Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

Changes from December 7, 2022 to May 1, 2023

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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research ~~December 7, 2022~~May 1, 2023
and Development
Caitlin Keating-Bitonti
Multiple federal departments and agencies conduct ocean-based research Multiple federal departments and agencies conduct ocean-based research ~~and~~, monitoring monitoring, and/or and/or
Analyst in Natural Analyst in Natural
technological development. technological development. ~~The interpretation of oceanographic data collected and studied by~~
~~Resources Policy~~
~~these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, nonprofit research the~~

~~federal government helps support—provide~~Federal departments and agencies also may support academic, Resources Policy commercial, and nonprofit ocean-based research activities. The interpretation of oceanographic data collected and studied by these federal departments and agencies provides information to domestic policymakers, including information to domestic policymakers, including
Members of Congress, on relevant societal issuesMembers of Congress, on relevant societal issues ~~and needs that extend beyond coastal~~

~~communities and island states, such as climate change and characterization of the deep-sea for~~
~~geohazard prediction~~. These issues may pertain directly to coastal communities, including U.S. island states and territories. Ocean-based issues related to climate change, environmental protection, and natural resource management, environmental protection, and natural resource management also can extend beyond coastal communities. .
The federal government generally is involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and technological development to The federal government generally is involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and technological development to
increase knowledge and understanding of the ocean. International interests also frame federal ocean work, as the ocean increase knowledge and understanding of the ocean. International interests also frame federal ocean work, as the ocean
supports global trade and recreation. The federal departments and agencies involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and supports global trade and recreation. The federal departments and agencies involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and
technological development include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationtechnological development include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Aeronautics and , the National Aeronautics and
Space AdministrationSpace Administration (NASA), the U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the National Science , the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the National Science
FoundationFoundation (NSF), and the Office of Naval Research , and the Office of Naval Research (ONR) of the Department of the Navy, among others. of the Department of the Navy, among others.
Federal ocean data collection efforts are varied and make use of many different types of tools and technology. Federal ocean data collection efforts are varied and make use of many different types of tools and technology. ~~The federal~~
~~government uses satellites, deployed instruments (e.g., buoys, floats), stationary monitoring (e.g., tide gauges),~~NOAA, ONR, and NSF own oceanographic research vessels that enable scientists to collect observational data with ship-based ship-based
equipment (e.g., multibeam sonar sensorsequipment (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors~~), and sampling (e.g., sediment corers) of targeted site locations, among other~~
~~approaches~~, sediment corers). Technology such as autonomous underwater vehicles, launched from land or ships, has the capability to collect . Technology such as autonomous underwater vehicles, launched from land or ships, has the capability to collect
and automatically send large volumes of data to nearby shore facilities or back to the vessel. In addition, remoteand automatically send large volumes of data to nearby shore facilities or back to the vessel. In addition, remote- or human- or human-
operated vehicles and human technical divers can be used for exploration (including data collection and sampling) and operated vehicles and human technical divers can be used for exploration (including data collection and sampling) and
visualization of the ocean. visualization of the ocean. ~~Some departments and agencies also fund~~ NASA, NOAA, and the USGS monitor ocean and coastal waters with satellites. Several federal departments and agencies also use deployed instruments (e.g., buoys, floats), stationary monitoring (e.g., tide gauges), and other approaches to collect oceanographic data and monitor the ocean. NSF funds extramural research, such as through grants for projects extramural research, such as through grants for projects
where nonfederal entities carry out various types of ocean-based research and analysis efforts. where nonfederal entities carry out various types of ocean-based research and analysis efforts.
Congress may be interested in the potential Congress may be interested in the potential offor federal ocean-based research to inform the nation’s evolving understanding of federal ocean-based research to inform the nation’s evolving understanding of
the physical oceanthe physical ocean ~~and its resources~~. Some scientists and environmental and climate advocates argue that continuous, . Some scientists and environmental and climate advocates argue that continuous,
systematic ocean observations (e.g., temperature, salinity) may help identify climate impacts that contribute to ocean systematic ocean observations (e.g., temperature, salinity) may help identify climate impacts that contribute to ocean ~~change~~
changes (e.g., warming, (e.g., warming, sea ice melt) and, in turn, may affect society. For example, NOAA maintains about half of the global fleet of Argo profiling floats, which drift with ocean currents, collecting oceanographic data. Stakeholders, and some Members of Congress, identified the Argo Program as one federal program that could benefit from improved float technology designed to expand the program’s coverage to greater ocean depths. The collection and study of bathymetric data (i.e., the depth of the seafloor relative to the surface of the ocean) and geological and geophysical surveys have provided scientists with the data necessary to better map and characterize the ocean environment. Mapping and characterization of ocean areas may provide both economic and environmental benefits that may be of interest to Congress. For example, knowledge of seafloor features and environments can be used to locate potential offshore oil and gas reserves and seabed minerals (e.g., critical minerals). At the same time, characterization of marine habitats can provide baselines for understanding whether and how vulnerable certain habitats might be to human disturbance (e.g., resource extraction activities) or climate change. Bathymetric data also can be used to identify geologic features that may produce marine geohazard events (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, marine landslides) to help safeguard coastal communities and marine infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, undersea cables). Conversely, ocean mapping and research can be costly and time consuming; some may question the relative priority of such activities compared with ~~sea ice melt) and, in turn, may affect society. Additionally, some experts note that using scientific knowledge~~
~~of the ocean’s current state to inform federal policy has both economic and environmental benefits. For example, federally~~
~~collected and monitored ocean-based weather, climate, and physical Earth (i.e., seismic) data are used for early warning alerts~~
~~for severe events (e.g., hurricanes, tsunamis) headed for the United States and its territories. At the same time, ocean-based~~
~~research can be costly and time consuming, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts, compared to~~
both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.
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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

Introduction
The Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Arctic, and Southern Oceans (collectively, the The Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Arctic, and Southern Oceans (collectively, the global ocean) are ) are
interconnected and comprise interconnected and comprise about 71% of Earth’s surface. The global ocean 71% of Earth’s surface. The global ocean ~~provides societal~~
~~resources (e.g., coastal protection, storage of carbon) and affects various economic sectors (e.g.,~~
~~fisheries, marine transportation~~affects various U.S. economic sectors, including those in the blue economy,1 and provides societal resources (e.g., coastal protection, storage of carbon). For example, the ocean influences Earth’s weather ). For example, the ocean influences Earth’s weather ~~and so~~in ways that can can
affect things such as the amount of snowpack and spring melt, the strength and intensity of affect things such as the amount of snowpack and spring melt, the strength and intensity of
hurricanes making landfall, and seasonal crop yields. hurricanes making landfall, and seasonal crop yields.
The ocean is also a major component of the global climate system, as it absorbs, retains, and The ocean is also a major component of the global climate system, as it absorbs, retains, and
transports heat, water, and carbon. Scientists estimate with high confidence that the global ocean transports heat, water, and carbon. Scientists estimate with high confidence that the global ocean
has absorbed more than 90% of the atmosphere’s human-induced excess heat; since the 1980s, it has absorbed more than 90% of the atmosphere’s human-induced excess heat; since the 1980s, it
has very likely absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic (human-related) carbon has very likely absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic (human-related) carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions.dioxide (CO2) emissions.12 Climate change impacts on the ocean (e.g., warming) have affected Climate change impacts on the ocean (e.g., warming) have affected
marine fisheries, the marine tourism and recreation sector, and global food security.marine fisheries, the marine tourism and recreation sector, and global food security.23 Many view Many view
the continued observation and monitoring of the global ocean as important tools for assessing the continued observation and monitoring of the global ocean as important tools for assessing
~~natural resources and related ecosystems in the face of these impacts~~climate change impacts on marine natural resources and related ecosystems. .
Selected federal departments and agencies pursuing mission-based, long-term data collection and Selected federal departments and agencies pursuing mission-based, long-term data collection and
monitoring of the ocean include the Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and monitoring of the ocean include the Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA); the Department of the Interior’s (NASA); the Department of the Interior’s ~~United States~~U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and Bureau Geological Survey (USGS) and Bureau
of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM); and the Department of the Navy’s (DON’s) Office of of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM); and the Department of the Navy’s (DON’s) Office of
Naval Research (ONR). The National Science Foundation (NSF)Naval Research (ONR). The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency that is an independent agency that
provides grant funding for short-term ocean research projects that investigate specific hypotheses provides grant funding for short-term ocean research projects that investigate specific hypotheses
and research questions. The NSF also supports research infrastructure (e.g., research facilities, and research questions. The NSF also supports research infrastructure (e.g., research facilities,
oceanographic research vessels, equipment and instruments, and other resources). Oceanographic data collected and vessels, equipment and instruments, and other resources). Oceanographic data collected and
studied by these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, and nonprofit studied by these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, and nonprofit
research the federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers, research the federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers,
including Members of Congress. including Members of Congress.
Congressional interest in federal ocean data collection and research is multifold and includes Congressional interest in federal ocean data collection and research is multifold and includes
issues related to authorizing and funding specific ocean research activities and performing issues related to authorizing and funding specific ocean research activities and performing
oversight on the implementation of federal ocean research. Congressional funding for federal oversight on the implementation of federal ocean research. Congressional funding for federal
departments and agencies that conduct ocean-based research allows for the continued monitoring departments and agencies that conduct ocean-based research allows for the continued monitoring
of the ocean and the development of novel technologies to do so. In turn, Congress may use the of the ocean and the development of novel technologies to do so. In turn, Congress may use the
data and knowledge gained by these federal departments and agencies to inform legislation and data and knowledge gained by these federal departments and agencies to inform legislation and
oversight. Ocean research may provide other benefits, such as supporting oversight. Ocean research may provide other benefits, such as supporting ~~ocean-based private-~~
~~sector economic activities innovation and protecting~~the blue economy and efforts to protect sensitive marine habitats and their wildlife. sensitive marine habitats and their wildlife.
At the same time, the collection and monitoring of ocean data by the federal government can be At the same time, the collection and monitoring of ocean data by the federal government can be
~~time consuming and costly, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts,~~
~~compared to both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.~~
~~This report provides an overview of the U.S. federal government’s efforts to collect ocean-based~~
~~data through observations and monitoring and to conduct and support federal and U.S-based~~
~~extramural ocean-based scientific research. It also discusses selected federal grant making efforts~~

1time consuming and costly. Some 1 Activities that may be considered part of the blue economy include living marine resources, coastal and marine construction, marine research and education, marine transportation and warehousing, marine professional and technical services, offshore minerals, coastal utilities, coastal and offshore tourism and recreation, nonrecreational ship and boat building, and national defense and public administration. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12188, What Is the Blue Economy?, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. 2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Summary for Policymakers,” in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Summary for Policymakers,” in The Ocean and Cryosphere in
a Changing Climate: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. Hans-Otto Pörtner et , eds. Hans-Otto Pörtner et
al., 2019, p. 9. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, al., 2019, p. 9. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere. .
23 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ~~Fisheries~~, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at , “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-our-changing-climate. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-our-changing-climate.
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may question the relative priority of such efforts compared to both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. This report provides an overview of the federal government’s efforts to collect ocean-based data through observations and monitoring and to conduct and support federal and U.S-based extramural ocean-based scientific research. It also discusses selected federal grant making efforts for these purposes. The report further explores the how ocean-based data may illuminate the for these purposes. The report further explores the how ocean-based data may illuminate the
impacts of climate change (e.g., data collected through NOAA’s Argo Program) and how impacts of climate change (e.g., data collected through NOAA’s Argo Program) and how
interagency collaboration interagency collaboration ~~and research on~~on the mapping and characterization of the seafloor and its environments may inform federal the seafloor and its environments may inform federal
policy on deep-sea geohazards and natural resources.policy on deep-sea geohazards and natural resources.4
Federal Ocean Research Infrastructure
and Equipment
~~Research infrastructure contributes to the U.S. leadership role in ocean science.~~ Federal research Federal research
infrastructure and equipment used to collect and monitor ocean data form the basis for much infrastructure and equipment used to collect and monitor ocean data form the basis for much
ocean research. The analysis of these data has the potential to elucidate threats (anthropogenic ocean research. The analysis of these data has the potential to elucidate threats (anthropogenic
and natural) to the ocean and its changing nature, contribute to marine resource and natural) to the ocean and its changing nature, contribute to marine resource ~~(offshore energy)~~
~~exploitation,~~ (e.g., offshore energy and seabed mineral) exploitation, help maximize commercial fisheries yields, and provide warnings for marine geohazard maximize commercial fisheries yields, and provide warnings for marine geohazard
and storm events. The information gained from these analyses may inform federal policy and storm events. The information gained from these analyses may inform federal policy ~~on the~~
~~protection of~~that aims to protect the ocean, the ocean, the economic sectors that depend on marine resources, and coastal economic sectors that depend on marine resources, and coastal
communities. communities.
Federal departments and agencies have established programs and projects to collect ocean data, Federal departments and agencies have established programs and projects to collect ocean data,
using federal and nonfederal assets for observations. These data are collected using federal and nonfederal assets for observations. These data are collected ~~through~~with various various
forms of equipment, such as satellites (NOAA, NASA, USGS); ships (NOAA, USGS, BOEM, ONR); equipment, such as satellites (NOAA, NASA, USGS); ships (NOAA, USGS, BOEM, ONR);
aircraft (NOAA, NASA); and various deployed objects, such as buoys and floats (NOAA). In aircraft (NOAA, NASA); and various deployed objects, such as buoys and floats (NOAA). In
addition, federal agencies may use ocean data collected by international, regional, and private-addition, federal agencies may use ocean data collected by international, regional, and private-
sector sector ~~partnerships~~partners and integrate these data into federal databases; for example, the European and integrate these data into federal databases; for example, the European
Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites’ polar satellite system contributes Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites’ polar satellite system contributes
to NOAA’s Joint Polar System.to NOAA’s Joint Polar System.35 Stationary coastal equipment, such as tide and water-quality Stationary coastal equipment, such as tide and water-quality
gauges (USGS), collect and monitor local oceanographic data. Ship-based equipment allows for gauges (USGS), collect and monitor local oceanographic data. Ship-based equipment allows for
detailed mapping (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors)detailed mapping (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors);4,6 exploration (e.g., human technical divers) exploration (e.g., human technical divers);,
visualization (e.g., remote or human operated vehicles)visualization (e.g., remote or human operated vehicles);, and sampling (e.g., nets, tows, grab and sampling (e.g., nets, tows, grab
samplers, sediment corers) of targeted site locations. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), samplers, sediment corers) of targeted site locations. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs),
routinely launched from ships, collect and automatically send large volumes of data to a nearby routinely launched from ships, collect and automatically send large volumes of data to a nearby
shore facility or back to the vessel. shore facility or back to the vessel.
~~Ocean data collection generally requires investment in time and resources. Lack of federal~~
~~funding support can halt ongoing data collection.~~ The below sections provide examples of The below sections provide examples of
~~individual U.S.~~individual federal department and agency ocean research efforts. The sections below do not federal department and agency ocean research efforts. The sections below do not
provide an exhaustive list of all the departments and agencies and their respective programs that provide an exhaustive list of all the departments and agencies and their respective programs that
~~conduct ocean-based research.~~
~~National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration~~
~~NOAA’s mission includes to better understand the natural world (ocean, climate, space, and~~
~~weather), help protect its resources, and monitor global weather and climate. To study the ocean,~~
~~NOAA uses satellites, ships, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), AUVs, aircraft, and other~~
~~smaller deployed instruments (e.g., buoys). NOAA is structured in six line offices that cover~~

