Cracks: Tackling the Justice Deficit for Women Survivors in Ghana, 2019.~~
6562 Ghana has not confirmed an extremist attack on its soil to date, but Ghanaian authorities have voiced concern over the southward expansion of Islamist extremist activity from Burkina Faso and the wider Sahel region.63 Burkina Faso-based armed groups have launched attacks in neighboring Côte d’Ivoire and Togo, and in Benin. In February 2023, unknown actors attempted to bomb a bridge in Bawku, near the Burkina Faso border, and in March 2023, gunmen killed one immigration officer and injured two others in Bawku. Ghanaian security authorities attributed the incidents to criminals, without explicitly linking them to extremist organizations; in March 2023, President Akufo-Addo stated that he “did not have any information” confirming the presence of Al Qaeda in Ghana, but that it was possible that cells are operating clandestinely in the country.64 Analysts warn that extremists may seek to expand their presence in northern Ghana by exploiting local grievances, especially among ethnic Fulani, a predominately Muslim group present in many West and Central African countries. Many Ghanaians consider Fulani to be foreigners regardless of, in some cases, multi-generational length of residency in Ghana, resulting in social and legal discrimination. Interethnic ties reportedly have eroded as non-Fulani have accused Fulani of criminality, contributing to retaliatory violence along ethnic lines.65 Local chieftaincy disputes, which the State Department attributes to “the lack of a clear chain of succession, competing 57 Banyan Global (produced for USAID/Ghana), Gender Analysis Report, 2020, pp. 11-15. 58 Women and Girls Empowered Consortium, Preliminary Gender and Inclusion Analysis for Ghana, 2022, pp. 19-20. 59 Ibid, p. 20. 60 ActionAid, Falling Through the Cracks: Tackling the Justice Deficit for Women Survivors in Ghana, 2019. 61 Ghanaian personnel in U.N. peacekeeping efforts are largely deployed as part of the U.N. Mission in South Sudan Ghanaian personnel in U.N. peacekeeping efforts are largely deployed as part of the U.N. Mission in South Sudan
(UNMISS), the U.N. Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), and the U.N. Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA). (UNMISS), the U.N. Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL), and the U.N. Interim Security Force for Abyei (UNISFA).
6662 Institute for Economics and Peace, 2022 Global Peace Index, 2022. 63 Kent Mensah, “West African Leaders Seek Solutions to Curb Terrorism from Sahel Region,” Voice of America, November 22, 2022. 64 C-Span, “Vice President Harris and Ghanaian President Akufo-Addo Joint News Conference,” March 27, 2023, at https://www.c-span.org/video/?526975-101/vice-president-harris-ghanaian-president-hold-joint-news-conference. 65 James Courtright, “In Ghana, Local Problems Threaten Regional Security,” Institute of Current World Affairs, July 22, 2022. On risks of extremist violence in Ghana more generally, see Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, The Jihadist Threat in Northern Ghana and Togo: Stocktaking and Prospects for Containing the Expansion, 2022. Congressional Research Service 10 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy claims regarding land and other natural resources, and internal rivalries and feuds,” also have spurred conflict and may offer a pretext for extremist expansion. Notably, an ongoing chieftaincy dispute in Bawku has killed dozens of people since a resumption of hostilities in 2021.66 The Gulf of Guinea, to Ghana’s south, ranks among the world’s most insecure waters for piracy and other forms of maritime criminality, such as narcotics trafficking. The State Department ~~Institute for Economics and Peace, 2022 Global Peace Index, 2022.~~
67 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices.
68 Mawusi Yaw Dumenu and Mildred Edinam Adzraku, Electoral Violence and Political Vigilantism in Ghana:
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~~Ghana has not experienced an extremist attack on its soil to date, but Ghanaian authorities have~~
~~expressed concern over the possible southward expansion of Islamist insurgent violence from the~~
~~Sahel region.69 Burkina Faso-based armed groups have launched attacks in neighboring Côte~~
~~d’Ivoire and Togo, as well as in Benin. Some analysts warn that such groups may seek to expand~~
~~their presence in Ghana by exploiting local grievances, especially among ethnic Fulani, who are~~
~~predominately Muslim and are concentrated in the country’s north.70 Many Ghanaians consider~~
~~the Fulani, an expansive group that spans much of Central and West Africa, to be foreigners~~
~~regardless of, in some cases, multi-generational length of residency in Ghana, resulting in social~~
~~and legal discrimination. Interethnic ties reportedly have eroded as non-Fulani have accused~~
~~Fulani of banditry and other criminality, contributing to retaliatory violence along ethnic lines.71~~
~~The Gulf of Guinea, to Ghana’s south, ranks among the world’s most insecure waters for piracy~~
~~and other forms of maritime criminality. According to the International Maritime Bureau (IMB), a~~
~~division of the International Chamber of Commerce, Ghana has recorded more than 30 incidents~~
~~of piracy or robbery of vessels since 2017, including 6 in the first 9 months of 2022.72 Other~~
~~maritime security challenges include narcotics trafficking via Ghana’s ports; the State~~
~~Department~~ reports that “Ghana is a transit point for illicit drugs trafficked from Asia and South reports that “Ghana is a transit point for illicit drugs trafficked from Asia and South
America to other African nations, Europe, and to a lesser extent the United States.”America to other African nations, Europe, and to a lesser extent the United States.”~~73 Illicit,~~
~~unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing also is reportedly widespread, and is seen to have~~
~~contributed to a rapid decline in the country’s fish stocks, devastating coastal livelihoods.~~
