Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations

Changes from December 2, 2022 to June 23, 2023

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Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations
~~December 2, 2022~~June 23, 2023
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a key U.S. partner in the Middle East, and the two The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a key U.S. partner in the Middle East, and the two
countries have cooperated on a number of regional and international issues. Jordan remains at countries have cooperated on a number of regional and international issues. Jordan remains at
Jeremy M. Sharp
peace with Israel and is a primary interlocutor with the Palestinians. Ongoing instability in peace with Israel and is a primary interlocutor with the Palestinians. Ongoing instability in
Specialist in Middle Specialist in Middle
neighboring Syria and Iraq magnifies Jordan’s strategic importance to the United States. Jordan neighboring Syria and Iraq magnifies Jordan’s strategic importance to the United States. Jordan
Eastern Affairs Eastern Affairs
also is a longtime U.S. partner in global counterterrorism operations. U.S.-Jordanian military, also is a longtime U.S. partner in global counterterrorism operations. U.S.-Jordanian military,

intelligence, and diplomatic cooperation seeks to empower political moderates, reduce sectarian intelligence, and diplomatic cooperation seeks to empower political moderates, reduce sectarian
conflict, and eliminate terrorist threats in the region. U.S. officials frequently express their conflict, and eliminate terrorist threats in the region. U.S. officials frequently express their

support for Jordan. U.S. assistance has helped Jordan address serious vulnerabilities, both support for Jordan. U.S. assistance has helped Jordan address serious vulnerabilities, both
internal and external. Jordan’s small size, refugee burden, and lack of major economic resources have made it dependent on internal and external. Jordan’s small size, refugee burden, and lack of major economic resources have made it dependent on
aid from Western and various Arab sources. The Biden Administration has acknowledged Jordan’s role as a central U.S. aid from Western and various Arab sources. The Biden Administration has acknowledged Jordan’s role as a central U.S.
partner in promoting Israeli-Palestinian peace, as many U.S. policymakers advocate for continued robust U.S. assistance to partner in promoting Israeli-Palestinian peace, as many U.S. policymakers advocate for continued robust U.S. assistance to
the kingdom. Jordan also hosts nearly 3,000 U.S. troops. the kingdom. Jordan also hosts nearly 3,000 U.S. troops.
Annual U.S. aid to Jordan has tripled in historical terms over the last 15 years. The United States has provided economic and Annual U.S. aid to Jordan has tripled in historical terms over the last 15 years. The United States has provided economic and
military aid to Jordan since 1951 and 1957, respectively. Total bilateral U.S. aid (overseen by the Departments of State and military aid to Jordan since 1951 and 1957, respectively. Total bilateral U.S. aid (overseen by the Departments of State and
Defense) to Jordan through FY2020 amounted to approximately $26.4 billion. The President’s Defense) to Jordan through FY2020 amounted to approximately $26.4 billion. The President’s ~~FY2023~~FY2024 budget request budget request
includes $1.45 billion for Jordan. On September 16, 2022, the United States and Jordan signed their fourth Memorandum of includes $1.45 billion for Jordan. On September 16, 2022, the United States and Jordan signed their fourth Memorandum of
Understanding Understanding ~~(MOU)~~ governing U.S. foreign aid to Jordan. The seven-year agreement (FY2023-FY2029), subject to governing U.S. foreign aid to Jordan. The seven-year agreement (FY2023-FY2029), subject to
appropriations of Congress, commits the Administration to seeking a total of $1.45 billion in annual economic and military appropriations of Congress, commits the Administration to seeking a total of $1.45 billion in annual economic and military
aid for Jordan. aid for Jordan.
~~In the 117th Congress, P.L. 117-103~~P.L. 117-328, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, , the Consolidated Appropriations Act, ~~2022, provided~~2023, provides $1.65 billion in total bilateral $1.65 billion in total bilateral
foreign assistance to Jordan. This foreign assistance to Jordan. This ~~included~~includes over $1.2 billion in Economic Support Funds over $1.2 billion in Economic Support Funds ~~(ESF)~~, of which $845 million was , of which $845 million was