3conduct ocean-based research. 4 Marine geohazards include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, and tsunamis. 5 European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, “Metop Series,” at https://www.eumetsat.int/ European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, “Metop Series,” at https://www.eumetsat.int/
our-satellites/metop-series. our-satellites/metop-series.
46 A A multibeam sonar sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect seafloor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect seafloor
information surrounding the ship. For more information, see the Seafloor Bathymetry section ininformation surrounding the ship. For more information, see the Seafloor Bathymetry section in Appendix A.
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~~various aspects of the natural world.5 Four of NOAA’s six line offices are applicable to this~~
~~report: National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS); Office of~~
~~Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO); National Ocean Service (NOS); and Office of Oceanic~~
~~and Atmospheric Research (OAR). The line offices and their program offices described below are~~
~~not an exhaustive list of all ocean research carried out by NOAA but rather an illustration of the~~
~~variety of research conducted.~~
~~NESDIS~~National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA’s mission includes improving the understanding of the natural world (ocean, climate, space, and weather), protecting those resources, and monitoring global weather and climate. To study the ocean, NOAA uses satellites, ships, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), AUVs, aircraft, and other smaller deployed instruments (e.g., buoys). NOAA is structured in six line offices that cover various aspects of the natural world.7 Four of NOAA’s six line offices are applicable to this report. Those four line offices and their program offices are described below to illustrate some of the ocean research conducted by NOAA. The National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS) manages the nation’s operational environmental satellites and manages the nation’s operational environmental satellites and ~~makes~~provides access to the environmental the environmental
~~data collected by these satellites accessible to sources for research purposes and to enhance the~~
~~nation’s economy and security.6~~data they collect to support research and enhance national security and the economy.8 Selected NOAA satellites (i.e., NOAA-20, Suomi National Polar- Selected NOAA satellites (i.e., NOAA-20, Suomi National Polar-
Orbiting Partnership, and Jason-3) are discussed in greater detail in the Orbiting Partnership, and Jason-3) are discussed in greater detail in the “National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, b~~elow.”7~~
~~OMAO operates~~” below.”9 The Office of Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO) controls specialized aircraft and ships and oversees small boat and underwater activities specialized aircraft and ships and oversees small boat and underwater activities
(including human technical diving) that help achieve NOAA’s environmental and scientific (including human technical diving) that help achieve NOAA’s environmental and scientific
missions. It operates 15 ships, including the missions. It operates 15 ships, including the Okeanos Explorer;, four manned aircraft four manned aircraft;, and several and several
unmanned aircraft systems.unmanned aircraft systems.8
~~NOS~~10 The National Ocean Service (NOS) leads NOAA’s navigation and charting leads NOAA’s navigation and charting ~~efforts~~activities and coordinates a federal interagency and coordinates a federal interagency
program dedicated to coastal and ocean observations and research. NOS’s U.S. Integrated Ocean program dedicated to coastal and ocean observations and research. NOS’s U.S. Integrated Ocean
Observing System (IOOS) provides support, funding, guidance, and advice for tracking, Observing System (IOOS) provides support, funding, guidance, and advice for tracking,
predicting, managing, and adapting to environmental changes in the ocean, coastal system, and predicting, managing, and adapting to environmental changes in the ocean, coastal system, and
Great Lakes.Great Lakes.911 In addition to managing some federal ocean data and modeling systems, IOOS In addition to managing some federal ocean data and modeling systems, IOOS
integrates certain nonfederal information into these systemsintegrates certain nonfederal information into these systems~~, which can~~. These systems can be used to inform decisionmaking on inform decisionmaking on
coastal monitoring, coastal and ocean development, and changes in the Arctic.coastal monitoring, coastal and ocean development, and changes in the Arctic.1012
~~OAR~~The Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR) conducts various aspects of ocean research across at least four offices. conducts various aspects of ocean research across at least four offices.
 The Office of Ocean Exploration and Research is the only federal organization  The Office of Ocean Exploration and Research is the only federal organization
dedicated to exploring the deep ocean. dedicated to exploring the deep ocean.1113 NOAA’s NOAA’s Okeanos Explorer is outfitted is outfitted
with the necessary technology to map the seafloor during research expeditions.with the necessary technology to map the seafloor during research expeditions.1214
NOAA uses other infrastructure, such as aircraft equipped with remote sensing NOAA uses other infrastructure, such as aircraft equipped with remote sensing
technology and submersible ROVs, to map the depth and shape of the seafloortechnology and submersible ROVs, to map the depth and shape of the seafloor,
~~complementing multibeam sonar data. This office also funds non-NOAA, U.S.-~~
.
57 NOAA, “NOAA Line Offices,” at https://www.corporateservices.noaa.gov/public/lineoffices.html. NOAA, “NOAA Line Offices,” at https://www.corporateservices.noaa.gov/public/lineoffices.html.
68 NOAA, “Our Mission,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/about/our-mission. NOAA, “Our Mission,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/about/our-mission.
79 NOAA, “Currently Flying,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/current-satellite-missions/currently-flying. NOAA, “Currently Flying,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/current-satellite-missions/currently-flying.
810 NOAA, “Fleet,” at https://www.omao.noaa.gov/ NOAA, “Fleet,” at https://www.omao.noaa.gov/~~find/fleet.~~
9about. 11 The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009 (49 U.S.C. §§3601 et seq.) established the U.S. The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009 (49 U.S.C. §§3601 et seq.) established the U.S.
Integrated Ocean Observing SystemIntegrated Ocean Observing System (IOOS). Prior to the passing of the 2009 act, no coordinated approach to coastal and ocean . Prior to the passing of the 2009 act, no coordinated approach to coastal and ocean
~~observing existed; instead, nonuniform data was collected by multiple federal, tribal, state, and local agencies.~~
~~Integrated Ocean Observing System, “Senate Passing ICOOS Reauthorization,” at http://www.ioosassociation.org/~~
~~senate-passing-icoos-reauthorization-2016;~~observing existed. NOAA, “IOOS by the Numbers,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/ioos-by- NOAA, “IOOS by the Numbers,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/ioos-by-
the-numbers/. the-numbers/.
1012 NOAA, “Societal Benefits,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/societal-benefits/. NOAA, “Societal Benefits,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/societal-benefits/.
1113 NOAA, “About NOAA Ocean Exploration,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html. NOAA, “About NOAA Ocean Exploration,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html.
1214 While the mission equipment onboard Okeanos Explorer is operated by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and While the mission equipment onboard Okeanos Explorer is operated by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and
ResearchResearch ~~within OAR~~, the ship is managed by NOAA’s , the ship is managed by NOAA’s ~~OMAO. NOAA, “~~Office of Marine and Aviation Operations. NOAA, “About NOAA Ship NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer~~: Meet the~~
~~Team~~,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/~~explorers/explorers~~about.html. .html.
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This office also funds non-NOAA, U.S.-based researchers conducting ocean exploration to better document and based researchers conducting ocean exploration to better document and
understand understand ~~U.S. waters.13~~the ocean.15
 The Climate Program Office manages a competitive grant program to fund high-  The Climate Program Office manages a competitive grant program to fund high-
priority climate science research on Earth’s climate system, including its priority climate science research on Earth’s climate system, including its
atmosphere, ocean, land, and iceatmosphere, ocean, land, and ice ~~components. These grants support activities~~
~~related to climate observations; Earth system science; climate and societal~~
~~interactions; and modeling, analysis, predictions, and projections. Research~~
~~results~~ . Research funded by these grants funded by these grants ~~aim to enable scientists~~aims to quantify the amount of to quantify the amount of
heat and CO2 uptake by the global ocean, heat and CO2 uptake by the global ocean, to estimate rates of sea level rise, and estimate rates of sea level rise, and to
provide adaptation tools for fisheries threatened by warming ocean waters, provide adaptation tools for fisheries threatened by warming ocean waters,
among other findings. among other findings.
 The Ocean Acidification Program coordinates research and activities to better  The Ocean Acidification Program coordinates research and activities to better
understand the ocean’s chemistry understand the ocean’s chemistry;, how it is changing how it is changing;, its rate of change its rate of change;, how how
change varies regionallychange varies regionally;, and how marine life (e.g., coral reefs), people, and the and how marine life (e.g., coral reefs), people, and the
economy (e.g., the marine tourism and recreation sectors) are impactedeconomy (e.g., the marine tourism and recreation sectors) are impacted by these changes. This . This
program also provides funds for extramural research and ensures program also provides funds for extramural research and ensures that data collected data collected
by funded projects are archived and accessible for future research use.by funded projects are archived and accessible for future research use.1416
 The objective of the Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program (GOMO),  The objective of the Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program (GOMO),
funded under OAR’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring (SOOM) funded under OAR’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring (SOOM)~~,15~~ Program,17 is is
to conduct continuous, in situ observations for ocean-based research, monitoring, to conduct continuous, in situ observations for ocean-based research, monitoring,
and prediction. The GOMO supports and prediction. The GOMO supports the collection of more than 1 million oceanographic more than 1 million oceanographic
observations per dayobservations per day~~,16~~ through various activities such as the Global Ocean through various activities such as the Global Ocean
Carbon Network and the Argo Program, among others.Carbon Network and the Argo Program, among others.18 The Global Ocean Carbon The Global Ocean Carbon
Network aims to help researchers better understand the ocean’s role in the global Network aims to help researchers better understand the ocean’s role in the global
carbon cycle, including how the ocean absorbs atmospheric CO2 and distributes carbon cycle, including how the ocean absorbs atmospheric CO2 and distributes
carbon throughout the global ocean. The Argo Program is composed of nearly carbon throughout the global ocean. The Argo Program is composed of nearly
4,000 Argo Profiling 4,000 Argo Profiling ~~Floats~~Floats (Figure 1). These floats drift with currents across the . These floats drift with currents across the
global ocean, capturing over time a near-global record of ocean temperature, global ocean, capturing over time a near-global record of ocean temperature,
salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH data.salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH data.~~17 The Agro~~19 The Argo Program is international, Program is international,
with participation and program funding from over 25 countries; NOAA maintains with participation and program funding from over 25 countries; NOAA maintains
about half of the global fleet.about half of the global fleet.1820

1315 NOAA, “Federal Funding Opportunity,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/funding-opps/welcome.html. NOAA, “Federal Funding Opportunity,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/funding-opps/welcome.html.
1416 NOAA, “Data Collection and Management,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/Data.aspx. For more NOAA, “Data Collection and Management,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/Data.aspx. For more
information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, Ocean Acidification: Frequently Asked Questions, by , by
Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec.
1517 NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observations and Monitoring (SOOM) Program, Project Activity (PPA) is a funding line NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observations and Monitoring (SOOM) Program, Project Activity (PPA) is a funding line
in NOAA’s budget. GOMO is the NOAA program that receives the initial allocation of the SOOM PPA; but SOOM is in NOAA’s budget. GOMO is the NOAA program that receives the initial allocation of the SOOM PPA; but SOOM is
not GOMO’s sole funding source. GOMO may use SOOM funds to support other programs not GOMO’s sole funding source. GOMO may use SOOM funds to support other programs ~~which~~that contribute to the contribute to the
overall priorities set by GOMO. Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of overall priorities set by GOMO. Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of
Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, December 13, 2021. Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, December 13, 2021.
1618 NOAA, “Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing,” at https://globalocean.noaa.gov/About-Us. NOAA, “Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing,” at https://globalocean.noaa.gov/About-Us.
~~17.~~19 NOAA, “NOAA Updates Sea Surface Temperature Dataset,” at https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/noaa-updates-sea- NOAA, “NOAA Updates Sea Surface Temperature Dataset,” at https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/noaa-updates-sea-
surface-temperature-dataset. surface-temperature-dataset.
1820 NOAA, “Argo Program Achieves Milestone with Two Million Ocean Measurements,” at https://research.noaa.gov/ NOAA, “Argo Program Achieves Milestone with Two Million Ocean Measurements,” at https://research.noaa.gov/
article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2398article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2398~~/Argo-Program-Achieves-Milestone-with-Two-Million-Ocean-Measurements~~. .
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Figure 1. NOAA Argo Profiling Float 10-Day Data Collection Cycle

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Argo Program,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Argo Program,” at
https://globalocean.noaa.gov/Research/Argo-Program. https://globalocean.noaa.gov/Research/Argo-Program.
Notes: km = kilometers; cm/s = centimeters per second; min = minutes; and hrs = hours. At the end of the 10-day cycle, Argo floats transmit data to satellites from which At the end of the 10-day cycle, Argo floats transmit data to satellites from which ~~it is~~data are col ected and col ected and
~~processed for public use. Abbreviations included in the figure include kilometers = km, centimeters per second =~~
~~cm/s, minutes = min, and hours = hrs.~~
processed for public use. National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA studies the Earth, including its ocean and climate, the sun, and the solar system and NASA studies the Earth, including its ocean and climate, the sun, and the solar system and
beyond. In the 1960s, NASA began launching satellites to monitor Earth’s weather. NASA has beyond. In the 1960s, NASA began launching satellites to monitor Earth’s weather. NASA has
since expanded the types of Earth-observing data it collects with satellites since expanded the types of Earth-observing data it collects with satellites designed to study Earth’s to study Earth’s
climate system. climate system.
NASA’s Earth Science Division plans, develops, and operates missions that support the science NASA’s Earth Science Division plans, develops, and operates missions that support the science
of Earth’s atmosphere, land cover and vegetation, ocean currents and upper-ocean life, and of Earth’s atmosphere, land cover and vegetation, ocean currents and upper-ocean life, and
continental and sea ice.continental and sea ice.1921 The bulleted list below is not an exhaustive list of all ocean research The bulleted list below is not an exhaustive list of all ocean research
missions carried out by NASA but describes selected satellites that support NASA’s Earth missions carried out by NASA but describes selected satellites that support NASA’s Earth
observing missions and supply ocean data to researchers.observing missions and supply ocean data to researchers.
  Aqua. This satellite’s mission is to collect information about Earth’s global water This satellite’s mission is to collect information about Earth’s global water
cycle, including sea surface temperature (SST) and ocean color. The satellite has cycle, including sea surface temperature (SST) and ocean color. The satellite has

~~19 NASA~~21 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), “NASA Earth Science Division Mission,” October 18, 2021, at https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30065. , “NASA Earth Science Division Mission,” October 18, 2021, at https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30065.
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four operating instruments that collect and transmit high-quality data to inform four operating instruments that collect and transmit high-quality data to inform
weather forecasts, carbon management, coastal management, disaster weather forecasts, carbon management, coastal management, disaster
management, and water management.management, and water management.2022
  OCO-2. This satellite is the first satellite to collect space-based measurements of This satellite is the first satellite to collect space-based measurements of
atmospheric CO2. atmospheric CO2.2123 These measurements help identify areas that are natural CO2 These measurements help identify areas that are natural CO2
sinks, such as the ocean.sinks, such as the ocean.
  Terra. This satellite is equipped with five instruments that are capable of This satellite is equipped with five instruments that are capable of
comparing different aspects of Earth over time, including SST and ocean color. comparing different aspects of Earth over time, including SST and ocean color.2224
  Jason-3. This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with
technology to collect detailed sea level measurements (altimetry) to gain insight technology to collect detailed sea level measurements (altimetry) to gain insight
into ocean circulation and climate change.into ocean circulation and climate change.2325
  Sentinel-6. This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with
technology capable of collecting sea level measurements within 1 centimeter of technology capable of collecting sea level measurements within 1 centimeter of
precision.precision.2426
  GRACE-FO. This satellite broadly tracks Earth’s water, including ice sheets and This satellite broadly tracks Earth’s water, including ice sheets and
glaciers, and sea level changes due water additions to the ocean. glaciers, and sea level changes due water additions to the ocean.2527
  ICESat-2. This satellite measures Earth’s ice coverage within 4 millimeters of This satellite measures Earth’s ice coverage within 4 millimeters of
precision using its only onboard instrument, the Advanced Topographic Laser precision using its only onboard instrument, the Advanced Topographic Laser
Altimeter System.Altimeter System.2628
  Landsat 8 and 9. These satellites are . These satellites are part of a collaboration between NASA and a collaboration between NASA and ~~USGS~~
~~that~~ USGS and primarily collect data on Earth’s land surface primarily collect data on Earth’s land surface ~~(i.e., not the ocean) but also~~
~~provide information on shallow coastal seafloor bathymetry.27~~, but also provide information on shallow coastal seafloor bathymetry (i.e., the depth of the seafloor relative to the surface of the ocean).29
  Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP). This satellite was This satellite was
developed by NASA for NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System to provide data for developed by NASA for NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System to provide data for
weather forecasts and extreme storm events. Suomi NPP carries five research weather forecasts and extreme storm events. Suomi NPP carries five research
instruments to monitor the climate system (e.g., ocean color) while collecting the instruments to monitor the climate system (e.g., ocean color) while collecting the
operational requirements for weather forecasting (e.g., SST), demonstrating the operational requirements for weather forecasting (e.g., SST), demonstrating the
multifunctional nature of satellite technology.multifunctional nature of satellite technology.28
~~ NOAA-20. This satellite, Suomi NPP’s successor and also built by NASA for~~
~~NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System, collects data on SST and ocean color.29~~30