~~Researchers have accused Chinese companies of extensive involvement in IUU fishing activities~~
~~in Ghana (see Text Box).~~
~~Chinese Involvement in Ghana’s Fishing Sector:~~
~~Ghana’s Fisheries Act of 2002 prohibits foreign vessel ownership or foreign participation in joint ventures in the~~
~~industrial fishing sector, except in the case of tuna vessels. Nonetheless, Chinese involvement in Ghana’s fishing~~
~~sector via joint ventures and beneficial ownership arrangements is reportedly extensive—although a lack of~~
~~transparency regarding vessel ownership complicates definitive assessments of Chinese fishing operations in the~~
~~country. According to a 2018 study by the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF), a nongovernmental research~~
~~and advocacy organization, “up to 90-95% of Ghana’s trawl fleet may have some Chinese involvement,” with ships~~
~~flagged to Ghana but beneficially owned by Chinese entities.74 Ghana is also a centerpiece of China’s distant-water~~
~~fishing (DWF) operations: the Overseas Development Institute (ODI), a UK-based think tank, assessed in 2020~~
~~that, after China, Ghana is the leading flag state globally for Chinese-owned distant-water fishing (DWF) vessels.75~~

Evidence from Selected Hotspots, Ghana Center for Democratic Development, 2020; JRK Owusu Kyei and Lidewyde
~~H. Berckmoes, “Political Vigilante Groups in Ghana: Violence or Democracy?” Africa Spectrum vol. 55, no. 3 (2020).~~
~~69 Kent Mensah, “West African Leaders Seek Solutions to Curb Terrorism from Sahel Region,” Voice of America,~~
~~November 22, 2022.~~
~~70 James Courtright, “In Ghana, Local Problems Threaten Regional Security,” Institute of Current World Affairs, July~~
~~22, 2022.~~
~~71 Ibid.~~
~~72 IMB, Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Report for the Period 1 January – 31 December 2021, 2022; IMB,~~
Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships: Report for the Period 1 January – 30 September 2022, 2022. IMB tracking
~~of global maritime piracy and armed robbery incidents is based on voluntary reporting. Quarterly and annual IMB~~
~~reports are available for download on the IMB’s website at https://www.icc-ccs.org/.~~
~~73 U.S. Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs,~~ ~~International Narcotics~~
~~Control Strategy Report 2022, Volume 1: Drug and Chemical Control, 2022.~~
~~74 EJF, China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A Spotlight on Illegal Practices within Ghana’s Industrial Trawl Sector,~~
~~2018, p. 4.~~
~~75 Miren Gutiérrez et al., China’s Distant-Water Fishing Fleet: Scale, Impact, and Governance, ODI, 2020.~~
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~~Human rights and environmental advocacy organizations have accused the Chinese DWF fleet in Ghana of~~
~~exploitative fishing practices, overfishing and ecological unsustainability, and labor abuses onboard Chinese vessels.~~
~~A 2022 EJF study of Chinese DWF activities globally found that Ghana had recorded the highest number of IUU~~
~~fishing offenses by Chinese DWF vessels in West Africa from 2015-2019—a period during which, as a region,~~
~~West Africa ranked as the top site of IUU incidents involving Chinese DWF vessels globally.76 Of particular~~
~~concern in Ghana has been the reported involvement by Chinese DWF trawlers in a practice known locally as~~
saiko, entailing the capture of smal pelagic fish—critical for fisheries sustainability, artisanal fishing livelihoods, and
~~local food security—and the il icit transshipment of this catch to traders for sale onshore. Researchers have~~
~~blamed saiko for rapidly depleting Ghana’s pelagic fisheries.77 Beyond its implications for livelihoods and fish stocks,~~
saiko also amounts to unreported catch—representing lost state revenue in the form of unpaid taxes and fees.78
~~EJF also has alleged widespread human rights abuses onboard Chinese-owned trawlers in Ghana, including physical~~
~~abuse, overworking, low and irregular pay, insufficient and poor quality food, and lack of medical care.79~~
~~U.S. Relations and Assistance~~
~~U.S.-Ghana ties are close, partly rooted in Ghana’s reputation as a democratic leader in Africa~~
~~and a pillar of regional stability. Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama each visited~~
~~Ghana during their tenures, and in 2019, House Speaker Nancy Pelosi led a congressional~~
~~delegation to the country that, among other purposes, commemorated the 400th anniversary of the~~
~~arrival of the first enslaved Africans to what is now the United States.~~ 67 U.S. Relations and Assistance U.S.-Ghana ties are close, partly rooted in Ghana’s reputation as a democratic leader and pillar of stability in Africa. Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama each visited Ghana during their tenures, and in 2019, then-House Speaker Nancy Pelosi led a congressional delegation to Ghana to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the arrival of the first enslaved Africans to what is now the United States. Vice President Kamala Harris visited Ghana in March 2023 in a trip that highlighted cooperation in security, education, commerce, and creative industries (see Text Box). Vice President Harris’ March 2023 Visit to Ghana Vice President Harris and Second Gentleman Douglas Emhoff visited Ghana from March 26-29, the first leg of a three-country tour of Africa that also included Tanzania and Zambia. Vice President Harris met with President Akufo-Addo on March 27; according to an official readout, the Vice President applauded Akufo-Addo for Ghana’s activity in the U.N. related to the Russia-Ukraine war and “steadfast leadership to defend and advance democracy in West Africa,” among other issues.68 After the meeting, Vice President Harris pledged $100 mil ion to support conflict prevention and stabilization in coastal West Africa under the Global Fragility Act (discussed below).69 The Vice President’s trip also included a visit to a skate park and recording studio; a state dinner with President Akufo-Addo, Ghana’s First Lady, and American and Ghanaian artists, activists, and scholars; and remarks at Black Star Gate, a national landmark, focused on youth, technological innovation, and women’s empowerment, among other themes.70 Toward the end of her visit, she toured Cape Coast Castle, one of several historic sites in Ghana related to the transatlantic slave trade (see next text box), and led a roundtable with women entrepreneurs in which she highlighted the Biden Administration’s new and ongoing initiatives related to women’s empowerment.71 Ghana is a hub for U.S. engagement in the wider sub-region: the country hosts the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) West Africa regional mission, one of four U.S. Young African Leaders Initiative (YALI) Regional Leadership Centers in Africa, and one of two State Department International Law Enforcement Academies on the continent. Bilateral relations also include the U.S.