2022 NASA, “Aqua Earth-Observing Satellite Mission,” at https://aqua.nasa.gov/. NASA, “Aqua Earth-Observing Satellite Mission,” at https://aqua.nasa.gov/.
2123 NASA, “Quick Facts,” at https://ocov2.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/quick-facts/. NASA, “Quick Facts,” at https://ocov2.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/quick-facts/.
2224 NASA, “Terra Instruments,” at https://terra.nasa.gov/about/terra-instruments. NASA, “Terra Instruments,” at https://terra.nasa.gov/about/terra-instruments.
2325 NASA, “Jason-3,” at https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/jason-3. NASA, “Jason-3,” at https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/jason-3.
2426 NASA, “Sentinel-6 Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/overview. NASA, “Sentinel-6 Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/overview.
2527 NASA, “Mission,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/overview/. NASA, “Mission,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/overview/.
2628 Anna Heiney, “ICESat-2 Successfully Launched on Final Flight of Delta II Rocket,” NASA ICESat-2 blog, Anna Heiney, “ICESat-2 Successfully Launched on Final Flight of Delta II Rocket,” NASA ICESat-2 blog,
September 15, 2018, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/icesat2/. September 15, 2018, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/icesat2/.
2729 NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/.
For more information, see CRS Report R46560, For more information, see CRS Report R46560, Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, ,
by Anna E. Normand. by Anna E. Normand.
2830 NASA, “NPP Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/mission_overview/index.html. For NASA, “NPP Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/mission_overview/index.html. For
more information on NOAA’s polar-orbiting weather satellites, see CRS Report R44335, more information on NOAA’s polar-orbiting weather satellites, see CRS Report R44335, Minding the Data Gap:
NOAA’s Polar-Orbiting Weather Satellites and Strategies for Data Continuity, by Peter Folger. , by Peter Folger.
~~29 NOAA, “Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Program Office,” at https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/.~~
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~~United States~~ NOAA-20. This satellite, Suomi NPP’s successor and also built by NASA for NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System, collects data on SST and ocean color.31 U.S. Geological Survey
The USGS is a scientific agency within the Department of the Interior (DOI).The USGS is a scientific agency within the Department of the Interior (DOI).3032 USGS scientists USGS scientists
monitor, analyze, and predict the current and evolving dynamics of the Earth. A core USGS monitor, analyze, and predict the current and evolving dynamics of the Earth. A core USGS
mission is mapping, which includes coastal maps generated from bathymetric surveys;mission is mapping, which includes coastal maps generated from bathymetric surveys;3133
generally, NOAA is the primary federal source for ocean bathymetric data. The USGS also generally, NOAA is the primary federal source for ocean bathymetric data. The USGS also
collects, monitors, and analyzes natural resources data, including for resources found in the collects, monitors, and analyzes natural resources data, including for resources found in the
ocean, such as sand and gravel for construction and ocean, such as sand and gravel for construction and critical minerals required for minerals required for ~~emerging~~renewable
technologies.technologies.3234
At least three At least three ~~selected~~ USGS programs are engaged in ocean-based research. USGS programs are engaged in ocean-based research.
 The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program, within the Natural Hazards  The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program, within the Natural Hazards
Mission Area, collects and manages data, such as information about gas hydrates, Mission Area, collects and manages data, such as information about gas hydrates,
hydrothermal vent deposits, and rare Earth minerals.hydrothermal vent deposits, and rare Earth minerals.3335 This program also This program also
supports other ocean science topics, such as mapping the extent of the continental supports other ocean science topics, such as mapping the extent of the continental
shelfshelf;, studying factors related to sea level rise studying factors related to sea level rise;, and conducting research on ocean and conducting research on ocean
ecosystems, including benthic ecosystems (i.e., organisms living on or in seafloor ecosystems, including benthic ecosystems (i.e., organisms living on or in seafloor
sediments). sediments).
 The Groundwater and Streamflow Information Program, within the Water The Groundwater and Streamflow Information Program, within the Water
Resources Resources Mission, deploys, operates, and retrieves sensors for coastal storm Mission, deploys, operates, and retrieves sensors for coastal storm
events, including tide gauges and other water sensors (seevents, including tide gauges and other water sensors (see Table 1 and Table 2). .
The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program augments data collection The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program augments data collection
and other activities associated with storm events and other activities associated with storm events conducted by the Groundwater and Streamflow Information Program as needed.36~~as needed.34~~
 The Climate Research and Development Program, within the Ecosystems  The Climate Research and Development Program, within the Ecosystems
Mission Area, supports monitoring of the Arctic, sea ice, and sea level rise. Mission Area, supports monitoring of the Arctic, sea ice, and sea level rise.37 This This
program also collects and analyzes deep-sea sediments to reconstruct changes in program also collects and analyzes deep-sea sediments to reconstruct changes in
past climate and oceanographic conditions.past climate and oceanographic conditions.38 31 NOAA, “Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Program Office,” at https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/. 32 For more background on the USGS, see CRS In Focus IF12097, The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): Background and FY2023 Appropriations, by Anna E. Normand. 33
~~Bureau of Ocean Energy Management~~
~~BOEM, an agency within DOI, manages the development of the nation’s energy and mineral~~
~~resources on the outer continental shelf (OCS), which includes submerged lands, subsoil, and~~
~~seabeds under U.S. jurisdiction.35 BOEM conducts geological and geophysical (G&G) surveys to~~

~~30 For more background on the USGS, see CRS In Focus IF11433,~~ ~~The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): FY2021~~
~~Appropriations Process and Background, by Anna E. Normand.~~
31 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Sea Floor Mapping Group,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/sea- U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Sea Floor Mapping Group,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/sea-
floor-mapping-groupfloor-mapping-group~~?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.~~
32. 34 USGS, “Ocean Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/ocean-resources; USGS, “Celebrate USGS, “Ocean Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/ocean-resources; USGS, “Celebrate
June as Oceans Month,” June 2, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/celebrate-june-oceans-month. June as Oceans Month,” June 2, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/celebrate-june-oceans-month.
3335 USGS, “Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/coastal- USGS, “Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/coastal-
marine-hazards-and-resources/science/ocean-resources. marine-hazards-and-resources/science/ocean-resources.
3436 USGS funding for these activities primarily comes from reimbursable partners (typically the Federal Emergency USGS funding for these activities primarily comes from reimbursable partners (typically the Federal Emergency
Management AgencyManagement Agency, FEMA) as storm events occur. Email correspondence with USGS, Congressional Liaison, Congressional ) as storm events occur. Email correspondence with USGS, Congressional Liaison, Congressional
~~Liaison Office, on January 7, 2022.~~
~~35 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356b) defines the outer continental shelf (OCS)~~
~~as all federally controlled submerged lands, subsoil, and seabed. The OCS generally begins 3 nautical miles~~
~~(international nautical mile = 6,076.1 feet) off the coastline and extends for at least 200 nautical miles to the edge of the~~
~~exclusive economic zone, or farther if the continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles. For more information,~~
~~see CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework, by Adam Vann.~~
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Liaison Office, on January 7, 2022. 37 USGS, “Science,” at https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-research-and-development-program/science. 38 USGS, “Paleoclimate Research,” at https://www.usgs.gov/programs/climate-research-and-development-program/science/paleoclimate-research. Congressional Research Service 7 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development Bureau of Ocean Energy Management BOEM, an agency within DOI, manages the development of the nation’s energy and mineral resources on the outer continental shelf (OCS), which includes submerged lands, subsoil, and seabeds under U.S. jurisdiction.39 BOEM conducts geological and geophysical (G&G) surveys to obtain data on oil and gas reserves located on the OCS, identify sites for offshore renewable obtain data on oil and gas reserves located on the OCS, identify sites for offshore renewable
energy structures, and locate energy structures, and locate ~~marine~~seabed mineral resources. mineral resources.3640
BOEM conducts two types of G&G surveys: deep penetration airgun surveys and high-resolution BOEM conducts two types of G&G surveys: deep penetration airgun surveys and high-resolution
geophysical (HRG) surveys to characterize the subsurface of the seafloor (i.e., different layers of geophysical (HRG) surveys to characterize the subsurface of the seafloor (i.e., different layers of
rock beneath the seafloor).rock beneath the seafloor).3741 Deep penetration airgun surveys are also used for oil and gas Deep penetration airgun surveys are also used for oil and gas
exploration. HRG surveys can be used for oil and gas exploration, siting for renewable energy exploration. HRG surveys can be used for oil and gas exploration, siting for renewable energy
structures, and sand and gravel identification. HRG equipment can include multibeam sonars, structures, and sand and gravel identification. HRG equipment can include multibeam sonars,
sidescan sonars, and sub-bottom profilers. These surveys typically operate at higher frequencies sidescan sonars, and sub-bottom profilers. These surveys typically operate at higher frequencies
and image smaller structures at higher levels of detail as compared with airgun surveys. and image smaller structures at higher levels of detail as compared with airgun surveys.
BOEM has four programs, among other activities, that involve ocean-based studies and the BOEM has four programs, among other activities, that involve ocean-based studies and the
management of related scientific research and data. management of related scientific research and data.
 The Conventional Energy Program, among other activities, conducts assessments  The Conventional Energy Program, among other activities, conducts assessments
of the oil and gas resource potential on the OCS, including G&G surveys to of the oil and gas resource potential on the OCS, including G&G surveys to
obtain data useful for oil and gas exploration, inventories of oil and gas reserves, obtain data useful for oil and gas exploration, inventories of oil and gas reserves,
and economic evaluations. and economic evaluations.
 The Renewable Energy Program, among other activities, funds and manages  The Renewable Energy Program, among other activities, funds and manages
scientific research related to renewable energy projects on the OCS (e.g., scientific research related to renewable energy projects on the OCS (e.g.,
potential environmental and ecological stressors during the construction and potential environmental and ecological stressors during the construction and
operation of offshore renewable energy facilities).operation of offshore renewable energy facilities).
 The Environmental Program funds and manages  The Environmental Program funds and manages ~~relevant~~ environmental studiesenvironmental studies,
including, but not limited to, including, but not limited to, studies of physical oceanography, protected species, physical oceanography, protected species,
economics, and cultural resources.economics, and cultural resources.
 The Marine Minerals Program, among other activities, conducts environmental  The Marine Minerals Program, among other activities, conducts environmental
studies and assessments, performs resource evaluation studies, and contributes studies and assessments, performs resource evaluation studies, and contributes
data for data for bathymetric maps~~.38~~. Initiatives include the National Offshore Critical Initiatives include the National Offshore Critical
Mineral Inventory, the National Offshore Sand Inventory, and the Marine Mineral Inventory, the National Offshore Sand Inventory, and the Marine
Minerals Information System (with information on OCS sand and gravel Minerals Information System (with information on OCS sand and gravel
resources).resources).
National Science Foundation
NSF promotes the progress of science by funding extramural research, largely through grants NSF promotes the progress of science by funding extramural research, largely through grants
awarded in support of academic research.awarded in support of academic research.3942 The types of data collected, and the modes of data 39 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (OCSLA, 43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356b) defines the outer continental shelf (OCS) as all federally controlled submerged lands, subsoil, and seabed. The OCS generally begins 3 nautical miles (international nautical mile = 6,076.1 feet) off the coastline and extends for at least 200 nautical miles to the edge of the exclusive economic zone, or farther if the continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles. For more information, see CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework, by Adam Vann. 40 ~~The types of data collected, and the modes of data~~
~~collection and observation, depend on the awarded research project. Funding duration for NSF~~
~~grants generally ranges from one to five years, with an average of three years for research~~
~~grants.40~~

~~36 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at~~
~~https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf.~~
37 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at
https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf. https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf.
~~38 Bathymetric maps give the ocean’s depth relative to sea level and show the three-dimensional features of the seafloor~~
~~(similar to topographic maps). NOAA, “What Is Bathymetry,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathymetry.html.~~
3941 Ibid. 42 For more information on the National Science Foundation (NSF), see CRS Report R46753, For more information on the National Science Foundation (NSF), see CRS Report R46753, The National Science
~~Foundation: An Overview, by Laurie A. Harris.~~
~~40 NSF, Merit Review Process: Fiscal Year 2019 Digest, December 2020, pp. 7, 20, https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/~~
~~.publications/2020/merit_review/FY-2019/nsb202038.pdf.~~
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~~The Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE)~~ Congressional Research Service 8 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development collection and observation, depend on the awarded research project. Funding duration for NSF grants generally ranges from one to five years, with an average of three years for research grants.43 The Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE), within the NSF Directorate for Geosciences, provides within the NSF Directorate for Geosciences, provides
funding support to advance understanding of all aspects of the global ocean (including human funding support to advance understanding of all aspects of the global ocean (including human
interactions),interactions),~~41 and gives the nation’s academic community the opportunity to obtain funds to~~
~~work toward advancing this understanding through competitive grants. Aspects of ocean research~~
~~may also be supported by other~~44 including through competitive grants. Other NSF Directorates (e.g., Directorate for Biological Sciences, NSF Directorates (e.g., Directorate for Biological Sciences,
Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences)Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences) also may support aspects of ocean research. In general, about 30% of OCE’s funding . In general, about 30% of OCE’s funding
each year goes to new research grants, with the remaining 70% each year goes to new research grants, with the remaining 70% of funds supporting grants made in supporting grants made in
previous years and research infrastructure.previous years and research infrastructure.4245 Also within NSF’s Directorate for Geosciences is the Also within NSF’s Directorate for Geosciences is the
Office of Polar Programs (OPP), which Office of Polar Programs (OPP), which ~~includes~~provides research funding for scientists supported by NSF research funding for scientists supported by NSF
and by other and by other ~~U.S.~~federal departments and agencies studying the polar regions, including the Southern departments and agencies studying the polar regions, including the Southern
and Arctic Oceans. OPP leverages both interagency and international partnerships. and Arctic Oceans. OPP leverages both interagency and international partnerships.
Both OCE and OPP support the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), Both OCE and OPP support the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP),~~43 including~~
46 which includes infrastructure programs that focus on observing today’s changing ocean infrastructure programs that focus on observing today’s changing ocean ~~while~~and better better
understanding past climate events to inform understanding past climate events to inform modeling of future climate change. One of the two goals USGCRP set for FY2023 is to advance scientific knowledge of the integrated natural and human components of the Earth system, which includes the role of the ocean in climate change.47~~future climate change. For FY2022, the USGCRP~~
~~established five research themes, including the Ocean’s Role in Climate Change.44~~
NSF is part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), NSF is part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS),4548 which which
provides a forum for the research and education community and the federal government to work provides a forum for the research and education community and the federal government to work
cooperatively on oceanographic research while coordinating a federally supported Academic cooperatively on oceanographic research while coordinating a federally supported Academic
Research Fleet (ARF).Research Fleet (ARF).4649 For example, the R/V For example, the R/V Sikuliaq is a research vessel owned by the NSF is a research vessel owned by the NSF
and operated by the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences at the University of Alaska and operated by the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences at the University of Alaska
FairbanksFairbanks~~, specializing~~ that specializes in polar-focused ocean research. OCE also oversees the Regional Class in polar-focused ocean research. OCE also oversees the Regional Class
Research Vessel (RCRV) project, which is currently funding the construction of three ships for Research Vessel (RCRV) project, which is currently funding the construction of three ships for
inclusion in the ARF to support the needs of researchers in coastal zones.inclusion in the ARF to support the needs of researchers in coastal zones.~~47 The transition~~50 The first of these of these
three three new ships is planned for delivery in 2023, with subsequent vessels being delivered 6 and 12 months thereafter.51 Foundation: An Overview, by Laurie A. Harris. 43 NSF, Merit Review Process: Fiscal Year 2019 Digest, December 2020, pp. 7 and 20. 44~~new ships from construction to operations is estimated for Fall 2022.48~~
~~NSF also provides support to the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), an~~
~~international marine research collaboration that uses research platforms to drill and recover~~
~~seafloor sediments that can be used to study the dynamics of the sub-seafloor and the past 200~~
~~million years of Earth’s history.49 Seafloor sediments can be used to reconstruct the extent of sea~~

41 NSF, “About the Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE),” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/about.jsp. NSF, “About the Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE),” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/about.jsp.
4245 NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Geosciences,” p. GEO-11, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/ NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Geosciences,” p. GEO-11, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/
budget/fy2022/pdf/49_fy2022.pdf. budget/fy2022/pdf/49_fy2022.pdf. ~~Hereinafter referred to as “FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response.”~~
43 46 The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was mandated by Congress in the Global Change Research The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was mandated by Congress in the Global Change Research
Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-606) to coordinate federal research and investments across 13 departments and agencies to Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-606) to coordinate federal research and investments across 13 departments and agencies to
advance understanding of the changing Earth system.advance understanding of the changing Earth system. ~~USGCRP, “About USGCRP,” at https://www.globalchange.gov/~~
~~about.~~
~~44 FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response, p. GEO-10.~~
45 47 NSF, National Science Foundation FY2023 Budget Response to Congress, pp. Climate-9 and GEO-1, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2023/pdf/fy2023budget.pdf. Hereinafter referred to as “FY2023 NSF Budget Response.” 48 University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), “UNOLS Charter,” at https://www.unols.org/ University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), “UNOLS Charter,” at https://www.unols.org/
sites/default/files/UNOLS_Charter_2019.pdf. sites/default/files/UNOLS_Charter_2019.pdf.
~~46 ARF~~49 Academic Research Fleet vessels support the needs of all federal oceanographic research stakeholders, particularly NSF, NOAA, and vessels support the needs of all federal oceanographic research stakeholders, particularly NSF, NOAA, and
~~ONR. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction,” p.~~
~~MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf.~~
~~47 Regional Class Research Vessels (RCRV) was designed to support the eight high-priority science questions~~
~~identified in the 2015 National Academies report on sea change. The National Academies, “~~ONR. FY2023 NSF Budget Response, p. Research Infrastructure-54. 50 The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Sea Change: 2015-2025 Sea Change: 2015-2025
~~Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences,” 2015, at http://www.nap.edu/read/21655/chapter /1.~~
~~48 The total appropriated RCRV funds are $358.97 million, which is $16.03 million below the authorized total project~~
~~cost of $356 million. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities~~
~~Construction,” p. MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf.~~
~~49 Jason Daley, “This 340-Million-Year-Old Ocean Crust Could Date Back to Pangaea,” Smithsonian Magazine,~~
Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences (Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2015), p. 3. 51 FY2023 NSF Budget Response, p. Overview-12. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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NSF also provides support to the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), an international marine research collaboration that uses research platforms to drill and recover seafloor sediments that can be used to study the dynamics of the sub-seafloor and the past 200 million years of Earth’s history.52 Seafloor sediments can be used to reconstruct the extent of sea ice during past glaciation events. The sediments also reflect past changes in deep-sea circulation ice during past glaciation events. The sediments also reflect past changes in deep-sea circulation
patterns, which help distribute and sequester (or bury) atmospheric CO2 in the patterns, which help distribute and sequester (or bury) atmospheric CO2 in the ~~deep sea~~ocean. .
Office of Naval Research
ONR within the DON aims to provide science- and technology-based solutions for current and ONR within the DON aims to provide science- and technology-based solutions for current and
future naval challenges. ONR oversees the execution of the science and technology (S&T) future naval challenges. ONR oversees the execution of the science and technology (S&T)
portion of DON’s overall research and development account. ONR addresses a wide range of portion of DON’s overall research and development account. ONR addresses a wide range of
potential S&T issues of interest to the Navy. A portion of those issues are ocean-based, including potential S&T issues of interest to the Navy. A portion of those issues are ocean-based, including
ocean engineering, maritime sensing, undersea and remote sensing system development, ocean ocean engineering, maritime sensing, undersea and remote sensing system development, ocean
acoustics, Arctic changes, and physical oceanography monitoring. acoustics, Arctic changes, and physical oceanography monitoring.
ONR and NSF are the two primary federal support agencies of the UNOLS fleet of academic ONR and NSF are the two primary federal support agencies of the UNOLS fleet of academic
research vessels. ONR owns three UNOLS academic research vessels and, together with the research vessels. ONR owns three UNOLS academic research vessels and, together with the
operating institutions, coordinates their research missions and ship schedules. operating institutions, coordinates their research missions and ship schedules.
~~The Department of the Navy~~DON’s Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) collects and ’s Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) collects and
analyzes oceanographic data to support national security and provide knowledge of the maritime analyzes oceanographic data to support national security and provide knowledge of the maritime
battlespace. Civilian and military members of NAVOCEANO are generally qualified as battlespace. Civilian and military members of NAVOCEANO are generally qualified as
hydrographers and survey technicians capable of hydrographic surveys (descriptions of seafloor hydrographers and survey technicians capable of hydrographic surveys (descriptions of seafloor
features) anywhere in the world.features) anywhere in the world.5053
Oceanographic Data
Oceanographic data consist of measurements of the physical state of the ocean (e.g., sea level is a Oceanographic data consist of measurements of the physical state of the ocean (e.g., sea level is a
physical variable) and the amount of chemical elements in the seawater (e.g., dissolved oxygen is physical variable) and the amount of chemical elements in the seawater (e.g., dissolved oxygen is
a biogeochemical variable). Oceanographic data provide a basis for insights into the ocean a biogeochemical variable). Oceanographic data provide a basis for insights into the ocean
ecosystem and its changing environment, aspects of climate change, and the ecosystem and its changing environment, aspects of climate change, and the geographic distribution and distribution and
availability of marine resources. Physical oceanographic availability of marine resources. Physical oceanographic ~~dat~~a data (Table 1) also can provide also can provide
information on oceanographic processes, such as ocean upwellinginformation on oceanographic processes, such as ocean upwelling (Figure 2) and ocean current and ocean current
and circulation patterns.and circulation patterns.51 Whereas Whereas ana single oceanographic variable can provide insight into various oceanographic variable can provide insight into various
characteristics of the ocean, the combination of more than one physical or biogeochemical characteristics of the ocean, the combination of more than one physical or biogeochemical
variable often can provide additional confidence about the scientific interpretations of the ocean’s variable often can provide additional confidence about the scientific interpretations of the ocean’s
current and future state through scientific modeling studies.current and future state through scientific modeling studies. ~~Select~~ Physical oceanographic variables are collected through an array of instrumentation and used for various purposes. Selected common physical common physical
oceanographic data are summarized below ioceanographic data are summarized below in Table 1. These data are discussed in more detail These data are discussed in more detail inin
Appendix A.

52 Jason Daley, “This 340-Million-Year-Old Ocean Crust Could Date Back to Pangaea,” Smithsonian Magazine, August 17, 2016, at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-bit-seafloor-discovered-mediterranean-August 17, 2016, at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-bit-seafloor-discovered-mediterranean-
180960153/. 180960153/.
~~50 NAVOCEANO~~53 Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command, “Fleet Survey Team, “Fleet Survey Team (FST),” at https://www.cnmoc.usff.navy.mil/,” at https://www.cnmoc.usff.navy.mil/~~Organization~~Our-Commands/Naval-Oceanographic-/Naval-Oceanographic-
~~Office/Fleet-Survey-Team/.~~
~~51 Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for deep water~~
~~to move to the surface. Upwelled waters are rich in nutrients and ocean upwelling is a natural fertilization process for~~
~~the surface ocean, stimulating the base of the marine food web. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box~~
~~entitled “Ocean Upwelling” in Appendix A. NOAA, “What Is Upwelling?” https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/~~
~~upwelling.html.~~
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Table 1. Selected Physical Oceanographic Variables
(common physical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies) (common physical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies)
Physical Oceanographic
Instrumentation and
Variable
Equipment Examples
Selected Uses/Purposes
Ocean Temperature Ocean Temperature
Argo Profiling Floats ( Argo Profiling Floats (NO~~AA);a~~NOAA);
 
Forecast and track pending Forecast and track pending
short- and mid- Unmanned Surface Wave Unmanned Surface Wave ~~Gliders~~
~~short- and mid-term weather~~
~~(NOAA);b CTD Sensors~~
term weather events (including storms and events (including storms and
~~(NOAA/USGS);c~~ ~~Research Vessels~~Gliders (NOAA);a CTD hurricanes) and long-term climate patterns, Sensors (NOAA/USGS);b such as the El Niño Southern Oscil ation Research Vessels (NOAA);  Submersible ROVs (NOAA);
~~hurricanes) and long-term~~
~~(NOAA);d Submersible ROVs~~
~~climate patterns, such as the El~~
~~(NOAA);e Earth-Observing~~
~~Niño Southern Oscil ation;h~~
~~Satellites (NOAA/NASA);f Water-~~

~~Quality Gauge (USGS)~~

~~Track ocean circulation~~
g
Track ocean circulation patterns, such as the patterns, such as the Gulf Stream Earth-Observing Satellites (NOAA/NASA); Water-  Monitor ocean upwelling, which can be Quality Gauge (USGS) ~~Gulf~~
~~Stream;i~~

~~Monitor ocean upwelling,j~~
~~which can be~~ applied to track applied to track
the occurrence of specific the occurrence of specific
marine species marine species
Ice Ice
Elevation and Thickness Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Understand impact of climate Understand impact of climate
change on (NOAA/NASA); Research polar regions Vessels (NSF); Moored  (Stationary) Buoys (NOAA); ~~(NOAA/NASA);k Research Vessels~~
~~change on polar regions;o~~
~~(NSF);l Moored (Stationary) Buoys~~

~~(NOAA);~~

Predict and quantify rate of sea Predict and quantify rate of sea
m level rise Aircraft (NASA) ~~Aircraft (NASA)n~~
~~level rise;o~~
 
Predict freshening (salinity Predict freshening (salinity
decline) of surface ocean water decline) of surface ocean water
in polar in polar ~~region~~soregions
Sea Level Sea Level
Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Predict coastal sea level trends Predict coastal sea level trends and flooding (NOAA/NASA); Tide Gauges 
~~(NOAA/NASA);p Tide Gauges~~
~~and flooding;i~~
(NOAA/USGS (NOAA/USGS~~);q~~ ); Water-Level Water-Level

~~Sensors (USGS)~~

Quantify the rate of sea level Quantify the rate of sea level
g
~~rise;o~~
rise Sensors (USGS)  
Inform safe vessel Inform safe vessel ~~navigatio~~nrnavigation
Chlorophyll (ocean color) Chlorophyll (ocean color)
Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Monitor ocean upwelling and Monitor ocean upwelling and
provide an (NOAA/NASA) ~~(NOAA/NASA)j~~
~~provide an~~ estimate for living estimate for living
phytoplankton in the near-phytoplankton in the near-
surface surface w~~aterj~~water
Seafloor Bathymetry Seafloor Bathymetry
Research Vessels Equipped Research Vessels Equipped ~~with~~
 
Quantify water Quantify water ~~depth;u~~
depth with Geological and Geological and ~~Geophysical Survey~~
 
Provide information on Provide information on
seafloor sediment Geophysical Survey Equipment type that could aid siting of natural ~~Equipment~~ (NOAA/BOEM(NOAA/BOEM/USGSUSGS~~);s~~
~~seafloor sediment type that~~
); resources Submersible ROVs (NOAA); Aircraft Equipped with lidar ~~Submersible ROVs (NOAA);e~~
~~could aid siting of natural~~
~~Aircraft Equipped with lidar~~
~~resources;v~~
~~(NOAA);t Earth-Observing~~
~~Satellites (NASA/USGS~~)i
 
Identify seafloor geologic Identify seafloor geologic
features (faults or features (faults or ~~subduction~~
~~zones) that could produce~~
(NOAA); Earth-Observing subduction zones) that could produce Satellites (NASA/USGS) natural hazards (earthquakes natural hazards (earthquakes
~~or tsunamis);u~~
or tsunamis)  
Determine the extent of the Determine the extent of the
U.S. continental U.S. continental ~~shelf~~;wshelfc
 
Inform safe vessel Inform safe vessel ~~navigationu~~
~~Source:~~ navigation Source: Information for this table is derived from NASA, NOAA, NSF, and USGS websites. For additional information and source data, referFor additional information and source data, refer to Appendix A.
Notes: BOEM = Bureau of Ocean Energy Management; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth BOEM = Bureau of Ocean Energy Management; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth
Sensors; lidar = light detection and ranging; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = Sensors; lidar = light detection and ranging; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA =
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Science Foundation = NSF; ONR = Office of Naval National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Science Foundation = NSF; ONR = Office of Naval
Research; ROV = remote-operated vehicle; USGS = U.S. Geological Survey. Research; ROV = remote-operated vehicle; USGS = U.S. Geological Survey.
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~~link to page 25~~ ~~Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development~~

~~a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.~~
~~b. Wave gliders are inexpensive surfboard-looking autonomous vehicles that col ect surface ocean data.~~
~~NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders.~~
~~c. A Conductivity, Depth, and Temperature (CDT)~~a. Wave gliders are inexpensive surfboard-looking autonomous vehicles that col ect surface ocean data. b. A CDT sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of
the seawater changes with water depth, the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. c. ~~which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does “CDT”~~
~~Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html.~~
~~d. NOAA, “Observation Platforms: Vessels,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/vessels/~~
~~vessels.html.~~
~~e. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/~~
~~deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html.~~
f.
~~NASA, “Ocean Temperature,” https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceTemperature; NOAA, “How Are~~
~~Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites-ocean.html.~~
~~g. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/~~
~~science/storm-tide-monitoring.~~
~~h. NOAA; “SST—Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.climate.gov/maps-data/data-snapshots/data-~~
~~source/sst-sea-surface-temperature; NASA, “Recipe for a Hurricane,” at https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/~~
~~environment/HURRICANE_RECIPE.html.~~
i.
~~NOAA, “How Are Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites-~~
~~ocean.html.~~
j.
~~Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for~~
~~deep water to move to the surface. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box entitled “Ocean~~
~~Upwelling” in Appendix A. NASA, “Remote Sensing,” at https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/~~
~~oceanography/living-ocean/remote-sensing; NASA, “VIRRS Single-Sensor S-NPP and NOAA-20 Anomaly~~
~~Products,” at https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/satellite-data-products/ocean-color/anomaly.html.~~
~~k. NASA, “Our Mission,” at https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission; NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data~~
~~Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satel ite-~~
~~data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/; NASA, “VIIRS—Sea Ice Concentration, Ice Thickness, Ice Surface~~
~~Temperature,” https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/satellite-data-products/sea-ice/viirs-sea-ice-concentration-~~
~~ice-thickness-ice-surface-temperature.html.~~
l.
~~NSF, “USAP Ships,” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/support/ships.jsp.~~
~~m. NOAA, “Meet 5 NOAA Buoys that Help Scientists Understand Our Weather, Climate and Ocean Health,”~~
~~at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2762/Meet-5-NOAA-Buoys-that-help-scientists-~~
~~understand-our-weather-climate-and-ocean-health.~~
~~n. NASA, “IceBridge—Aircraft, Instruments, Satellites,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/~~
~~instruments/index.html.~~
~~o. NASA, “Understanding Sea Level,” at https://sealevel.nasa.gov/understanding-sea level/global-sea~~
~~level/overview.~~
~~p. NASA, “NASA, US, European Partner Satellite Returns First Sea Level Measurements,” at~~
~~https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3052/nasa-us-european-partner-satellite-returns-first-sea level-measurements/.~~
~~q. NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html.~~
~~r. NOAA, “Maritime Services,” at https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/maritime.html.~~
~~s. NOAA, “Ten Years of Col ecting Ocean Exploration Data from NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer,” at~~
~~https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex10years/welcome.html; BOEM, “Geological and Geophysical (G&G)~~
~~Surveys,” at https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-~~
~~Overview.pdf; USGS, “Marine Seismic Imaging” at https://www.usgs.gov/programs/coastal-and-marine-~~
~~hazards-and-resources-program/science/marine-seismic-imaging.~~
t.
~~NOAA, “What Is Lidar,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lidar.html.~~
~~u. NOAA, “How Is Bathymetric Data Used?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathyuses.html.~~
~~v. NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/~~
~~seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html.~~
~~w. NOAA, “NOAA’s Participation in the U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Project,” at~~
~~https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1810/ecs/welcome.html.~~ For more information, see For more information, see
CRS Report R41153, CRS Report R41153, Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress, , coordinated by Ronald coordinated by Ronald
O'Rourke. O'Rourke.
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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

Figure 2. Major Areas of Coastal Upwelling

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Upwelling,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Upwelling,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/03coastal4.html. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/03coastal4.html.
Notes: Areas of major coastal upwelling are shown in red Areas of major coastal upwelling are shown in red. Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing deep water to move to the surface. Upwelled waters are rich in nutrients, and ocean upwelling is a natural fertilization process for the surface ocean, stimulating the base of the marine food web. For additional information on ocean upwelling, see . For additional information on ocean upwelling, see
text box entitled “Ocean Upwelling” intext box entitled “Ocean Upwelling” in Appendix A.
The concentrations of biogeochemical variables The concentrations of biogeochemical variables (Table 2) ~~in seawater~~ in seawater are influenced by mixing are influenced by mixing
of waters with different concentrations (e.g., upwelled deep-sea water mixing with near-surface of waters with different concentrations (e.g., upwelled deep-sea water mixing with near-surface
water), biogeochemical processes (e.g., water), biogeochemical processes (e.g., the marine carbon cycle), and atmospheric inputs (e.g., marine carbon cycle), and atmospheric inputs (e.g.,
diffusion of dissolved oxygen across the atmosphere-surface water interface), among other diffusion of dissolved oxygen across the atmosphere-surface water interface), among other
factors. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions and agricultural or wastewater discharge have also altered factors. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions and agricultural or wastewater discharge have also altered
biogeochemical variables (e.g., pH and dissolved oxygen).biogeochemical variables (e.g., pH and dissolved oxygen).5254 Selected common biogeochemical Selected common biogeochemical
oceanographic data are summarized below oceanographic data are summarized below inin Table 2. These data are discussed in more detailThese data are discussed in more detail in Appendix B. 54 For information on the effects of human-associated discharge on coastal ocean waters, see CRS Report R46921, Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Background, Statutory Authorities, and Issues for Congress, by Eva Lipiec. Congressional Research Service 12 link to page 28 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development in
Appendix B.
Table 2. Selected Biogeochemical Oceanographic Variables
(common biogeochemical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies) (common biogeochemical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies)
Biogeochemical
Instrumentation and
Oceanographic Variable
Equipment Examples
Selected Use/Purpose
Salinity Salinity
Argo Profiling Floats ( Argo Profiling Floats (NO~~AA);a~~NOAA);
 
Provide insight into the water Provide insight into the water
cycle Unmanned Wave Gliders ( Unmanned Wave Gliders (~~NOAA);b~~
~~cycle;f~~
NOAA);  Submersible ROVs (NOAA Submersible ROVs (NOAA~~);c CTD~~

); CTD Trace ocean circulation Trace ocean circulation
patterns Sensors (NOAA/USGS Sensors (NOAA/USGS~~);d~~ ); Water-  Monitor runoff from land or ice melt Quality Gauge (USGS)  Predict hurricane intensity Dissolved Oxygen Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);  Serve as indicator of the health of Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOAA); the marine ecosystem ~~Water-~~
~~patterns;f~~
~~Quality Gauge (USGS)e~~

~~Monitor runoff from land or ice~~
~~melt;f~~

~~Predict hurricane intensityg~~

~~52 For information on the effects of human-associated discharge on coastal ocean waters, see CRS Report R46921,~~
Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Background, Statutory Authorities, and Issues for Congress, by Eva Lipiec.
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~~Biogeochemical~~
~~Instrumentation and~~
~~Oceanographic Variable~~
~~Equipment Examples~~
~~Selected Use/Purpose~~
~~Dissolved Oxygen~~
~~Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);a~~

~~Serve as indicator of the health~~
~~Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOAA);b~~
~~of the marine ecosystem;h~~
Submersible ROVs (NOAA Submersible ROVs (NOAA~~);c~~);
 
Water-Quality Gauge (USGS Water-Quality Gauge (USGS)
)
Correlate with surface ocean Correlate with surface ocean
e
~~temperatur~~ehtemperature
pH pH
Argo Profiling Floats ( Argo Profiling Floats (NO~~AA);a~~NOAA);
 
Quantify rate of anthropogenic Quantify rate of anthropogenic
Unmanned Wave Gliders ( Unmanned Wave Gliders (~~NOAA);b~~NOAA);
carbon uptake by the carbon uptake by the ~~ocean;k~~
ocean Moored Buoys Equipped with CO2 Moored Buoys Equipped with CO2
 