-Ghana Business Forum, a regular exchange between U.S. and Ghanaian officials 66 James Courtright, “A Small Town in Ghana Erupted in Violence. Were Jihadists Fueling the Fight?” New Lines Magazine, January 25, 2023. 67 U.S. Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report 2022, Volume 1: Drug and Chemical Control, 2022. 68 White House, “Readout of Vice President Kamala Harris’s Meeting with President Nana Akufo-Addo of Ghana,” March 27, 2023. 69 White House, “Fact Sheet: Vice President Harris Announces Initiatives to Strengthen U.S. Partnership with Ghana and Promote Regional Security,” March 27, 2023. The entire press conference can be viewed at C-Span, “Vice President Harris and Ghanaian President Akufo-Addo Joint News Conference,” March 27, 2023. 70 White House, “Remarks by Vice President Harris During Visit to Vibrate Studio,” March 27, 2023; and “Remarks by Vice President Harris to Ghanaian Youth at Black Star Gate,” March 28, 2023. 71 White House, “Remarks by Vice President Harris at Cape Coast Castle,” March 28, 2023; and “Remarks by Vice President Harris at Roundtable Discussion with Women Entrepreneurs” and “Fact Sheet: Vice President Harris Launches Global Initiatives on the Economic Empowerment of Women, Totaling over $1 Billion,” March 29, 2023. Congressional Research Service 11 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy and business leaders focused on deepening commercial engagement. The two countries signed an agreement on civil nuclear cooperation in 2021, and in late 2022, the United States, Ghana, and Japan announced a “strategic collaboration” to support Ghana’s nuclear power program.72 People-to-people and People-to-people and
cultural ties cultural ties also are robust. There is a sizable Ghanaian diaspora in the United States—with larger are robust. There is a sizable Ghanaian diaspora in the United States—with larger
communities in the New York City, Washington, D.C., and Atlanta metropolitan areas—and communities in the New York City, Washington, D.C., and Atlanta metropolitan areas—and
several thousand U.S. citizens reside in Ghana.several thousand U.S. citizens reside in Ghana.8073 The Akufo-Addo administration has expanded The Akufo-Addo administration has expanded
efforts to attract tourism and migration to Ghana by Black Americans, partly premised on the efforts to attract tourism and migration to Ghana by Black Americans, partly premised on the
legacy of the transatlantic slave trade (see legacy of the transatlantic slave trade (see Text Box). ).
U.S. Heritage Tourism and Migration to Ghana
Present-day Ghana was a source and transit point for enslaved people trafficked to the Americas as part of the Present-day Ghana was a source and transit point for enslaved people trafficked to the Americas as part of the
transatlantic slave trade, which endured from the 16th to the 19th century.transatlantic slave trade, which endured from the 16th to the 19th century.8174 The country’s coastline is dotted with The country’s coastline is dotted with
dozens of “slave castles,” forts built by European traders that were used to house enslaved people prior to the dozens of “slave castles,” forts built by European traders that were used to house enslaved people prior to the
Atlantic crossing. Today, these forts are prominent heritage sites and tourist destinations; Members of Congress Atlantic crossing. Today, these forts are prominent heritage sites and tourist destinations; Members of Congress
and other U.S. officials often visit slave castles as part of delegations to the country. and other U.S. officials often visit slave castles as part of delegations to the country.
In 2019, the Akufo-Addo administration launched the “Year of Return,” a campaign to commemorate the 400th In 2019, the Akufo-Addo administration launched the “Year of Return,” a campaign to commemorate the 400th
anniversary of the arrival of enslaved Africans to what is now the United States by encouraging members of the anniversary of the arrival of enslaved Africans to what is now the United States by encouraging members of the
African diaspora (especially Black Americans) to visit, migrate to, and invest in Ghana. A number of celebrities African diaspora (especially Black Americans) to visit, migrate to, and invest in Ghana. A number of celebrities
visited Ghana during the year; President Akufo-Addo conferred citizenship on dozens of diaspora members visited Ghana during the year; President Akufo-Addo conferred citizenship on dozens of diaspora members
resident in the country. There are no official, publicly available statistics on the number of diaspora members who resident in the country. There are no official, publicly available statistics on the number of diaspora members who
relocated to Ghana during the Year of Return, or who have stayed. Akufo-Addo subsequently announced “Beyond relocated to Ghana during the Year of Return, or who have stayed. Akufo-Addo subsequently announced “Beyond
the Return,” a ten-year initiative to continue to attract heritage-based tourism, migration, and foreign investment. the Return,” a ten-year initiative to continue to attract heritage-based tourism, migration, and foreign investment.

~~76 EJF,~~ ~~The Ever-Widening Net: Mapping the Scale, Nature, and Corporate Structures of Illegal, Unreported and~~
~~Unregulated Fishing by the Chinese Distant-Water Fleet, 2022.~~
~~77 Lieven Engelen, “Under cover of darkness: the damaging effects of illegal ‘saiko’ fishing,” The Guardian, October~~
~~17, 2022; EJF, Stolen at Sea: How Illegal ‘Saiko’ Fishing is Fuelling the Collapse of Ghana’s Fisheries, 2019.~~
78 EJF, China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa.
~~79 EJF, Fear, Hunger, and Violence: Human Rights in Ghana’s Industrial Trawl Fleet, 2021.~~
~~80 CRS tabulation of data from U.S. Census Bureau, 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. CRS~~
~~Research Assistant Isobel Sorenson assisted in collecting and analyzing U.S. Census Bureau data.~~
~~81 During this period, Europeans referred to Ghana—initially the coastal region, and gradually the interior—as the~~
~~“Gold Coast,” in reference to the gold reserves that had drawn Portuguese traders to the area in the late 15th century.~~
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12

~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~Ghana is a hub for U.S. engagement in the wider sub-region: the country hosts the U.S. Agency~~
~~for International Development (USAID) West Africa regional mission, one of four U.S. Young~~
~~African Leaders Initiative (YALI) Regional Leadership Centers in Africa, and one of two State~~
~~Department International Law Enforcement Academies on the continent. Bilateral relations also~~
~~include the U.S.-Ghana Business Forum, a regular exchange between U.S. and Ghanaian officials~~
~~and business leaders focused on deepening commercial engagement. The two countries signed an~~
~~agreement on civil nuclear cooperation in 2021, and in late 2022, the United States, Ghana, and~~
~~Japan announced a “strategic collaboration” to support Ghana’s nuclear power program.82~~
U.S.-Ghana Trade and Investment
Ghana is a minor U.S. trade and investment partner in global terms, but is a leading source and Ghana is a minor U.S. trade and investment partner in global terms, but is a leading source and
destination market for U.S. trade in Africa and a top regional destination for U.S. foreign direct destination market for U.S. trade in Africa and a top regional destination for U.S. foreign direct
investment (FDI). U.S. imports from Ghana in 2021 were valued at $1.72 billion; mineral fuels investment (FDI). U.S. imports from Ghana in 2021 were valued at $1.72 billion; mineral fuels
accounted for nearly 80% of this total ($1.34 billion), with cocoa comprising much of the balance accounted for nearly 80% of this total ($1.34 billion), with cocoa comprising much of the balance
($219 million).($219 million).8375 U.S. exports to Ghana in 2021 totaled roughly $960 in value; motor vehicles and U.S. exports to Ghana in 2021 totaled roughly $960 in value; motor vehicles and
auto parts ($328 million), machinery ($108 million), meat and poultry ($93 million), and plastics auto parts ($328 million), machinery ($108 million), meat and poultry ($93 million), and plastics
($85 million) were the leading U.S. export categories in 2021.($85 million) were the leading U.S. export categories in 2021.8476 Ghana is eligible for duty-free Ghana is eligible for duty-free
trade benefits under the U.S. African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA, P.L. 106-200, as trade benefits under the U.S. African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA, P.L. 106-200, as
amended). Mineral fuels were the top category of U.S. AGOA imports from Ghana in 2021. amended). Mineral fuels were the top category of U.S. AGOA imports from Ghana in 2021.
According to the State Department, “roughly 100 U.S. companies maintain operations in Ghana,” According to the State Department, “roughly 100 U.S. companies maintain operations in Ghana,”
including U.S. multinationals Coca Cola, Cargill, Newmont (a gold mining company), IBM, and including U.S. multinationals Coca Cola, Cargill, Newmont (a gold mining company), IBM, and
PwC.PwC.8577 In 2021, ExxonMobil surrendered its 80% stake in a deep-water oil prospect after a 2.5- In 2021, ExxonMobil surrendered its 80% stake in a deep-water oil prospect after a 2.5-
~~year period of exploration, exiting Ghana as part of the firm’s broader wind-down of operations~~
~~in West Africa. U.S. oil and gas operator Kosmos Energy remains in the country’s energy sector,~~
~~alongside Italian major Eni, Tullow Oil (UK), Vitol (Switzerland), and Aker Energy (Norway). In~~
~~November 2022, Twitter inaugurated a headquarters in Accra—its first in Africa—but fired nearly~~
~~all of its Ghana-based staff days later amid sweeping personnel changes following the company’s~~
~~change in ownership.86 The terminated employees have alleged a breach of Ghana’s labor laws.87~~
~~U.S. Assistance~~
~~U.S. assistance for Ghana is diverse, encompassing a range of development, governance, and~~
~~security programs. State Department and USAID-administered assistance totaled $124.6 million~~
~~in allocations of FY2021 appropriations, with $132.4 million requested for FY2023.88~~
~~As with most other countries in Africa, health assistance is the largest category of U.S. assistance~~
~~for Ghana, with programs to combat malaria (Ghana is a President’s Malaria Initiative focus~~

~~82 U.S. Department of State, “The United States of America and Republic of Ghana Sign a Memorandum of~~
~~Understanding Concerning Strategic Civil Nuclear Cooperation,” (July 13, 2021) and “United States and Japan~~
~~Announce Partnership with Ghana to Support its Goal of Being the Mover in Africa for Small Modular Reactor~~
~~Deployment” (October 26, 2022).~~
83 72 U.S. Department of State, “The United States of America and Republic of Ghana Sign a Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Strategic Civil Nuclear Cooperation,” (July 13, 2021) and “United States and Japan Announce Partnership with Ghana to Support its Goal of Being the Mover in Africa for Small Modular Reactor Deployment” (October 26, 2022). 73 CRS tabulation of data from U.S. Census Bureau, 2021 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates. CRS Research Assistant Isobel Sorenson assisted in collecting and analyzing U.S. Census Bureau data. 74 During this period, Europeans referred to Ghana—initially the coastal region, and gradually the interior—as the “Gold Coast,” in reference to the gold reserves that had drawn Portuguese traders to the area in the late 15th century. 75 CRS calculation based on data from USITC Dataweb, accessed November 29, 2022, at https://dataweb.usitc.gov/. CRS calculation based on data from USITC Dataweb, accessed November 29, 2022, at https://dataweb.usitc.gov/.