Sensors ( Sensors (~~NOAA);~~
NOAA); Earth-Observing
Serve as indicator for ocean Serve as indicator for ocean
~~i Earth-Observing~~
~~acidificatio~~nkacidification
Satellites (NASA/NOAA Satellites (NASA/NOAA~~);j~~
~~Source:~~ ); Source: Information for this table is derived from NASA, NOAA, and USGS websites. For additional background information and source data referFor additional background information and source data refer to Appendix B.
Notes: CO2 = carbon dioxide; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Sensors; NASA = CO2 = carbon dioxide; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Sensors; NASA =
National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
USGS = U.S. Geological Survey. USGS = U.S. Geological Survey.
~~a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.~~
~~b. NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders; NOAA,~~
~~“Autonomous Surface Vehicles,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Autonomous+Surface+Vehicles.~~
~~c. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/~~
~~deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html.~~
~~d. A Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CDT)~~A CDT sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of
the seawater the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity~~changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does ‘CDT’~~
~~Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html.~~
~~e. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/~~
~~science/storm-tide-monitoring.~~
f.
~~NASA, “Salinity/Density,” at https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceSalinity.~~
~~g. NOAA, “Measuring Salt in the Ocean May Be Key to Predicting Hurricane Intensity,” December 16, 2021,~~
~~at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2819/Measuring-salt-in-the-ocean-may-be-key-to-~~
~~predicting-how-hurricanes-strengthen.~~
~~h. USGS, “Dissolved Oxygen and Water,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/~~
~~dissolved-oxygen-and-water.~~
i.
~~NOAA, “Buoys and Other Autonomous Systems,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/~~
~~Buoys+and+Autonomous+Systems.~~
j.
~~Joseph Salisbury et al., “How Can Present and Future Satellite Missions Support Scientific Studies that~~
~~Address Ocean Acidification?” Oceanography, vol. 28 (October 2015); NOAA, “Ocean Acidification from~~
~~Space,” June 2, 2016, at https://carbon.nasa.gov/pdfs/20160602%20NASA%20SSAI%20Gledhil .pdf.~~
~~k. Environmental Protection Agency, “Climate Change Indicators: Ocean Acidity,” at https://www.epa.gov/~~
~~climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-ocean-acidity~~. .
Ocean Data Trends and Climate Change
Ocean data and observation trends over time have informed scientific reports that have Ocean data and observation trends over time have informed scientific reports that have
highlighted the nature and rate of change highlighted the nature and rate of change in the global oceanthe global ocean ~~has experienced~~, as well as the , as well as the
potential impacts of these changes. potential impacts of these changes.
  Ocean Temperature. Warming surface ocean waters affect weather patterns and Warming surface ocean waters affect weather patterns and
storms, including hurricanes. The 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate storms, including hurricanes. The 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing
Climate found evidence for an increase in the global proportion of category 4-5 found evidence for an increase in the global proportion of category 4-5
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tropical cyclones in recent decadestropical cyclones in recent decades ~~and~~; the proportion of the proportion of high intensity tropical cyclones tropical cyclones ~~are~~
is projected to increase with continued warming.projected to increase with continued warming.5355
  Ice. Warming near-surface air temperatures in the Arctic are melting continental Warming near-surface air temperatures in the Arctic are melting continental
ice (ice sheet and glacier) across the region ice (ice sheet and glacier) across the region~~.54~~, including the Greenland Ice Sheet, and contributing to sea ice melt on the Arctic Ocean.56 The climate modeling results for The climate modeling results for
the mid- and highthe mid- and high -greenhouse gas emissions scenarios published in the 2021 greenhouse gas emissions scenarios published in the 2021
IPCC IPCC Sixth Assessment Report project the Arctic to be “practically” sea-ice free project the Arctic to be “practically” sea-ice free
during the month of September between 2050-2100.during the month of September between 2050-2100.5557 55 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere, p. 11. NOAA, “Global Warming and Hurricanes,” April 11, 2023, at https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/. 56 T. J. Ballinger et al., “Surface Air Temperature,” in NOAA, 2022 Arctic Report Card, December 2020, p. 2. 57 IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in Changing Climate 2021: The Physical Science Basis, eds. V. Masson-Delmotte et al., 2021, pp. SMP-29-SMP-30. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis. Congressional Research Service 13 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development
  Sea level. Continental ice melt and thermal expansion of ocean water are Continental ice melt and thermal expansion of ocean water are
contributing to rising sea levels. contributing to rising sea levels.5658 From 2006 to 2018, continental ice melt was From 2006 to 2018, continental ice melt was
the dominant contributor to global sea level rise.the dominant contributor to global sea level rise.5759 Continuous data on variations Continuous data on variations
in sea level inform scientists on the rate of sea level rise and the regions most in sea level inform scientists on the rate of sea level rise and the regions most
susceptible to coastal flooding. The average global sea level rise from 2006 to susceptible to coastal flooding. The average global sea level rise from 2006 to
2018 was 3.7 millimeters per year.2018 was 3.7 millimeters per year.5860
  Dissolved Oxygen. Declining oxygen levels in seawater correlate with warming Declining oxygen levels in seawater correlate with warming
ocean waters. Warmer water holds less dissolved gases (e.g., oxygen) than colder ocean waters. Warmer water holds less dissolved gases (e.g., oxygen) than colder
water. Trends published in the physical science report of the 2021 IPCC water. Trends published in the physical science report of the 2021 IPCC Sixth
Assessment Report showed a decline in surface dissolved oxygen levels showed a decline in surface dissolved oxygen levels
(deoxygenation) in all ocean basins. The IPCC attributed this decline, with (deoxygenation) in all ocean basins. The IPCC attributed this decline, with
medium confidence, to surface ocean warming.medium confidence, to surface ocean warming.5961
  pH. Declining seawater pH levels are attributed to the global ocean’s increased Declining seawater pH levels are attributed to the global ocean’s increased
absorption of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2. absorption of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2. Since the beginning of the Since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution, the pH of global surface ocean has decreased by 0.1 pH Industrial Revolution, the pH of global surface ocean has decreased by 0.1 pH
units (from an average pH of 8.2 to 8.1), equivalent to a 25%-30% increase in units (from an average pH of 8.2 to 8.1), equivalent to a 25%-30% increase in
ocean acidity.ocean acidity.6062
Selected Issues for Congress
Research and analysis of ocean processes, resources, and potential future changes to these Research and analysis of ocean processes, resources, and potential future changes to these
processes and resources have the potential to inform congressional deliberations regarding ocean processes and resources have the potential to inform congressional deliberations regarding ocean
policy and ocean management. Congress also may be interested in these efforts for their potential policy and ocean management. Congress also may be interested in these efforts for their potential
to support publicto support public- and private and private -sector economic activities that rely on the ocean or facilitate the sector economic activities that rely on the ocean or facilitate the
protection protection of sensitive habitats and their wildlife. sensitive habitats and their wildlife.
A potential issue facing Congress is to what extent, if any, to A potential issue facing Congress is to what extent, if any, to ~~support and direct~~ continue supporting and directing federal ocean federal ocean
science research and development and, if so, which efforts to science research and development and, if so, which efforts to ~~emphasize~~prioritize and how to guide and how to guide
departments and agencies in this work. Scientific knowledge of the ocean evolves as new departments and agencies in this work. Scientific knowledge of the ocean evolves as new

~~53 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere, p. 11. NOAA, “Global Warming and Hurricanes,”~~
~~August 2021, at https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/#summary-statement.~~
~~54 T. J. Ballinger et al., “Surface Air Temperature,” in NOAA, 2020 Arctic Report Card, December 2020, p. 21.~~
~~55 IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in Changing Climate 2021: The Physical Science Basis, eds. V. Masson-~~
Delmotte et al., 2021, pp. SMP-29-SMP-30. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis.
56information and exploration technology becomes available. Thus, some scientists and environmental and climate advocates have called for continuous, systematic ocean research observations and monitoring by federal government, as well as funding for new endeavors. Supporters of these efforts emphasize the modern challenges of ocean management and the opportunities the ocean presents to address environmental and societal issues. In addition, some supporters see this research as contributing to the U.S. global leadership role in ocean science. At the same time, funding for ocean research can be costly; thus, some may question the relative priority of some work, compared to both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. 58 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise. Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise.
5759 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-14. , p. SMP-14.
~~58 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-6.~~
~~59 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-6.~~
6060 Ibid, p. SMP-6. 61 Ibid. 62 For more information on the effects of anthropogenic CO2 emissions on seawater pH, see CRS Report R47300, Ocean Acidification: Frequently Asked Questions, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. NOAA, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean- NOAA, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-
acidification; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Understanding the Science of Ocean and Coastal acidification; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Understanding the Science of Ocean and Coastal
Acidification,” at https://www.epa.gov/ocean-acidification/understanding-science-ocean-and-coastal-acidification. Acidification,” at https://www.epa.gov/ocean-acidification/understanding-science-ocean-and-coastal-acidification.
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link to page 19 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development Ocean Data and Research Needs Related to Climate Change Some scientists and environmental advocates view the ocean as having a key role in mitigating climate change,63 and they view federal spending in ocean monitoring and observational technologies as one means to better understand the ocean-climate nexus~~Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development~~

~~information and exploration technology becomes available. Thus, some scientists and~~
~~environmental and climate advocates call for continuous, systematic ocean research observations~~
~~and monitoring by federal government, as well as funding for new endeavors. Supporters of these~~
~~efforts frame the modern challenges of ocean management and the opportunities the ocean~~
~~presents to address environmental and societal issues. At the same time, funding for ocean~~
~~research can be costly; thus, some may question the relative priority of some work, compared to~~
~~both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.~~
~~Another set of issues Congress may consider is related to what extent existing ocean research~~
~~efforts are sufficient to address climate change impacts. This includes to what extent, if any,~~
~~Congress might change any specific ocean research programs or projects to improve data~~
~~collection and monitoring for the purpose of understanding the ocean’s role in the climate system.~~
~~Relatedly, Congress may consider whether additional investments in certain federal programs are~~
~~necessary, such as improving Argo float technology to expand the program’s coverage of the~~
~~ocean. Further, another set of issues relates to whether—and if so, how—to incorporate ocean~~
~~research findings into existing ocean programs or other policies.~~
~~Technological advances in deep-sea infrastructure have led to increased interest in deep-sea~~
~~exploration and the extraction of deep-sea resources. Thus, the application of deep-sea data for~~
~~geohazard prediction, environmental protection, and natural resource management comprise~~
~~another set of issues related to ocean research that Congress may consider~~. Congress may . Congress may
~~consider issues related to federal coordination, environmental concerns, development of~~
~~renewable technologies and energy for anthropogenic CO2 mitigation, and national security~~
~~needs.~~
~~Ocean Data and Research Needs Related to Climate Change~~
~~Congress may consider a range of issues related to ocean research and climate change. Potential~~
~~issues include~~ consider whether the current investment is sufficient to provide adequate information on the whether the current investment is sufficient to provide adequate information on the
potential impacts of climate change on the global ocean and its resources and, conversely, potential impacts of climate change on the global ocean and its resources and, conversely, on the the
ways in ways in which ocean processes influence global climate.64 Some believe increasing investments in certain ocean programs would allow ocean-based research to capitalize on technology advancements.65 For example, the Argo Program, established in 1998, could be advanced through ~~which ocean processes influence global climate. P.L. 117-169, a budget reconciliation~~
~~measure commonly referred to as the “Inflation Reduction Act of 2022” (IRA), appropriated $150~~
~~million in FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA, with the goal of accelerating advances~~
~~and improvements in research of atmospheric and ocean processes that relate to climate and~~
~~weather, among others.61 In addition, Section 40004 of the IRA appropriated $50 million in~~
~~FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA for climate research competitive grants relating to~~
~~ocean and other processes and associated impacts to marine species and coastal habitat. Some~~
~~scientists and environmental advocates view the ocean as having a key role in mitigating climate~~
~~change,62 and they view federal spending in ocean monitoring and observational technologies as~~
~~one means to better understand the ocean-climate nexus. Congress also may consider policy~~
~~implications related to the ocean’s role in mitigating rising atmospheric CO2.~~
~~NOAA’s Argo Program has collected over two decades’ worth of oceanographic data that have~~
~~helped scientists understand the ways in which climate change has affected the global ocean.~~
~~Technological advancement since the Argo Program’s establishment in 1998 has led scientists to~~
~~call for additional Argo floats to utilize these technological enhancements.63 Examples include~~

~~61 Section 40004 of P.L. 117-169.~~
~~62 The global ocean absorbs CO2 emissions from human activities (i.e., the combustion of fossil fuels), helping to offset~~
~~the buildup of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere.~~
63 Dean Roemmich et al., “On the Future of Argo: A Global, Full-Depth, Multi-Disciplinary Array,” Frontiers in
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developing and deploying a fleet of floats that extend the typical profiling depth of 2,000 meters developing and deploying a fleet of floats that extend the typical profiling depth of 2,000 meters
to 6,000 meters (Deep Argo) and a fleet that includes additional biogeochemical sensors to study to 6,000 meters (Deep Argo) and a fleet that includes additional biogeochemical sensors to study
carbon and nutrient cycling in the ocean (Biogeochemical Argo).carbon and nutrient cycling in the ocean (Biogeochemical Argo).64
66 Congress funds NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring Program (SOOM)Congress funds NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring Program (SOOM)
~~programs~~, projects, and activities on a year-to-year basis, from which NOAA determines and , projects, and activities on a year-to-year basis, from which NOAA determines and
allocates the amount of funds to the Argo Program allocates the amount of funds to the Argo Program (Table 3). Funding support for the Argo . Funding support for the Argo
Program has remained relatively constant since 2004 (with variations), with funding priority Program has remained relatively constant since 2004 (with variations), with funding priority
directed to sustaining the current fleet of Argo floats.directed to sustaining the current fleet of Argo floats.6567 Some Members of Congress have Some Members of Congress have
proposed increases for Argo funding; for example, in FY2022, Congress directed NOAA to proposed increases for Argo funding; for example, in FY2022, Congress directed NOAA to
expand coverage of the Biogeochemical Argo fleet.expand coverage of the Biogeochemical Argo fleet.66
~~Table 3. Congressional Appropriations Applied to NOAA Argo Program~~
~~FY2020 Enacted~~
~~FY2021 Enacted~~
~~Appropriations~~
~~Appropriations~~
~~Program~~
~~(Thousands of $)~~
~~(Thousands of $)~~
~~Description~~
~~Argo Program~~
~~$11,491~~
~~$11,495~~
~~Amount directed toward~~
~~Argo Program from total~~
~~SOOM appropriationsa~~
~~Other Argo Initiatives~~
~~$3,600~~
~~$3,780~~
~~Amount appropriated to~~
~~other programs, projects,~~
~~and activities that was~~
~~used for Deep Argo and~~
~~Biogeochemical Argo~~
~~Total Argo Funding~~
~~$15,091~~
~~$15,275~~
—
Source: Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and
~~Intergovernmental Affairs, November 18, 2021.~~
Notes: NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; SOOM = Sustained Ocean Observing and
~~Monitoring Program.~~
~~a. SOOM enacted appropriations for FY2020 and FY2021 were $45,000,000 and $45,408,000, respectively.~~
~~Data collected by Argo floats show a warming trend of average global ocean temperature that can~~
~~have policy applications. For instance, many marine species are moving toward the poles to~~
~~remain in waters within their temperature tolerance.67 These shifts in species’ geographic~~
~~distributions can cause economic disruptions if a fish population becomes less productive in its~~
~~new environment or moves out of range for fishermen. Some Members have introduced~~
~~legislation that would amend the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act~~

Marine Science, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2.
6468 63 The global ocean absorbs CO2 emissions from human activities (i.e., the combustion of fossil fuels), helping to offset the buildup of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere. 64 The 117th Congress provided funding to NOAA to advance ocean and climate research. P.L. 117-169, a budget reconciliation measure commonly referred to as the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA), appropriated $150 million in FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA, with the goal of accelerating advances and improvements in research of atmospheric and ocean processes that relate to climate and weather, among others. In addition, Section 40004 of the IRA appropriated $50 million in FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA for climate research competitive grants relating to ocean and other processes and associated impacts to marine species and coastal habitat. 65 For example, Dean Roemmich et al., “On the Future of Argo: A Global, Full-Depth, Multi-Disciplinary Array,” Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2. 66 Successful prototype float deployments of Deep Argo floats took place in 2013-2015. These prototypes were able to Successful prototype float deployments of Deep Argo floats took place in 2013-2015. These prototypes were able to
reach approximately 6,000 meters below sea level. Testing of Biogeochemical Argo floats equipped with sensors for reach approximately 6,000 meters below sea level. Testing of Biogeochemical Argo floats equipped with sensors for
dissolved oxygen, nitrate, pH, chlorophyll fluorescence, and particulate backscatter began in 2012. Scripps Institution dissolved oxygen, nitrate, pH, chlorophyll fluorescence, and particulate backscatter began in 2012. Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Argo Program Office, “Frequently Asked Questions,” at https://argo.ucsd.edu/faq/#who; NOAA of Oceanography Argo Program Office, “Frequently Asked Questions,” at https://argo.ucsd.edu/faq/#who; NOAA
Research News, “NOAA Invests in New Tools to Measure the Ocean,” at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/Research News, “NOAA Invests in New Tools to Measure the Ocean,” at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/
587/ArticleID/2561. 587/ArticleID/2561.
6567 Scripps Institution of Oceanography Argo Program Office, Scripps Institution of Oceanography Argo Program Office, U.S. Argo National Report to Argo Steering Team-22, ,
March 2021, at https://argo.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/361/2021/03/USA_national_report_AST22v1.pdf. March 2021, at https://argo.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/361/2021/03/USA_national_report_AST22v1.pdf.
6668 H.Rept. 117-97 referenced by the explanatory statement accompanying the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act H.Rept. 117-97 referenced by the explanatory statement accompanying the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act
(P.L. 117-103). (P.L. 117-103).
~~67 NOAA Fisheries, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-~~
~~our-changing-climate.~~
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link to page 19 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development Table 3. Congressional Appropriations Applied to NOAA Argo Program FY2020 Enacted FY2021 Enacted FY2022 Enacted Program Appropriations Appropriations Appropriations Description Argo Program $11,491,000 $11,495,000 $12,100,000 Amount directed toward Argo Program from total SOOM appropriationsa Other Argo $3,600,000 $3,780,000 $3,000,000 Amount Initiatives appropriated to other programs, projects, and activities that was used for Deep Argo and Biogeochemical Argo IIJA Funding for the $850,000 Amount Argo Program appropriated through SOOM programs, projects, and activities Total Argo $15,091,000 $15,275,000 $15,950,000 — Funding Source: Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, November 18, 2021 and March 29, 2023. Notes: NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; IIJA = Infrastructure Investments and Jobs Act of 2021 (P.L. 117-58); SOOM = Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring Program. a. SOOM enacted appropriations were $45,000,000 in FY2020, $45,408,000 in FY2021, and $49,000,000 in FY2022. Applications of Ocean Exploration and Bathymetric Data Congress has shown, and continues to show, interest in mapping the ocean to inform ocean policies related to marine geologic hazards, environmental protections, and seabed mineral resource deposits, among other policy considerations. According to reports, 50% of the U.S. coastal, ocean, and Great Lakes waters remain unmapped; a fraction of the mapped areas have been explored or characterized. 69 Technological advances and the collection and study of modern bathymetric data have allowed for greater and more detailed mapping, exploration, and characterization of the ocean environment.70 Congress may consider how federal efforts to map, explore, and characterize the U.S. ocean and coastal waters can complement other ocean-related policies and whether to direct federal agencies to prioritize certain U.S. ocean and coastal waters for mapping activities. Congress also may wish to consider providing oversight on how federal agencies prioritize U.S. ocean and coastal mapping activities. The Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act of 2009 (P.L. 111-11) authorized appropriations intended to facilitate federal mapping activities of U.S. 69 NOAA, “Progress Report: Unmapped U.S. Waters,” at https://iocm.noaa.gov/documents/mapping-progress-report2023.pdf. 70 Modern bathymetric data are data collected post 1960. NOAA, “U.S. Bathymetric Coverage and Gap Analysis,” at https://iocm.noaa.gov/seabed-2030-bathymetry.html. Congressional Research Service 16 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development ocean and coastal waters and the Great Lakes.71 In 2021, Congress provided specific direction for NOAA to use $2 million of its appropriated funds to support mapping, exploration, and characterization strategies, such as the National Strategy for Mapping, Exploring, and Characterizing of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone (hereinafter referred to as the NOMEC Strategy72) and the Alaska Coastal Mapping Strategy (ACMS).73 The majority of the $2 million was used for collaborative mapping data acquisition in Alaska in support of ACMS.74 Congress may wish to review how NOAA has used these funds or provide additional direction on where funds should be applied to specific U.S. ocean and coastal areas for mapping activities in the future. One goal of the NOMEC Strategy is to build public and private partnerships to map, explore, and characterize the U.S. ocean and coastal waters (including the Great Lakes).75 Fulfilling this goal may help accelerate the analysis of bathymetric data needed to completely map U.S. ocean and coastal waters. In 2021, NOAA announced the creation of the Brennan Matching Fund (BMF) to ~~Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development~~