8476 Ibid. Ibid.
8577 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations With Ghana,” at https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-ghana/. U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Relations With Ghana,” at https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-ghana/.
~~86 Grace Dean, “Twitter laid off all but one person at its only office in Africa just 3 days after it opened for the first~~
~~time, report says,” Business Insider, November 9, 2022.~~
~~87 Larry Madowo, “Twitter Africa employees accuse Elon Musk of discrimination over severance terms,” CNN,~~
~~November 22, 2022.~~
~~88 U.S. Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification for FY2023, 2023.~~
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~~link to page 18~~ ~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~country);~~ Congressional Research Service 12 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy year period of exploration, exiting Ghana as part of the firm’s broader wind-down of operations in West Africa. U.S. oil and gas operator Kosmos Energy remains in the country’s energy sector, alongside Italian major Eni, Tullow Oil (UK), Vitol (Switzerland), and Aker Energy (Norway). In late 2022, Twitter inaugurated a headquarters in Accra, its first in Africa, but fired nearly all of its Ghana-based staff days later amid sweeping personnel changes following the company’s change in ownership. The terminated employees have alleged a breach of Ghana’s labor laws.78 U.S. Assistance U.S. assistance for Ghana is diverse, supporting a range of development, governance, and security programs. State Department- and USAID-administered aid totaled $140.3 million in estimated allocations of FY2022 appropriations.79 The Administration has proposed $138.8 million for Ghana in its FY2024 budget request. As with most other countries in Africa, health assistance is the largest category of U.S. assistance for Ghana, with aid to combat malaria (Ghana is a President’s Malaria Initiative focus country); promote maternal, child, and reproductive health; improve water supply and sanitation; promote maternal, child, and reproductive health; improve water supply and sanitation;
enhance nutrition; enhance nutrition; and strengthen health securitystrengthen health security~~; and expand access to HIV/AIDS prevention and~~
~~care services~~, among other focus areas. Other U.S. development aid . Other U.S. development aid ~~has sought~~seeks to promote agricultural to promote agricultural ~~productivity~~development (Ghana (Ghana
is one of 20 Feed the Future focus countries), improve basic education, support good governance, is one of 20 Feed the Future focus countries), improve basic education, support good governance,
and strengthen civil society. As noted above, DOL administersand strengthen civil society. As noted above, DOL administers ~~most~~ U.S. aid to help eradicate U.S. aid to help eradicate
child labor in the cocoa industry. As of child labor in the cocoa industry. As of ~~December 2022,~~ April 2023, Ghana hosted Ghana hosted 1226 Peace Corps Volunteers Peace Corps Volunteers
supporting projects in agriculture, education, and health.supporting projects in agriculture, education, and health.
State Department-administered security assistance for Ghana has included support for military State Department-administered security assistance for Ghana has included support for military
professionalization, peacekeeping capacity-building, and law enforcement.professionalization, peacekeeping capacity-building, and law enforcement. Countering violent Countering violent
extremism is an emergent focus of U.S.-Ghana security cooperation. As noted above, the Biden extremism is an emergent focus of U.S.-Ghana security cooperation. As noted above, the Biden
Administration has designated Ghana as a focus for engagement pursuant to the Global Fragility Administration has designated Ghana as a focus for engagement pursuant to the Global Fragility
Act (GFA), as part of a “coastal West Africa” grouping that also includes Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Act (GFA), as part of a “coastal West Africa” grouping that also includes Benin, Côte d’Ivoire,
Guinea, and Togo.Guinea, and Togo.8980 A 2021 coup in Guinea and U.S. concerns A 2021 coup in Guinea and U.S. concerns ~~about~~with undemocratic governance in undemocratic governance in
Benin and Togo may elevate Ghana’s role within sub-regional engagement under Benin and Togo may elevate Ghana’s role within sub-regional engagement under the GFA. In March 2023, the Administration released a summary of its GFA sub-regional strategy, which states that U.S. engagement in coastal West Africa will aim to strengthen social cohesion, improve government responsiveness, inclusion, and accountability, and enhance security force effectiveness.81~~the GFA. As of~~
~~late 2022, the Administration had released little information on planned priorities or funding~~
~~levels of GFA programming in Ghana.~~ An ongoing USAID Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI) An ongoing USAID Office of Transition Initiatives (OTI)
program also aims to build resilience to extremism in this coastal West Africa grouping; northern program also aims to build resilience to extremism in this coastal West Africa grouping; northern
Ghana was selected as an initial focus area of OTI engagementGhana was selected as an initial focus area of OTI engagement~~, with projects to counter extremist~~
~~messaging, aid dispute resolution, and address Fulani grievances.90~~.82 The State Department has The State Department has
additionally identified Ghana (alongside some other coastal West African countries) as a potential additionally identified Ghana (alongside some other coastal West African countries) as a potential
recipient of funds via the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership and global counterterrorism recipient of funds via the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership and global counterterrorism
~~programs. The State Department Office of Inspector General has recorded deficiencies in the past~~
~~planning and administration of some U.S. security assistance for Ghana, which Congress might~~
~~consider as it oversees growing GFA and counterterrorism aid for the country (see “Outlook”).91~~
~~Ghana’s military has received Department of Defense-administered training and equipment and~~
~~regularly participates in U.S. regional military exercises. Ghana hosted Obangame Express, U.S.~~
~~Africa Command (AFRICOM’s) premier maritime exercise in West Africa, in 2021; in 2023, it is~~
~~due to host Flintlock, AFRICOM’s leading annual special operations exercise~~programs. Ghana’s military has received Department of Defense-administered training and equipment and regularly participates in U.S. regional military exercises. Ghana hosted Obangame Express, U.S. 78 Larry Madowo, “Twitter Africa employees accuse Elon Musk of discrimination over severance terms,” CNN, November 22, 2022. 79 This includes $2.5 million in supplemental assistance provided in the Ukraine Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2022 (P.L. 117-128). U.S. Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification for FY2024, 2023. 80 CRS Insight IN11938, Responding to State “Fragility” in Coastal West Africa, by Tomás F. Husted and Alexis Arieff. 81 State Department, “The U.S. Strategy to Prevent Conflict and Promote Stability 10-Year Strategic Plan for Coastal West Africa,” March 24, 2023. 82 Creative Associates, “The Littorals Regional Initiative,” accessed October 31, 2022. Congressional Research Service 13 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy Africa Command (AFRICOM’s) premier maritime exercise in West Africa, in 2021, and in March 2023, it co-hosted Flintlock, AFRICOM’s annual special operations exercise, with neighboring Côte d’Ivoire. A State Partnership . A State Partnership
Program between Ghana and North Dakota’s National Guard, launched in 2004, has included Program between Ghana and North Dakota’s National Guard, launched in 2004, has included
~~military~~joint exercises and trainings exercises and trainings onin medical readiness and disaster medical readiness and disaster ~~preparedness and~~ response. In response. In
2018, the United States and Ghana signed an updated Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which 2018, the United States and Ghana signed an updated Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which
governs defense cooperation and the rightsgoverns defense cooperation and the rights ~~and privileges~~ of U.S. troops stationed in partner of U.S. troops stationed in partner
countries. Ratification of the SOFA proved controversial amid allegations by some Ghanaians countries. Ratification of the SOFA proved controversial amid allegations by some Ghanaians
that it would pave the way for a U.S. military base in Ghana, a claim the U.S. Embassy refuted.that it would pave the way for a U.S. military base in Ghana, a claim the U.S. Embassy refuted.9283
Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) Engagement
Ghana has been the recipient of two MCC compacts. The first, implemented between 2007 and Ghana has been the recipient of two MCC compacts. The first, implemented between 2007 and
2012 and valued at $547 million, sought to reduce poverty among farmers with activities to 2012 and valued at $547 million, sought to reduce poverty among farmers with activities to

~~89 CRS Insight IN11938, Responding to State “Fragility” in Coastal West Africa.~~
~~90 Creative Associates, “The Littorals Regional Initiative,” accessed October 31, 2022.~~
~~91 Ghana was previously one of six African partner countries under the Security Governance Initiative (SGI), a~~
~~security-sector capacity building program launched by the Obama Administration. A 2017 audit of Embassy Accra by~~
~~the U.S. Department of State Office of Inspector General (State OIG) assessed that SGI programming in Ghana “lacked~~
~~adequate direction and support” and found that an increase in U.S. security assistance for Ghana between FY2015 and~~
~~FY2017 had strained embassy staffing and other resources, as “embassy staff were unable to effectively plan,~~
~~synchronize, and implement this assistance.” State OIG, Inspection of Embassy Accra, Ghana, June 2017.~~
~~92 U.S. Embassy in Ghana, “Statement on Status of Forces Agreement,” March 20, 2018.~~
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

support higher-value agricultural productivity, reduce costs related to agricultural commerce and support higher-value agricultural productivity, reduce costs related to agricultural commerce and
transportation, and strengthen services in rural areas. The second, a power sector project focused transportation, and strengthen services in rural areas. The second, a power sector project focused
on improving electricity supply, closed in June 2022. Ghana’s second MCC compact was initially on improving electricity supply, closed in June 2022. Ghana’s second MCC compact was initially
valued at $498 million,valued at $498 million,9384 but the MCC announced in 2019 that it would withhold $190 million in but the MCC announced in 2019 that it would withhold $190 million in
funding due to the Ghanaian government’s termination of a concession between the state-owned funding due to the Ghanaian government’s termination of a concession between the state-owned
electricity utility and a private firm—a precondition for the release of funds.electricity utility and a private firm—a precondition for the release of funds.9485 The compact The compact
continued at a reduced investment of $308 million, subsequently increased to $316 million to continued at a reduced investment of $308 million, subsequently increased to $316 million to
accommodate delays due to COVID-19. The compact entailed activities to enhance electricity accommodate delays due to COVID-19. The compact entailed activities to enhance electricity
distribution through infrastructure investments and other support, promote energy efficiency, distribution through infrastructure investments and other support, promote energy efficiency,
expand access to reliable power, and strengthen Ghana’s regulatory framework.expand access to reliable power, and strengthen Ghana’s regulatory framework.9586
Outlook and Issues for Congress
A severe economic and fiscal crisis A severe economic and fiscal crisis ~~clouds Ghana’s near-term~~ continues to cloud Ghana’s outlook. Record-high inflation and outlook. Record-high inflation and
runaway currency depreciation have gutted local purchasing power, runaway currency depreciation have gutted local purchasing power, ~~amid a mounting public debt~~