~~(MSA) to take into account changing environmental conditions.68 The primary objectives of the~~
~~MSA,69 for example, are to prevent overfishing and to rebuild overfished stocks; issues of~~
~~migrating and dwindling fish stocks due to ocean warming were not considered (or foreseen)~~
~~when the bill was originally enacted in 1977. Furthermore, the MSA requires fishing management~~
~~procedures to be based on the best scientific information available to rebuild overfished stocks~~
~~where needed.70 Additional oceanographic data available through a more technologically~~
~~advanced Argo profiling fleet included as part of the best scientific information available would~~
~~be one tool with the potential to inform the management of marine fisheries and other resources.~~
~~Applications for Deep-Sea Exploration and Bathymetric Data~~
~~Technological advances have allowed for greater and more detailed exploration of the deep sea,~~
~~which has raised several related issues for Congress to consider. Improved deep-sea exploration~~
~~(including bathymetric and G&G surveys) has provided scientists with the data necessary to~~
~~better characterize the deep-sea environment. Geologic features on the seafloor, deep-sea habitats~~
~~and its organisms, and natural resources occurring on or beneath the seafloor can be derived from~~
~~these data. Decisionmakers may consider ocean policies related to geologic hazards,~~
~~environmental protection, and national security issues, such as the establishment of a domestic~~
~~supply of marine natural resources of economic value.~~
~~Deep-Sea Geologic Hazards~~
~~Motion along seafloor geologic features, such as faults and subduction zones, has produced a~~
~~complex seafloor landscape of volcanic islands, seamounts, trenches, and ridges. The prediction~~
~~of geohazard events (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, marine landslides) associated with geologic~~
~~features helps safeguard coastal communities and marine infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, undersea~~
~~cables). For example, the Cascadia subduction zone off the coast of the northwestern United~~
~~States has the potential for very large earthquakes, which could cause destructive tsunamis that~~
~~would strike the coastlines of Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Knowledge of this~~
~~subduction zone allows for the implementation of early warnings and the enforcement of~~
~~construction standards for marine infrastructure that can withstand seafloor movement, which~~
~~aims to save lives and mitigate potential damage and the need for costly repairs.~~
~~Seafloor mapping is a primary tool used for seafloor geohazard assessments. Many major active~~
~~marine fault zones in U.S. waters have been identified—about 40% of the U.S. exclusive~~
~~economic zone (EEZ) has been mapped.71 The unmapped 60% of the U.S. EEZ (approximately~~
~~2.0 million square nautical miles, or 2.7 million square miles72) likely includes unknown seafloor~~

~~68 H.R. 4690, Sustaining America’s Fisheries for the Future Act of 2021, would amend the MSA to include “changing~~
~~environmental conditions, including those associated with climate change” as one of the causes for declining fish~~
~~stocks for certain species.~~
~~69 16 U.S.C. §§1801 et seq. For more information on the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management,~~
~~see CRS Report R43565,~~ ~~Reauthorization Issues for the Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management~~
~~Act~~.
~~70 For an overview of “best available science,” see CRS Report RL32992,~~ ~~The Endangered Species Act and “Sound~~
~~Science”, by Pervaze A. Sheikh.~~
~~71 The exclusive economic zone is the zone where the U.S. and other coastal nations have jurisdiction over natural~~
~~resources. It extends no more than 200 nautical miles from the shore (territorial sea baseline). Executive Office of the~~
~~President, “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the Shoreline and Nearshore of~~
~~Alaska,” 84 Federal Register 64699, November 22, 2019.~~
~~72 Rounded to the nearest 100,000. NOAA, “The United States Is an Ocean Nation,” at https://www.gc.noaa.gov/~~
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~~features that may present geohazard risks. In 2009, Congress established the Interagency~~
~~Committee on Ocean and Coastal Mapping (IWG-OCM), a working group of the National~~
~~Science and Technology Council Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology, to coordinate~~
~~ocean and coastal mapping activities across federal agencies (including BOEM, NASA, NOAA,~~
~~NSF, USGS, and others) as well as with state, industry, academic, and nongovernmental mapping~~
~~interests.73 While the IWG-OCM continues to operate and assist in achieving national mapping~~
~~priorities,74 funding for the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act of 2009 was authorized~~
~~through 2015.75 In 2021, NOAA announced a matching fund program to~~ encourage nonfederal encourage nonfederal
~~entities to partner with NOAA to acquire more ocean and coastal survey data.76 The~~
~~reauthorization of the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act by Congress would be one~~
~~means of ensuring continued authorization of funds to this program, which provide the data and~~
~~information necessary for safe navigation, climate preparedness, geohazard prediction, and~~
~~coastal zone management.77~~
~~Environmental Protection of the Deep Sea~~
~~An estimated 80% of the ocean remains unexplored,78 presenting the opportunity to study and~~
~~document deep-sea life and habitats. In 2017, NOAA’s Okeanos Explorer concluded a three-year~~
~~field campaign mapping approximately 600,000 square kilometers of the Pacific seafloor (about~~
~~61% within U.S. waters) and documenting its biodiversity.79 The documentation of these Pacific~~
~~deep-sea habitats provided baselines for understanding whether and how vulnerable and resilient~~
~~they might be to disturbance or change. Such information may allow the United States to take a~~
~~more holistic approach in the conservation of deep-sea habitats and biodiversity and the~~
~~management and extraction of marine resources.~~
~~Deep-sea biodiversity is potentially threatened by resource exploitation activities (e.g., drilling,~~
~~dredging, mining) that can disturb the seafloor environment by removing habitats and~~
~~fragmenting populations.80 In addition, habitat disruptions could impact services derived from~~
~~marine species—some marine invertebrates (e.g., deep-sea sponges) have been shown to produce~~

~~documents/2011/012711_gcil_maritime_eez_map.pdf.~~
~~73 33 U.S.C. §§3507 defines ocean and coastal mapping as “the acquisition, processing, and management of physical,~~
~~biological, geological, chemical, and archaeological characteristics and boundaries of ocean and coastal areas,~~
~~resources, and sea beds through the use of acoustics, satellites, aerial photogrammetry, light and imaging, direct~~
~~sampling, and other mapping technologies.” NOAA, “IWG-OCM,” at https://iocm.noaa.gov/about/iwg-ocm.html.~~
~~74 As outlined in Presidential Memorandum on “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the~~
~~Shoreline and Nearshore of Alaska,” IWG-OCM, along with other councils and interagency working groups, will~~
~~review and update the Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Ocean Mapping, Exploring, and~~
~~Characterizing the United States Exclusive Economic Zone as well as facilitate the management of data for the Alaska~~
~~Coastal Mapping Strategy.~~
~~75 P.L. 111-11.~~
76entities to partner with NOAA to acquire more ocean and coastal survey data,76 and in 2022, the BMF was enacted (P.L. 117-263).77 In FY2023, NOAA accepted two BMF projects. One partnership with the State of Connecticut Department of Energy aims to use multibeam and backscatter approaches to identify potential constraints for the installation of offshore wind electric transmission cables. The second partnership, with the Cordova, AK, Electric Cooperative, aims to use lidar to support the laying of an undersea power cable to a regional Federal Aviation Administration flight station.78 Congress may consider whether to provide increased funding support to enhance public-private partnerships aimed at collecting and analyzing new bathymetric data, or funding support for the integration of existing modern bathymetric data from multiple sources (e.g., federal, state, academic, nongovernmental organizations). Marine Geologic Hazards Seafloor mapping is a primary tool used for seafloor geohazard assessments. Congress may wish to consider using these assessments to inform decisions about national security, such as protecting coastal communities. Improved scientific knowledge of marine geohazard events (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, marine landslides) can help safeguard coastal communities and marine infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, undersea cables). Detailed imaging of the seafloor can provide information about the complex seafloor landscape, such as how fast a seafloor fault is moving and when the last earthquake occurred along that fault.79 For example, the Cascadia subduction zone 71 P.L. 111-11, Title XII, Part II, Subtitle B. 72 Ocean Science and Technology Subcommittee of the Ocean Policy Committee, National Strategy for Mapping, Exploring, and Characterizing the United States Exclusive Economic Zone, June 9, 2020. Hereinafter referred to as NOMEC Strategy, 2020, pp. 1-20. 73 Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, January 14, 2022. 74 Ibid. 75 NOMEC Strategy, 2020, pp. 17-19. 76 For example, NOAA, “Notice of Matching Fund Opportunity for Ocean and Coastal Mapping and Request for Partnership NOAA, “Notice of Matching Fund Opportunity for Ocean and Coastal Mapping and Request for Partnership
Proposals,” Proposals,” 8687 Federal Register ~~40197, July 27, 2021.~~
~~77 The National Ocean Exploration Act (S. 381) would authorize $60 million annually from FY2021 through FY2026~~
~~for NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Program as well as $45 million annually for cooperative agreements and $15 million~~
~~annually for grants as part of NOAA’s Ocean and Coastal Mapping Program, over the same period.~~
~~78 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/~~
~~exploration.html.~~
~~79 Brian R.C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA~~
~~CAPSTONE Expeditions,” in Frontiers in Marine Sciences, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2.~~
~~80 Travis Washburn et al., “Ecological Risk Assessment of Deep-Sea Mining,” Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 176~~
~~(June 2019).~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

1935509, June 10, 2022. 77 P.L. 117-263, Division J, Title CIII, Sec. 12206. 78 Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, April 14, 2023. 79 USGS, “Marine Geohazards,” May 6, 2022, at https://www.usgs.gov/media/slideshows/marine-geohazards. Congressional Research Service 17 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development off the coast of the northwestern United States has the capability of producing earthquakes of magnitude 8 or 9, which could cause destructive tsunamis that would strike the coastlines of Washington, Oregon, and Northern California.80 Knowledge of this subduction zone allows for the establishment and enforcement of construction standards for marine infrastructure that can withstand seafloor movement, which aims to save lives and mitigate potential damage and the need for costly repairs. Congress also may wish to use data of seafloor hazards to inform funding level decisions for federal programs aimed at preparing communities for marine geohazard events. For example, the National Weather Service National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program provides grants to partner states for tsunami-related activities, such as preparing evacuation plans and maps,81 and the Federal Emergency Management Agency Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities grant program funds the construction of tsunami vertical evacuation towers.82 In addition, the National Tsunami Warning Center and the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center monitor for tsunamis and the earthquakes that cause them and issue tsunami alerts to coastal communities.83 Environmental Protection of the Deep Sea Congress may consider using maps identifying certain marine habitats to establish marine protected areas or to weigh the potential ecological impacts associated with natural resource exploitation. In 2017, NOAA’s Okeanos Explorer concluded a three-year field campaign mapping approximately 600,000 square kilometers of the Pacific seafloor (about 61% within the U.S. exclusive economic zone, or EEZ) and documenting its biodiversity.84 Knowledge and understanding of the U.S. deep sea through exploration and scientific research may allow for protection of certain habitats and establishment of a domestic supply of marine natural resources, such as critical minerals, located in the U.S. EEZ. In addition, the documentation of deep-sea habitats can provide baselines for understanding whether and how vulnerable (or resilient) they might be to human disturbance or natural environmental change. Congress may consider the level of funding to provide to support NOAA’s deep-sea exploration campaigns that are designed to better explore and characterize the ocean.85 Seabed Mineral Resource Deposits Congress has interest in securing and enhancing the domestic supply of critical minerals. Bathymetric and G&G survey data can help identify potential deep-sea mineral resource deposits, 80 NOAA, “JetStream Max: Cascadia Subduction Zone,” at https://www.noaa.gov/jetstream/jetstream-max-cascadia-subduction-zone#. 81 National Weather Service (NWS), “NOAA/NWS Tsunami Activities Grants – Allowable Grant Activities,” at https://nws.weather.gov/nthmp/grants/Allowable.pdf. 82 For example, see FEMA, “Shoalwater Bay Tribe Builds Evacuation Tower to Provide Tsunami Safety for Community,” June 30, 2021, at https://www.fema.gov/blog/shoalwater-bay-tribe-builds-evacuation-tower-provide-tsunami-safety-community. 83 NWS, “Detection, Warning, and Forecasting,” at https://www.weather.gov/jetstream/tsu_detect. 84 Brian R.C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA CAPSTONE Expeditions,” in Frontiers in Marine Sciences, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2. 85 NOAA’s Office of Marine and Aviation Operations operates oceanographic research vessels (e.g., Okeanos Explorer) that help achieve the Administration’s scientific missions. NOAA’s Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Deep-Sea, which houses the Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, owns the mission equipment onboard the Okeanos Explorer and coordinates the ship’s exploration mission. NOAA, “About NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/about.html. Congressional Research Service 18 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development such as ferromanganese crusts, which may contain cobalt, manganese, and rare earth elements.86 For example, bathymetric data can identify geologic features such as seamounts, where ferromanganese crusts often can be found on their summits and flanks.87 Congress may be interested in interagency coordination of seabed mining research activities by NOAA,88 USGS,89 and BOEM,90 among others, to better document the distribution seabed minerals in the U.S. EEZ and in areas beyond national jurisdiction. In addition, Congress may consider directing these agencies to coordinate research activities to study potential seabed mining impacts on deep-sea habitats. For example, the 117th Congress considered legislation that would have called on the NOAA Administrator to seek “an agreement with the National Academies to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining.”91 Congress may consider using maps that identify certain marine habitats to establish marine protected areas that limit (or restrict) exploitation activities, or to weigh the potential ecological impacts associated with the seabed mining in these habitats. 86 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-resources?qt-science_center_objects=0. 87 For more information on the occurrence of seabed minerals, see CRS Report R47324, Seabed Mining in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Issues for Congress, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti. 88 NOAA implements the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (P.L. 96-283; 30 U.S.C. §§1401-1473), enacted in 1980, which governs seabed mining activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction. 89 The Global Marine Mineral Resources Project, based out of the USGS Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center, “provide[s] stakeholders with the best available science regarding potential resources and environmental impacts associated with accessing [marine mineral deposits].”