~~burden. An anticipated IMF lending package may help to reassure creditors and restore stability,~~
~~but it will also likely require~~and the Akufo-Addo the Akufo-Addo administration defaulted on its external debt in December 2022. Price increases have eased in 2023, and Ghana has had success in restructuring its domestic and external debts, yet economic conditions remain stark. An anticipated IMF lending package may help to reassure creditors and restore stability, but it will also likely require the Akufo-Addo administration to undertake fiscal belt-tightening measures, such as spending cuts and tax hikes, that may prove politically costly. ~~administration to undertake fiscal belt-tightening~~
~~measures that may prove politically costly. In an October 2022 address to the nation, President~~
~~Akufo-Addo attributed the country’s economic woes to the global economic downturn, stating~~
~~that he could not “find an example in history when so many malevolent forces have come~~
~~together at the same time.”96 Public surveys, meanwhile, suggest that many Ghanaians blame the~~
~~government for failing to stabilize prices, improve living standards, and create jobs.97~~
A series of military takeovers in West Africa since 2020 and the spread of extremist violence from A series of military takeovers in West Africa since 2020 and the spread of extremist violence from
the neighboring Sahel has thrown into sharp relief Ghana’s reputation as a leading democracy and the neighboring Sahel has thrown into sharp relief Ghana’s reputation as a leading democracy and
bulwark of stability in the sub-region. U.S. engagement is likely to continue to reflect Ghana’s bulwark of stability in the sub-region. U.S. engagement is likely to continue to reflect Ghana’s
standing as an island of good governance and stability in a turbulent neighborhoodstanding as an island of good governance and stability in a turbulent neighborhood~~. Funding and~~
~~oversight of GFA assistance, an emergent facet of the bilateral relationship, are~~ , amid rising extremist threats along Ghana’s northern border. Funding and oversight of GFA assistance are possible avenues possible avenues
~~available to Congress to help shape, direct, and assess such engagement. As discussed above, the~~
~~Administration has released little public information on intended priorities or resource allocations~~
~~for GFA programming in Ghana as of December 2022. In light of shortcomings the Department~~
~~of State’s Office of Inspector General identified in the management of past U.S. security~~
~~assistance for Ghana (see above), Congress might consider, among other issues, whether there are~~
~~sufficient staff and other resources in place to adequately plan, implement, and oversee GFA~~
~~engagement, and whether Congress has or can obtain sufficient information to enable effective~~
~~oversight.98 Some Members might also seek to assess the impacts of USAID Office of Transition~~

93available to Congress to help shape, direct, and assess such engagement. The State Department’s Office of Inspector General has previously documented shortcomings in the 83 U.S. Embassy in Ghana, “Statement on Status of Forces Agreement,” March 20, 2018. 84 This does not include a $37 million contribution from the government of Ghana. This does not include a $37 million contribution from the government of Ghana.
9485 MCC, “Statement Regarding the Termination of the Private Sector Concession by the Government of Ghana,” MCC, “Statement Regarding the Termination of the Private Sector Concession by the Government of Ghana,”
October 23, 2019. October 23, 2019.
9586 MCC, “Ghana Power Compact,” at https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/program/ghana-power-compact. MCC, “Ghana Power Compact,” at https://www.mcc.gov/where-we-work/program/ghana-power-compact.
~~96 Presidency of the Republic of Ghana, “Address To The Nation By President Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo-Addo On~~
~~The Economy,” October 30, 2022.~~
~~97 Afrobarometer, “Ghanaians bemoan economic conditions.”~~
~~98 State OIG, Inspection of Embassy Accra. The U.S. Department of State OIG also has identified deficiencies in the~~
~~management of U.S. counterterrorism assistance for West Africa; see~~ ~~Audit of the Department of State Bureau of~~
~~African Affairs Monitoring and Coordination of the Trans-Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership~~ Program, 2020.
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~~Initiatives (OTI) programming to help counter extremism and alleviate intercommunal tensions in~~
~~the country’s north, and what lessons, if any, might apply to GFA assistance.99~~planning and management of past influxes of U.S. security assistance for Ghana, which Congress might consider as it oversees a prospective surge in counterterrorism aid for the country.87
Attacks on journalists and rising violence against LGBTQI+ individuals in Ghana have damaged Attacks on journalists and rising violence against LGBTQI+ individuals in Ghana have damaged
the country’s otherwise positive human rights record and may generate friction in the bilateral the country’s otherwise positive human rights record and may generate friction in the bilateral
relationship. Congressional action related to international press freedom or LGBTQI+ rights relationship. Congressional action related to international press freedom or LGBTQI+ rights
issues may influence U.S.-Ghana relations, including by possibly providing new tools for the issues may influence U.S.-Ghana relations, including by possibly providing new tools for the
executive branch to apply in its promotion of global human rights. executive branch to apply in its promotion of global human rights. ~~For instance, various measures~~
~~introduced in the 117th Congress would direct the executive branch to take action in response to~~
~~attacks on foreign journalists.100 Others would enhance U.S. approaches to preventing and~~
~~responding to criminalization and attacks targeting LGBTQI individuals abroad.101 Ghana’s~~
~~government, for its~~Ghanaian authorities and lawmakers, for their part, may bristle at any perceived foreign intrusion in domestic social issues. part, may bristle at any perceived foreign intrusion in domestic social issues.
Amid bipartisan congressional interest in the promotion of U.S. trade and investment ties with Amid bipartisan congressional interest in the promotion of U.S. trade and investment ties with
Africa, some Members may seek to assess what opportunities might exist for expanding U.S. Africa, some Members may seek to assess what opportunities might exist for expanding U.S.
economic relations with Ghana, a leading U.S. commercial partner in the region. Congress also economic relations with Ghana, a leading U.S. commercial partner in the region. Congress also
might seek to examine how U.S. trade programs, such as AGOA, and development finance could might seek to examine how U.S. trade programs, such as AGOA, and development finance could
help unlock greater bilateral trade and investment and improve Ghana’s business climate. Some help unlock greater bilateral trade and investment and improve Ghana’s business climate. Some
in Congress may also seek to compare the U.S. commercial presence in Ghana with that of China. in Congress may also seek to compare the U.S. commercial presence in Ghana with that of China.
The reportedly extensive involvement of Chinese nationals in Ghana’s illicit economy (notably The reportedly extensive involvement of Chinese nationals in Ghana’s illicit economy (notably
illegal mining and fishing) is another possible issue for Congress, in light of enduring illegal mining and fishing) is another possible issue for Congress, in light of enduring
congressional concern over malign activities by China and other global competitors in Africa. congressional concern over malign activities by China and other global competitors in Africa.
Growing people-to-people and cultural ties may shape U.S. public commentary and congressional Growing people-to-people and cultural ties may shape U.S. public commentary and congressional
engagement related to Ghana. Few, if any, African countries have so successfully sought to attract engagement related to Ghana. Few, if any, African countries have so successfully sought to attract
heritage-based tourism and migration from the United States predicated on the legacies of the heritage-based tourism and migration from the United States predicated on the legacies of the
slave trade. Whether and how the Akufo-Addo administration and its successors are able to build slave trade. Whether and how the Akufo-Addo administration and its successors are able to build
on the upswing in U.S. public interest and travel to Ghana recorded during the 2019 “Year of on the upswing in U.S. public interest and travel to Ghana recorded during the 2019 “Year of
Return”—and any associated implications for U.S.-Ghanaian ties—remains to be seen. Return”—and any associated implications for U.S.-Ghanaian ties—remains to be seen.
In considering this bilateral relationship and Ghana’s role in the region, Members may consider In considering this bilateral relationship and Ghana’s role in the region, Members may consider
various additional options to shape U.S.-Ghana policy and engagement. These might include: various additional options to shape U.S.-Ghana policy and engagement. These might include:
 Conducting hearings, briefings, or fact-finding trips to examine issues in the  Conducting hearings, briefings, or fact-finding trips to examine issues in the
U.S.-Ghana U.S.-Ghana relationship. Issues of possible interest to Congress may include the relationship. Issues of possible interest to Congress may include the
implications of Ghana’s economic crisis for its stability, governance trajectory, implications of Ghana’s economic crisis for its stability, governance trajectory,
and U.S. commercial interests; the threat of extremism in Ghana; corruption and and U.S. commercial interests; the threat of extremism in Ghana; corruption and
human rights challenges; and Ghana’s ties with China and illicit activities by human rights challenges; and Ghana’s ties with China and illicit activities by
Chinese firms active in the country; Chinese firms active in the country;
 Demonstrating concern or exercising oversight through correspondence with  Demonstrating concern or exercising oversight through correspondence with
executive executive branch or Ghanaian officials, public statements, or resolutions or other branch or Ghanaian officials, public statements, or resolutions or other
legislation, or engagement via a new Congressional Ghana Caucus announced in legislation, or engagement via a new Congressional Ghana Caucus announced in
late 2022;late 2022;~~102~~

~~99 In a May 2022 hearing on GFA implementation, Representative Sara Jacobs asked USAID Assistant Administrator~~
~~Robert Jenkins on lessons learned from OTI programming in coastal West Africa. See House Foreign Affairs~~
~~Subcommittee on International Development, International Organizations and Global Corporate Social Impact,~~
~~“Improving the United States’ Ability to Prevent and Stabilize Conflict: Global Fragility Act Implementation.”~~
~~100 See, among others, S. 204, S. 226, H.R. 839, S. 1478, S. 1495, S.Res. 609, H.R. 7650, and H.Res. 1095.~~
~~101 See, among others, H.R. 3485, H.R. 3800, S. 424, and H.R. 1201.~~
~~102 According to press reporting, the caucus includes Representatives Gwen Moore, Sheila Jackson-Lee, Sara Jacobs,~~
~~and Dwight Evans (Politico, “Wild, wonderful and divided,” September 21, 2022). Representative Moore previewed~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~plans to launch a Ghana caucus in March 2022; see Rep. Gwen Moore, “Recognizing the 65th Anniversary of Ghana’s~~
~~Independence,” remarks in the House, Congressional Record, vol. 168, no. 40 (March 7, 2022): p. E218.~~
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~~Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy~~

~~ Considering changes to the level or scope of foreign assistance appropriations for~~
~~Ghana, and overseeing implementation of U.S. assistance for the country.~~
88  Considering changes to the level or scope of foreign assistance appropriations for Ghana, and overseeing implementation of U.S. assistance for the country. 87 Ghana was previously one of six African partner countries under the Security Governance Initiative (SGI), a security-sector capacity building program launched by the Obama Administration. A 2017 audit of Embassy Accra by the U.S. Department of State Office of Inspector General (State OIG) assessed that SGI programming in Ghana “lacked adequate direction and support” and found that an increase in U.S. security assistance for Ghana between FY2015 and FY2017 had strained embassy staffing and other resources, as “embassy staff were unable to effectively plan, synchronize, and implement this assistance.” State OIG, Inspection of Embassy Accra, Ghana, June 2017. 88 Politico, “Wild, wonderful and divided,” September 21, 2022. Congressional Research Service 15 Ghana: Overview and U.S. Policy
Author Information

Tomás F. Husted Tomás F. Husted

Analyst in African Affairs Analyst in African Affairs

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