~~Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development~~

~~antibiotic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory substances.81 Both environmental advocates and~~
~~international fora have called for environmental safeguards to be put in place before deep-sea~~
~~activities are permitted.82 Article 145 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea calls~~
~~on parties to take necessary measures to protect of the marine environment and organisms from~~
~~waste effects of activities, such as drilling, dredging, and excavation, among other activities.83~~
~~Knowledge and understanding of the U.S. deep sea through exploration and scientific research~~
~~may allow for protection of sensitive habitats and their wildlife and establishment of a domestic~~
~~supply of marine natural resources, such as minerals, located in the U.S. EEZ. In 2015, NOAA~~
~~launched a three-year field campaign of the Okeanos Explorer to map and explore the Pacific~~
~~U.S. EEZ, the first modern-era exploration of the deep sea of this scope. Scientists found that this~~
~~field campaign (partially funded by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and Research)~~
~~“represented a model of systematic exploration that is critical to understanding one of the earth’s~~
~~largest ecosystems.”84 Congress may consider the level of funding to support NOAA’s Office of~~
~~Marine and Aviation Operations and Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Deep-Sea,~~
~~which houses the Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, to allow for additional deep-sea~~
~~exploration campaigns designed to better document and characterize other areas of the U.S. EEZ.~~
~~Deep-Sea Natural Resources~~
~~Knowledge of seafloor features and environments can be used to locate potential offshore oil and~~
~~gas reserves, sand and gravel deposits, and minerals of economic value. For example, bathymetric~~
~~and G&G survey data can help identify hard surfaces on the seafloor, such as exposed rock. These~~
~~sites can be conducive sites for locating ferromanganese crusts. Ferromanganese crusts typically~~
~~are enriched in cobalt, manganese, and rare earth elements that are used in renewable energy~~
~~technologies (including electric vehicles).85~~
~~The International Seabed Authority (ISA), an autonomous organization established under the~~
~~United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, regulates and controls all mineral-related~~
~~activities in international waters.86 Coastal nations regulate seabed mining activities occurring in~~
~~their national waters. Environmental advocacy organizations argue that the ISA and national~~
~~governments lack the regulatory frameworks and decisionmaking tools to weigh the potential~~
~~impacts seabed mining might have on deep-sea ecosystems, given that much of the deep sea~~

~~81 NOAA, “Do Medicines Come from the Sea,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/medicinesfromsea.html.~~
~~82 International Union for Conservation of Nature, “Deep-Sea Mining,” July 2018, at https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/~~
~~files/deep-sea_mining_issues_brief.pdf.~~
~~83 Although the United States is not a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), it~~
~~abides by its principles. United Nations, “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982,~~
~~Overview and full text,” updated February 11, 2020, at https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/~~
~~convention_overview_convention.htm.~~
~~84 Brian R. C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA~~
~~CAPSTONE Expeditions,” Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 18.~~
~~85 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-~~
~~resources?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.~~
~~86 For more information on seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, see CRS Report R47324,~~ ~~Seabed~~
~~Mining in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Issues for Congress, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti. International Seabed~~
~~Authority, “About ISA,” at https://www.isa.org.jm/about-isa.~~
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~~remains unexplored and unknown.87 By contrast, mining industry proponents argue that seabed~~
~~mining is more environmentally friendly than terrestrial-based mining.88~~
~~Congress has shown interest in securing and enhancing the domestic supply of critical minerals~~
~~through proposed legislation.89 Multiple departments and agencies estimate the occurrence of and~~
~~environmental impact of extracting deep-sea minerals within the U.S. EEZ. The Global Marine~~
~~Mineral Resources Project, based out of the USGS Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center,~~
~~“provide[s] stakeholders with the best available science regarding potential resources and~~
~~environmental impacts associated with accessing [marine mineral deposits].”90 BOEM also~~
~~considers the environmental impact of marine mineral extraction from the U.S. outer continental~~
~~shelf. BOEM scientists use the results of environmental studies to characterize the effects of~~
~~proposed mineral extraction and design mitigation measure to minimize or avoid adverse~~
~~effects.91 The Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act,92 which became law in 1980, governs~~
~~seabed mining activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction and is implemented by NOAA. The~~
~~Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2021, introduced in the 117th Congress, would call on the~~
~~NOAA Administrator to seek “an agreement with the National Academies to conduct a~~
~~comprehensive assessment of the environmental impacts of deep-sea mining.”93 Congress may be~~
~~interested in interagency coordination of seabed mining research activities by NOAA, USGS, and~~
~~BOEM, among others, to better document the distribution and location of deep-sea natural~~
~~resources of economic value and to understand the potential economic and environmental impacts~~
~~of extraction activities.~~

~~87 Earthworks, Deep Sea Mining Campaign et al., “World’s First Deep Sea Mining Proposal Ignores Consequences of~~
~~Its Impacts on Oceans,” media release, September 2015 at https://earthworks.org/media-releases/~~
~~worlds_first_deep_sea_mining_proposal_ignores_consequences_of_its_impacts_o/#.Vvw4tz_UTaY.~~
~~88 The Metals Company, “A Battery in a Rock. Polymetallic Nodules are the Cleanest Path toward Electric Vehicles,”~~
~~at https://metals.co/nodules/.~~
~~89 For more information, see CRS Report R46618,~~ ~~An Overview of Rare Earth Elements and Related Issues for~~
~~Congress, by Brandon S. Tracy.~~
90 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral- USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-
resources?qt-science_center_objects=0resources?qt-science_center_objects=0~~#qt-science_center_objects.~~
91. 90 OCSLA authorizes the Department of the Interior (DOI) to manage the submerged lands of the OCS (43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356c). DOI delegated the mineral leasing authorities to BOEM. BOEM scientists use the results of environmental studies to characterize the effects of proposed mineral extraction from the OCS and design mitigation measure to minimize or avoid adverse effects. BOEM, “Research and Studies,” at https://www.boem.gov/marine-minerals/research-and-studies. BOEM, “Research and Studies,” at https://www.boem.gov/marine-minerals/research-and-studies.
~~92 P.L. 96-283; 30 U.S.C. §§1401-1473.~~
93 91 In the 117th Congress, H.R. 3764. H.R. 3764.
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Appendix A. Background on Selected Physical
Oceanographic Variables
Ocean Temperature
Ocean temperature varies predictably—colder water occurs at higher latitudes and at greater Ocean temperature varies predictably—colder water occurs at higher latitudes and at greater
depths, as well as in regions where wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, depths, as well as in regions where wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction,
allowing for deep water to move to the surface (allowing for deep water to move to the surface (~~ocean upwelling;~~ see text box entitled “Ocean see text box entitled “Ocean
Upwelling”). Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and temperatures for water depths up to 2,000 Upwelling”). Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and temperatures for water depths up to 2,000
meters are primarily collected by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meters are primarily collected by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Argo Profiling Floats.Argo Profiling Floats.94 92 As Argo floats drift in the ocean and submerge to new pressure levels at As Argo floats drift in the ocean and submerge to new pressure levels at
different water depths, they collect data on the water’s temperature profile different water depths, they collect data on the water’s temperature profile (Figure 1). When Argo . When Argo
floats return to the surface, they transmit temperature data via satellites to scientists for floats return to the surface, they transmit temperature data via satellites to scientists for
processing and analysis. processing and analysis.
Various instruments other than Argo floats also collect and transmit ocean temperature data. Various instruments other than Argo floats also collect and transmit ocean temperature data.
Research vessels can collect ocean temperature and other data using deployable vehicles or Research vessels can collect ocean temperature and other data using deployable vehicles or
devices. For example, unmanned wave gliders are remotely operated vehicles that collect SST devices. For example, unmanned wave gliders are remotely operated vehicles that collect SST
data. Research vessels can also deploy Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors that data. Research vessels can also deploy Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors that
collect water temperatures at various water depths. Wave gliders and CTD sensorscollect water temperatures at various water depths. Wave gliders and CTD sensors~~, however,~~ are are
limited to the path taken by the shiplimited to the path taken by the ship~~; gliders and CTD sensors~~, but can provide detailed data for specific provide detailed data for specific
sites. sites.
The satellites Aqua, Terra, Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP), and NOAA-20 are The satellites Aqua, Terra, Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP), and NOAA-20 are
equipped with instruments that collect near-global SST data from space. Unlike sensors deployed equipped with instruments that collect near-global SST data from space. Unlike sensors deployed
in the ocean, they collect data from the top 1 millimeter of the ocean. in the ocean, they collect data from the top 1 millimeter of the ocean.
Over the 20th century and continuing today, global SSTs have increased as the ocean absorbs Over the 20th century and continuing today, global SSTs have increased as the ocean absorbs
more heat.more heat.9593 Ocean temperature impacts global climate. For example, warm waters increase the Ocean temperature impacts global climate. For example, warm waters increase the
amount of water vapor over the ocean that can influence weather systems (e.g., precipitation amount of water vapor over the ocean that can influence weather systems (e.g., precipitation
patterns, storm events).patterns, storm events).9694 Warming SSTs also have the potential to affect marine ecosystems by Warming SSTs also have the potential to affect marine ecosystems by
altering where species can live and when species migrate and reproduce, and causing loss of life altering where species can live and when species migrate and reproduce, and causing loss of life
for species that cannot migrate to new waters.for species that cannot migrate to new waters.9795 Additionally, ocean temperature influences other Additionally, ocean temperature influences other
ocean variables, such as ice, sea level (because of thermal expansion of ocean water),ocean variables, such as ice, sea level (because of thermal expansion of ocean water),9896
chlorophyll, dissolved oxygen, and pH.chlorophyll, dissolved oxygen, and pH.

9492 Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are considered as depths up to 5 meters below the surface ocean. Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are considered as depths up to 5 meters below the surface ocean. ~~National Oceanic~~
~~and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)~~NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/. , “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.
9593 EPA, “Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate- EPA, “Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-
change-indicators-sea-surface-temperature. change-indicators-sea-surface-temperature.
9694 NASA, “Sea Surface Temperature & Water Vapor,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/global-maps/MYD28M/ NASA, “Sea Surface Temperature & Water Vapor,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/global-maps/MYD28M/
MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV. MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.
9795 “Chapter 5. Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities,” in IPCC, “Chapter 5. Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere. .
9896 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water ~~will cause~~causes sea level rise. sea level rise.
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Ocean Upwelling
There are two types of ocean upwelling. There are two types of ocean upwelling.
 
Coastal upwelling is the most common type of upwelling and generally occurs along the western coast of is the most common type of upwelling and generally occurs along the western coast of
North America in the winter and year-round along the western coasts of South America and Africa. In the North America in the winter and year-round along the western coasts of South America and Africa. In the
winter, strong winds typically blow north to south along the west coast of the United States. Due to Earth’s winter, strong winds typically blow north to south along the west coast of the United States. Due to Earth’s
rotation, these strong winds cause surface waters along the western U.S. coast to be pushed offshore, rotation, these strong winds cause surface waters along the western U.S. coast to be pushed offshore,
allowing for deep, colder ocean waters to replace them. This path of air deflection is called the allowing for deep, colder ocean waters to replace them. This path of air deflection is called the Coriolis Effect. .
Because of the Because of the Coriolis Effect, surface ocean water is also deflected, moving at about 90-degrees to the right of , surface ocean water is also deflected, moving at about 90-degrees to the right of
the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and about 90-degrees to the left of the wind direction in the the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and about 90-degrees to the left of the wind direction in the
Southern Hemisphere. This movement of water is called Southern Hemisphere. This movement of water is called Ekman Transport (or (or Ekman Spiral). ).
 
Equatorial upwelling occurs along the equator. Surface water in the Northern Hemisphere diverges occurs along the equator. Surface water in the Northern Hemisphere diverges
northward along the equator (to the right) and southward in the Southern Hemisphere (to the left) due to northward along the equator (to the right) and southward in the Southern Hemisphere (to the left) due to
the the Coriolis Effect. Where these two surface water masses diverge away from each other along the equator, . Where these two surface water masses diverge away from each other along the equator,
deep, colder waters rise to the surface. Trade winds in the Indian Ocean make equatorial upwelling less deep, colder waters rise to the surface. Trade winds in the Indian Ocean make equatorial upwelling less
prevalent in this ocean basin compared to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. prevalent in this ocean basin compared to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Sources: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Coriolis Effect,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Coriolis Effect,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents1.html; NOAA, “The Ekman Spiral,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents1.html; NOAA, “The Ekman Spiral,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents4.html.https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents4.html.
Ice
Continental ice and sea ice cover vast swaths of the Antarctic and Arctic regions, including Continental ice and sea ice cover vast swaths of the Antarctic and Arctic regions, including
Greenland. Extreme weather, ice-covered terrain, and thick sea ice can pose challenges to Greenland. Extreme weather, ice-covered terrain, and thick sea ice can pose challenges to
research vessel polar scientific expeditions. Satellite and aircraft remote sensing allow for more research vessel polar scientific expeditions. Satellite and aircraft remote sensing allow for more
continuous and broad monitoring of these regions, including aspects such as ice thickness and continuous and broad monitoring of these regions, including aspects such as ice thickness and
areal extent. Sea-ice concentration data are derived from the Advanced Topographic Laser areal extent. Sea-ice concentration data are derived from the Advanced Topographic Laser
Altimeter System on the IceSat-2 and the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager and Special Sensor Altimeter System on the IceSat-2 and the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager and Special Sensor
Microwave Imager/Sounder on Defense Meteorological Satellite Programs satellites.Microwave Imager/Sounder on Defense Meteorological Satellite Programs satellites.9997 The VIIRS The VIIRS
instrument onboard both the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 also collects data used to monitor the instrument onboard both the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 also collects data used to monitor the
amount of ice at the poles. The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational amount of ice at the poles. The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational
pull, which reflect changes in Earth’s distribution of mass (including water and ice).pull, which reflect changes in Earth’s distribution of mass (including water and ice).~~100~~98 As ice As ice
melts and redistributes water across the planet, it alters Earth’s gravitational pullmelts and redistributes water across the planet, it alters Earth’s gravitational pull, allowing allowing
scientists to use the satellite data to measure these water mass and ice mass changes. scientists to use the satellite data to measure these water mass and ice mass changes.
Continental and sea-ice melt add freshwater to the surface ocean. Freshwater is less dense than Continental and sea-ice melt add freshwater to the surface ocean. Freshwater is less dense than
seawater and consequently tends to layer with the underlying seawater, leading to the seawater and consequently tends to layer with the underlying seawater, leading to the
stratification of ocean water in regions with increased ice melt. Cold, salty polar surface waters stratification of ocean water in regions with increased ice melt. Cold, salty polar surface waters
are dense enough to sink to depth in the ocean and fuel global deep-sea circulation. Because cold are dense enough to sink to depth in the ocean and fuel global deep-sea circulation. Because cold
water also holds more dissolved gasses than warm water, polar regions play an important role in water also holds more dissolved gasses than warm water, polar regions play an important role in
absorbing atmospheric CO2 and absorbing atmospheric CO2 and ~~then~~ sinking this carbon into the deep ocean. sinking this carbon into the deep ocean.

9997 Initiated by the Department of Defense in the mid-1960s, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program is composed Initiated by the Department of Defense in the mid-1960s, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program is composed
of low, Earth-orbiting satellites that provide the military with environmental information. These satellites provide of low, Earth-orbiting satellites that provide the military with environmental information. These satellites provide
global coverage twice per day. Meteorologists interpret the data (e.g., cloud type, land and water temperatures, water global coverage twice per day. Meteorologists interpret the data (e.g., cloud type, land and water temperatures, water
currents) for U.S. military operations worldwide. currents) for U.S. military operations worldwide.
~~100~~98 NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, at NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, at
https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satellite-data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satellite-data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/.
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Sea Level
The The global average sea level has been slowly rising because of melting continental ice and thermal expansion of ocean water due to its warming. The surface height (elevation) of the oceansurface height (elevation) of the ocean in any particular area can naturally vary in places due to gravitational pull can naturally vary in places due to gravitational pull
from the moon and sun, Earth’s rotation, atmospheric pressure, and gravitational forces from from the moon and sun, Earth’s rotation, atmospheric pressure, and gravitational forces from
~~continental land mass.101 At the same time, the global average sea level is slowly rising because~~
~~of melting continental ice and thermal expansion of ocean water due to its warming.~~continental land mass.99
Satellite-based radar altimeters measure variations in the surface height of the ocean by sending Satellite-based radar altimeters measure variations in the surface height of the ocean by sending
pulses of microwaves toward the ocean that bounce off its surface and return to the satellite. pulses of microwaves toward the ocean that bounce off its surface and return to the satellite.
Similar to sonar sensor systems, the amount of time it takes for the signal to return to the satellite Similar to sonar sensor systems, the amount of time it takes for the signal to return to the satellite
corresponds to the height of the sea surface. Both Jason-3 and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich are corresponds to the height of the sea surface. Both Jason-3 and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich are
altimetry satellites. The Jason-3 satellite is a shared partnership between NASA, NOAA, France’s altimetry satellites. The Jason-3 satellite is a shared partnership between NASA, NOAA, France’s
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites, and the European Space Agency.Meteorological Satellites, and the European Space Agency.~~102~~100 The Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich The Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich
satellite is a collaborative partnership between the European Space Agency, European satellite is a collaborative partnership between the European Space Agency, European
Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, SpaceX, Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, SpaceX,
NASA, and NOAA.NASA, and NOAA.~~103~~101 The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational pull, The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational pull,
which can provide information about the amount of sea level rise as the distribution of water and which can provide information about the amount of sea level rise as the distribution of water and
ice changes across Earth’s surface.ice changes across Earth’s surface.~~104~~102
Prior to altimetry satellites, tide gauges were used to continuously collect tidal wave heights. This Prior to altimetry satellites, tide gauges were used to continuously collect tidal wave heights. This
recorded the height of the surrounding water relative to a reference point, taking into account land recorded the height of the surrounding water relative to a reference point, taking into account land
elevation changes. Modern gauges use a microprocessor-based technology to collect sea level elevation changes. Modern gauges use a microprocessor-based technology to collect sea level
data every six minutes and are synchronized with Geostationary Operational Environmental data every six minutes and are synchronized with Geostationary Operational Environmental
Satellites.Satellites.~~105~~103
Heating of Earth’s climate system has led to both continental ice melt and thermal expansion of Heating of Earth’s climate system has led to both continental ice melt and thermal expansion of
the ocean, leading to global mean sea level rise.the ocean, leading to global mean sea level rise.~~106~~104 Due to sea level rise, low-lying areas are Due to sea level rise, low-lying areas are
susceptible to more frequent and severe coastal flooding events and sandy coastlines more susceptible to more frequent and severe coastal flooding events and sandy coastlines more
susceptible to coastal erosion. The 2021 IPCC susceptible to coastal erosion. The 2021 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report also projects that with also projects that with
high confidence that extreme sea level events that previously occurred once per century at least high confidence that extreme sea level events that previously occurred once per century at least
annually at more than half of all tide gauge locations by 2100.annually at more than half of all tide gauge locations by 2100.~~107~~105

~~101~~99 NASA, “Sea Level 101: What Determines the Level of the Sea?,” June 3, 2020, at https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa- NASA, “Sea Level 101: What Determines the Level of the Sea?,” June 3, 2020, at https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-
climate/2990/sea-level-101-what-determines-the-level-of-the-sea/. climate/2990/sea-level-101-what-determines-the-level-of-the-sea/.
~~102 NOAA Earth Observatory~~100 NOAA, “Taking a Measure of Sea Level Rise: Ocean Altimetry,” at , “Taking a Measure of Sea Level Rise: Ocean Altimetry,” at
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147435/taking-a-measure-of-sea level-rise-ocean-altimetry. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147435/taking-a-measure-of-sea level-rise-ocean-altimetry.
~~103~~101 Linda Herridge, “Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Satellite in Earth Orbit, Mission Begins to Map Sea Levels,” Linda Herridge, “Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Satellite in Earth Orbit, Mission Begins to Map Sea Levels,” NASA
Blogs, November 21, 2020, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/. , November 21, 2020, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/.
~~104~~102 NASA, “Sea Level,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/science/sea-level/. NASA, “Sea Level,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/science/sea-level/.
~~105~~103 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) track the same position on Earth’s surface as the planet Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) track the same position on Earth’s surface as the planet
rotates, thereby providing constant surveillance over the specified area. These satellites can provide information on rotates, thereby providing constant surveillance over the specified area. These satellites can provide information on
weather conditions (e.g., tornados, floods, hurricanes). NASA, “GOES Satellite Network,” at https://www.nasa.gov/weather conditions (e.g., tornados, floods, hurricanes). NASA, “GOES Satellite Network,” at https://www.nasa.gov/
content/goes; and NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html. For more content/goes; and NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html. For more
information, see CRS Report R44632, information, see CRS Report R44632, Sea-Level Rise and U.S. Coasts: Science and Policy Considerations, by Peter , by Peter
Folger and Nicole T. Carter. Folger and Nicole T. Carter.
~~106~~104 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SPM-14. , p. SPM-14.
107 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis105 Ibid, p. SPM-33. , p. SPM-33.
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Chlorophyll (Ocean Color)
The chlorophyll concentration of the surface ocean provides an estimate for living phytoplankton The chlorophyll concentration of the surface ocean provides an estimate for living phytoplankton
in the near-surface water and is inversely correlated with temperature (i.e., dense populations of in the near-surface water and is inversely correlated with temperature (i.e., dense populations of
phytoplankton occur in cold surface waters where ocean upwelling has occurred).phytoplankton occur in cold surface waters where ocean upwelling has occurred).~~108~~106
Phytoplankton use photosynthetic green pigments (chlorophyll) to convert the solar energy they Phytoplankton use photosynthetic green pigments (chlorophyll) to convert the solar energy they
capture into organic matter. When phytoplankton occur in dense populations, the color of the capture into organic matter. When phytoplankton occur in dense populations, the color of the
ocean appears greenerocean appears greener (Figure A-1). The MODIS instrument on the Aqua and Terra satellites and . The MODIS instrument on the Aqua and Terra satellites and
the VIIRS instrument on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites collect chlorophyll data. the VIIRS instrument on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites collect chlorophyll data.
Chlorophyll concentrations provide information about ocean health and primary productivity in Chlorophyll concentrations provide information about ocean health and primary productivity in
surface waters. Deep, cold waters tend be nutrient-rich; when these waters are exposed to surface waters. Deep, cold waters tend be nutrient-rich; when these waters are exposed to
sunlight, marine phytoplankton absorb solar energy and atmospheric CO2 to form organic matter, sunlight, marine phytoplankton absorb solar energy and atmospheric CO2 to form organic matter,
forming the base of the marine food chain for larger organisms to feed on them. Phytoplankton forming the base of the marine food chain for larger organisms to feed on them. Phytoplankton
are composed of organic (flesh) and inorganic (shell) carbon; thus, when phytoplankton die, the are composed of organic (flesh) and inorganic (shell) carbon; thus, when phytoplankton die, the
inorganic shell of the organism sinks to depth in the ocean, removing carbon from the surface inorganic shell of the organism sinks to depth in the ocean, removing carbon from the surface
waters. This process provides a natural atmospheric CO2 sink. waters. This process provides a natural atmospheric CO2 sink.

~~108 NASA Earth Observations, “Chlorophyll Concentration (1 Month—Aqua/Modis),” at https://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/~~
~~view.php?datasetId=MY1DMM_CHLORA.~~
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Figure A-1. Phytoplankton Bloom off the Washington Coast

Source: ~~NASA~~National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth Observatory, at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84095/phytoplankton-bloom-off- Earth Observatory, at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84095/phytoplankton-bloom-off-
the-pacific-northwest. the-pacific-northwest.
Notes: NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this image of coastal upwelling on July 26, 2014. Upwelling currents and NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this image of coastal upwelling on July 26, 2014. Upwelling currents and
summer weather promoted this large phytoplankton bloom off the Pacific Northwest making the coastal ocean summer weather promoted this large phytoplankton bloom off the Pacific Northwest making the coastal ocean
waters appear green. waters appear green.
~~Seafloor Bathymetry~~
~~Approximately 80% of the global ocean floor is unmapped,109 and less than 10% has been~~
~~mapped in detail using modern sonar technology.110 The primary instrument used for mapping the~~

~~109 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?,” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/~~
~~exploration.html.~~
~~110 NOAA, “Chapter Two: How Much of the Seafloor Is Left to Explore?,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/world-~~
106 NASA, “Chlorophyll Concentration (1 Month—Aqua/Modis),” at https://neo.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=MY1DMM_CHLORA. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Seafloor Bathymetry An estimated 77% of the global ocean remains unmapped.107 The primary instrument used for mapping the seafloor is a multibeam sonar sensor, which attaches directly to a ship’s hull. A multibeam sonar seafloor is a multibeam sonar sensor, which attaches directly to a ship’s hull. A multibeam sonar
sensor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect sensor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect
seafloor information surrounding the ship.seafloor information surrounding the ship.~~111~~108 The amount of time it takes for the sonar sound The amount of time it takes for the sonar sound
wave to return back to the sensor corresponds to the depth of the seafloor. Multibeam sonar wave to return back to the sensor corresponds to the depth of the seafloor. Multibeam sonar
sensors also can collect backscatter measurements, which correspond to the return beam’s sensors also can collect backscatter measurements, which correspond to the return beam’s
intensity. The return signal’s intensity provides information about the seafloor’s composition; for intensity. The return signal’s intensity provides information about the seafloor’s composition; for
example, a mud surface example, a mud surface ~~will absorb~~absorbs most of the sound pulse, returning a weak signal to the most of the sound pulse, returning a weak signal to the
receiver, whereas a rocky surface receiver, whereas a rocky surface ~~will absorb~~absorbs little of the sound pulse, returning a strong signal. little of the sound pulse, returning a strong signal.~~112~~109
A sidescan sonar also provides information on the composition of the seafloor sediment. This A sidescan sonar also provides information on the composition of the seafloor sediment. This
equipment, which is towed off equipment, which is towed off of vessels on long cables, sends and receives sound signals across vessels on long cables, sends and receives sound signals across
the seafloor, recording the return signal’s intensity. the seafloor, recording the return signal’s intensity.
Satellite-based remote sensing technology can also be used for shallow seafloor mapping, Satellite-based remote sensing technology can also be used for shallow seafloor mapping,
especially in areas inaccessible to research vessels. The Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellites provide especially in areas inaccessible to research vessels. The Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellites provide
near-shore bathymetric data, but the satellite primarily collects land-based observations for a near-shore bathymetric data, but the satellite primarily collects land-based observations for a
variety of governmental and nongovernmental applications.variety of governmental and nongovernmental applications.~~113~~110 The ICESat-2 satellite is equipped The ICESat-2 satellite is equipped
with lidar technology that can be used to map coastal waters.with lidar technology that can be used to map coastal waters.~~114~~111
Knowledge of seafloor bathymetry serves several navigation, economic ( Knowledge of seafloor bathymetry serves several navigation, economic (~~natural resource~~marine resources), and ), and
ocean science purposes. Nautical charts are based on bathymetric data. Characteristics of the ocean science purposes. Nautical charts are based on bathymetric data. Characteristics of the
seafloor partially derived from bathymetric data can help identify and locate natural resources of seafloor partially derived from bathymetric data can help identify and locate natural resources of
economic value (e.g., sand and gravel, critical minerals, oil and gas reserves). In addition, economic value (e.g., sand and gravel, critical minerals, oil and gas reserves). In addition,
seafloor characteristics can help study changing coastlines (e.g., erosion, land sinking), geologic seafloor characteristics can help study changing coastlines (e.g., erosion, land sinking), geologic
hazards (e.g., hazards (e.g., ~~earthquake~~active faults), and the habitats of benthic organisms (i.e., organisms living on faults), and the habitats of benthic organisms (i.e., organisms living on
or in seafloor sediments). or in seafloor sediments).

~~oceans-day-2015/how-much-of-the-seafloor-is-left-to-explore.html.~~
~~111~~107 The Nippon Foundation-GEBCO Seabed 2030 Project, “Mapping Progress,” at https://seabed2030.org/mapping-progress. 108 A single-beam sonar uses only one sonar beam aimed directly beneath the ship to collect bathymetric data. A single-beam sonar uses only one sonar beam aimed directly beneath the ship to collect bathymetric data.
~~112~~109 NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/ NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/
seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html. seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html.
~~113 U.S. Geological Survey~~110 USGS, “Satellite-Derived Bathymetry,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/coastal-national-, “Satellite-Derived Bathymetry,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/coastal-national-
elevation-database-%28coned%29-applications-project/science/satelliteelevation-database-%28coned%29-applications-project/science/satellite~~#overview~~; NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission ; NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission
Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. For more information, see CRS Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. For more information, see CRS
Report R46560, Report R46560, Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, by Anna E. Normand. , by Anna E. Normand.
~~114~~111 NASA, “Sounding the Seafloor with Light,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148246/sounding-the- NASA, “Sounding the Seafloor with Light,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148246/sounding-the-
seafloor-with-light. seafloor-with-light.
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Appendix B. Background on Selected
Biogeochemical Oceanographic Variables
Salinity
Salinity (saltiness) is a measure of the dissolved salt ions in seawater. The two most common ions Salinity (saltiness) is a measure of the dissolved salt ions in seawater. The two most common ions
in seawater are chloride and sodium. They make up over 90% of all dissolved ions in seawater. in seawater are chloride and sodium. They make up over 90% of all dissolved ions in seawater.
Dissolved ions can be washed from land into the ocean via rivers or can be mixed into seawater Dissolved ions can be washed from land into the ocean via rivers or can be mixed into seawater
by submarine hydrothermal vents or undersea volcanoes.by submarine hydrothermal vents or undersea volcanoes.~~115~~112 Salinity can be measured using Argo Salinity can be measured using Argo
floatsfloats,; unmanned wave gliders unmanned wave gliders,; Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors,; and water and water
quality gauges. quality gauges.
Salinity and sea surface temperature determine the density of surface ocean water. Density Salinity and sea surface temperature determine the density of surface ocean water. Density
differences between water masses (e.g., surface water versus deep-sea water) drive ocean differences between water masses (e.g., surface water versus deep-sea water) drive ocean
circulation, which is the primary mechanism for transporting heat across and within the global circulation, which is the primary mechanism for transporting heat across and within the global
ocean. Scientists use the salinity of ocean water to trace ocean circulation patterns and to monitor ocean. Scientists use the salinity of ocean water to trace ocean circulation patterns and to monitor
freshwater input from land or melting ice. Both increased precipitation over land and continental freshwater input from land or melting ice. Both increased precipitation over land and continental
and sea-ice melt are freshening near-surface ocean waters,and sea-ice melt are freshening near-surface ocean waters,~~116~~113 which may contribute to weaker which may contribute to weaker
ocean circulation. ocean circulation.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is present in water.Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is present in water.~~117~~114 The amount of dissolved The amount of dissolved
oxygen is affected by seawater temperature, patterns of ocean circulation, ocean mixing (driven oxygen is affected by seawater temperature, patterns of ocean circulation, ocean mixing (driven
by wind energy and ocean stratification), aerobic biological activity (i.e., respiration), and by wind energy and ocean stratification), aerobic biological activity (i.e., respiration), and
distance from oxygen source (e.g., depth from the interface between the surface water and the distance from oxygen source (e.g., depth from the interface between the surface water and the
atmospheric). Continental runoff with increased nutrient loads (e.g., fertilizer) or pollution (e.g., atmospheric). Continental runoff with increased nutrient loads (e.g., fertilizer) or pollution (e.g.,
wastewater) can lead to excessive richness of nutrients in the water. This may stimulate marine wastewater) can lead to excessive richness of nutrients in the water. This may stimulate marine
algal blooms that lower the amount of dissolved oxygen.algal blooms that lower the amount of dissolved oxygen.~~118~~115 Dissolved oxygen concentrations can Dissolved oxygen concentrations can
be measured using Argo floats, unmanned wave gliders, and water quality gauges. be measured using Argo floats, unmanned wave gliders, and water quality gauges.
Because warm water holds less dissolved gas compared to cold water, the ocean is holding less Because warm water holds less dissolved gas compared to cold water, the ocean is holding less
dissolved oxygen as a result of global ocean warming.dissolved oxygen as a result of global ocean warming.~~119~~116 Many marine species have undergone Many marine species have undergone
shifts in geographic range and seasonal changes in response to oxygen loss, in addition to other shifts in geographic range and seasonal changes in response to oxygen loss, in addition to other
oceanographic changes, which may affect the aquaculture sector.oceanographic changes, which may affect the aquaculture sector.~~120~~117

~~115 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)~~112 USGS, “Why Is the Ocean Salty?” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-, “Why Is the Ocean Salty?” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
school/science/why-ocean-salty?qt-science_center_objects=0school/science/why-ocean-salty?qt-science_center_objects=0~~#qt-science_center_objects.~~
~~116~~. 113 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SPM-6. , p. SPM-6.
~~117 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)~~114 EPA, “Indicators: Dissolved Oxygen,” at https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-, “Indicators: Dissolved Oxygen,” at https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-
resource-surveys/indicators-resource-surveys/indicators-dissolved-oxygen. 115~~dissolved-oxygen#:~:text=~~
~~Dissolved%20oxygen%20(DO)%20is%20the,of%20a%20pond%20or%20lake.~~
~~118~~ For more information on harmful algal blooms, see CRS Report R46921, For more information on harmful algal blooms, see CRS Report R46921, Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs):
Background, Statutory Authorities, and Issues for Congress, by Eva Lipiec. , by Eva Lipiec.
~~119~~116 T.L. Frölicher et al., “Contrasting Upper and Deep Ocean Oxygen Responses to Protracted Global Warming,” T.L. Frölicher et al., “Contrasting Upper and Deep Ocean Oxygen Responses to Protracted Global Warming,”
Global Biogeochemical Cycles, vol. 34 (August 2020), p. 1. , vol. 34 (August 2020), p. 1.
~~120~~117 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere, p. SPM-12. , p. SPM-12.
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pH
The ocean’s surface is in chemical equilibrium with Earth’s atmosphere—as atmospheric CO2 The ocean’s surface is in chemical equilibrium with Earth’s atmosphere—as atmospheric CO2
concentrations increase, surface ocean water absorbs more CO2. When atmospheric CO2 dissolves concentrations increase, surface ocean water absorbs more CO2. When atmospheric CO2 dissolves
into the ocean, it forms carbonic acidinto the ocean, it forms carbonic acid ~~(H2CO3)~~. Some of the carbonic acid dissociates in ocean . Some of the carbonic acid dissociates in ocean
waters, producing hydrogen ionswaters, producing hydrogen ions ~~(H+)~~. As the number of hydrogen ions increases, the pH of . As the number of hydrogen ions increases, the pH of
seawater decreases and the seawater becomes more acidic, a process known as seawater decreases and the seawater becomes more acidic, a process known as ocean
acidification..~~121~~118 The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program uses two types of floating devices— The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program uses two types of floating devices—
moored (stationary) buoys and wave gliders—that measure the concentration of dissolved CO2 moored (stationary) buoys and wave gliders—that measure the concentration of dissolved CO2
every three hours.every three hours.~~122~~ 119 Scientists use the data collected by these devices to study the rate of carbon Scientists use the data collected by these devices to study the rate of carbon
uptake by the ocean. uptake by the ocean.
More acidic waters can physiologically stress some marine invertebrate organisms (e.g., clams, More acidic waters can physiologically stress some marine invertebrate organisms (e.g., clams,
snails, crabs) that use carbonate ions to create their shells, which result in a less robust carbonate snails, crabs) that use carbonate ions to create their shells, which result in a less robust carbonate
shell and might make the organisms more susceptible to predation and death.shell and might make the organisms more susceptible to predation and death.~~123~~120

Author Information

Caitlin Keating-Bitonti Caitlin Keating-Bitonti

Analyst in Natural Resources Policy Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
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copy or otherwise use copyrighted material. copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

~~121~~118 For more information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, For more information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, Ocean Acidification: Frequently Asked
Questions, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. , by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec.
~~122 NOAA, Ocean Acidification Program,~~ 119 NOAA, “Monitoring,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/“Monitoring,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/
Monitoring.aspxMonitoring.aspx. 120
~~123~~ Smithsonian, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification. Smithsonian, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification.
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