specified as a direct cash transfer to the Jordanian government. The act also specified as a direct cash transfer to the Jordanian government. The act also ~~provided~~provides $425 million in Foreign Military $425 million in Foreign Military
~~Financing (FMF)~~Financing. In the Joint Explanatory Statement accompanying P.L. 117-. In the Joint Explanatory Statement accompanying P.L. 117-~~103~~328, appropriators , appropriators ~~noted~~stated that the act “supports the Government of Jordan in making sustainable economic reforms, including in the water and public sectors, consistent with the terms of the new Memorandum of Understanding between the United States and the Government of Jordan ~~that the act “supports~~
~~critical economic assistance needed this fiscal year to help ensure Jordan’s ongoing stability, including to strengthen Jordan’s~~
~~borders and to help mitigate the impact of hosting millions of refugees.” They also directed the Secretary of State to~~
~~“continue to support the Government of Jordan’s efforts to implement economic and democratic reforms” and to “consult~~
~~with the Committees on Appropriations on prospective policy proposals aimed at assisting Jordan achieve additional and~~
~~long-lasting reforms, including in its water and public sectors~~.” .”
Beyond assistance from the State and Foreign Operations appropriations accounts, P.L. 117- Beyond assistance from the State and Foreign Operations appropriations accounts, P.L. 117-~~103~~328 also also ~~provided~~provides Jordan with Jordan with
security assistance from Defense Department appropriations accounts. The act specified that Jordan receive “not less than” security assistance from Defense Department appropriations accounts. The act specified that Jordan receive “not less than”
$150 million from the Defense Department’s Operation and Maintenance, Defense-Wide account for the Defense Security $150 million from the Defense Department’s Operation and Maintenance, Defense-Wide account for the Defense Security
Cooperation Agency to reimburse Jordan for border security. Starting in FY2016 (Section 1226 of P.L. 114-92), successive Cooperation Agency to reimburse Jordan for border security. Starting in FY2016 (Section 1226 of P.L. 114-92), successive
National Defense Authorization Acts National Defense Authorization Acts ~~(NDAAs)~~ have authorized the Secretary of Defense, with the concurrence of the have authorized the Secretary of Defense, with the concurrence of the
Secretary of State, to provide support, on a reimbursement basis, to Jordan (among other countries) for the purpose of Secretary of State, to provide support, on a reimbursement basis, to Jordan (among other countries) for the purpose of
supporting and enhancing its military’s efforts to increase security along the border with Iraq and Syria. P.L. 117-supporting and enhancing its military’s efforts to increase security along the border with Iraq and Syria. P.L. 117-~~103~~328 also also
included “up to” $500 million in Defense Department assistance to support “the armed forces of Jordan and to enhance included “up to” $500 million in Defense Department assistance to support “the armed forces of Jordan and to enhance
security along its security along its borders.” The act also included authority for loan guarantees for Jordan. ~~borders.” The act also included authority for loan guarantees for Jordan.~~
~~For FY2023, H.R. 8282, the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2023~~
~~would provide Jordan “not less than” $1.65 billion in total aid, of which “not less than” $1.035 billion is for ESF, “including~~
~~for budget support, incentive funds, and programs administered by USAID” that are “consistent with the applicable bilateral~~
~~agreement between the Government of the United States and the Government of Jordan for fiscal year 2023.” The bill also~~
~~would provide an additional $200 million in ESF made available “pursuant to the commitments made under such bilateral~~
~~agreement.” The bill also would commit “not less than” $400 million in FMF. S. 4662, the Department of State, Foreign~~
~~Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, 2023 would provide Jordan $1.457 billion in total aid. The bill would~~
~~set aside $75 million in appropriated ESF and make it available through FY2026 for “assistance if negotiated benchmarks~~
~~towards reforms are met.” In report language accompanying the Senate-introduced bill, appropriators expressed concern with~~
~~“corruption and abuses within Jordan’s judicial system, including arbitrary and incommunicado detention, mistreatment of~~
~~detainees by law enforcement personnel, and irregularities by prosecutorial authorities, and urges the Government of Jordan~~
~~to prioritize law enforcement and judicial reforms.”~~
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Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations

Overview
As of As of ~~November 2022~~June 2023, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (hereinafter referred to as “Jordan”) , the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (hereinafter referred to as “Jordan”)
remains a stable and, according to U.S. policymakers, vital U.S. security partner in the Middle remains a stable and, according to U.S. policymakers, vital U.S. security partner in the Middle
East. Successive presidential administrations have considered Jordan to be, along with Israel, one East. Successive presidential administrations have considered Jordan to be, along with Israel, one
of the most reliable U.S. security partners in the Middle East. of the most reliable U.S. security partners in the Middle East. ~~During President Biden’s July 2022~~
~~meeting with King Abdullah II bin Al Hussein (hereinafter King Abdullah II) of Jordan in Saudi~~
~~Arabia, the President “reaffirmed the United States’ unwavering support to Jordan as a key ally~~
~~and a force for peace in the region, and for King Abdullah II’s leadership.”1~~
Jordan considers the United States to be one of its most important international supporters, Jordan considers the United States to be one of its most important international supporters,
though it also relies heavily on members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)though it also relies heavily on members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)21 for political for political
~~and financial backing. In 2017, Saudi Arabia provided $3 billion in capital to establish the Saudi~~
~~Jordanian Investment Fund, which has committed to building a $400 million university hospital~~
~~in Amman~~and financial backing. During periods of political unrest and fiscal restraint, the GCC states have offered multi-year grants and loan packages to the kingdom. In 2011 amidst region-wide unrest, the GCC pledged $5 billion in aid to Jordan over five years; in 2018 amidst a nation-wide teacher’s strike, Gulf benefactors pledged another $2.5 billion. In addition to investment by GCC states in Jordan, the oil-rich Gulf monarchies are a . In addition to investment by GCC states in Jordan, the oil-rich Gulf monarchies are a
destination for Jordanian expatriate labor. According to destination for Jordanian expatriate labor. According to The Economist, an estimated 800,000
~~Jordanians work in the Arab Gulf states and remit to Jordan approximately $2.4 billion annually.3~~official government statistics, 786,000 Jordanian expatriates remitted $3.45 billion in 2022; a third of these workers live in Saudi Arabia, followed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the United States, Kuwait, and Qatar.2
Despite its powerful friends, Jordan faces a number of ongoing challenges—some systemic and Despite its powerful friends, Jordan faces a number of ongoing challenges—some systemic and
long-standing, and others more recent. From a security standpoint, Jordan is a U.S. partner in the long-standing, and others more recent. From a security standpoint, Jordan is a U.S. partner in the
global fight against international terrorism, serving as a coalition member in Combined Joint Task global fight against international terrorism, serving as a coalition member in Combined Joint Task
ForceForce - –Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF-OIR). Ongoing Israeli-Palestinian tensions also are a Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF-OIR). Ongoing Israeli-Palestinian tensions also are a
major concern, particularly as they relate to Jerusalem and its holy sites. Jordan is an ardent major concern, particularly as they relate to Jerusalem and its holy sites. Jordan is an ardent
advocate for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jordanian monarchs trace their advocate for a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Jordanian monarchs trace their
lineage to the Prophet Muhammad, and King Abdullah II’s role as guardian of the Islamic holy lineage to the Prophet Muhammad, and King Abdullah II’s role as guardian of the Islamic holy
sites in Jerusalem is critical to his domestic legitimacy. A large portion of Jordan’s population—sites in Jerusalem is critical to his domestic legitimacy. A large portion of Jordan’s population—
perhaps a majority—identify as Palestinians, so Israeli-Palestinian issues have major implications perhaps a majority—identify as Palestinians, so Israeli-Palestinian issues have major implications
for domestic political sentiment within the kingdom. The decade-old Syrian civil war also for domestic political sentiment within the kingdom. The decade-old Syrian civil war also
threatens Jordanian security, particularly as criminal elements within the Asad regime have turned threatens Jordanian security, particularly as criminal elements within the Asad regime have turned
to synthetic drug smuggling across the Jordanian-Syrian border (to synthetic drug smuggling across the Jordanian-Syrian border (see below). ).
~~Economically, Jordan~~Demographically and economically, 60% of Jordan’s population is below the age of 30, and the kingdom is beset by chronically high youth unemployment is beset by chronically high youth unemployment (possibly as high as 40%). With the private sector . With the private sector
unable to provide enough attractive jobs to young workers, the government has had to absorb unable to provide enough attractive jobs to young workers, the government has had to absorb
those workers who do not emigrate to Gulf states or elsewhere (unemployment overall is 22.those workers who do not emigrate to Gulf states or elsewhere (unemployment overall is 22.69%). %).
The national budget runs perennial deficits in part due to an oversized public workforce and The national budget runs perennial deficits in part due to an oversized public workforce and
subsidization program. Nonetheless, subsidization program. Nonetheless, ~~in November 2022,~~ the International Monetary Fund (IMF) the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
~~concluded that Jordan’s “sound fiscal and monetary policies” have helped it maintain~~
~~macroeconomic stability despite turbulent global economic conditions.4 From~~has been working with Jordan to reduce deficit spending; from 2020 to 2024, the 2020 to 2024, the
IMF intends to disburse $2.46 billion in loans contingent upon certain economic reforms, such as IMF intends to disburse $2.46 billion in loans contingent upon certain economic reforms, such as
raising government revenue by reducing tax evasion and closing tax loopholes. raising government revenue by reducing tax evasion and closing tax loopholes.
To date, King Abdullah II has been able to manage these various domestic and regional To date, King Abdullah II has been able to manage these various domestic and regional
challenges, though not without dissent from within the royal family. The kingchallenges, though not without dissent from within the royal family. The king'’s half-brother Hamzah voiced rare public criticism of the monarch and has been under indefinite house arrest since spring 2022. 1 GCC members are~~s half-brother~~

~~1 White House, Joint Statement Following Meeting of President Joseph R. Biden and His Majesty King Abdullah II of~~
~~Jordan in Jeddah, July 16, 2022.~~
~~2 GCC members are:~~ Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates.
~~3 “Unstable neighbours and bad policy are just two of Jordan’s problems,” The Economist, April 28, 2018.~~
~~4 International Monetary Fund, IMF Staff Reach Staff-Level Agreement with Jordan on the Fifth Review Under the~~
~~Extended Fund Facility, November 15, 2022.~~
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~~Hamzah voiced rare public criticism of the monarch and has been under indefinite house arrest~~
~~since spring 2022. In April 2022, Hamzah renounced his title as prince. In May 2022 remarks,~~
~~King Abdullah II said that “We will provide Hamzah with all that he requires to live a~~
~~comfortable life, but he will not have the space he once abused to offend the nation, its~~
~~institutions, and his family, nor to undermine Jordan’s stability.”5~~2 “Jordanian expats send home $3.4bln in 2022,” Jordan News Agency (Petra), February 1, 2023. Congressional Research Service 1 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations
Figure 1. Jordan at a Glance

Area: 89,342 sq. km. (34,495 sq. mi., slightly smaller than Indiana). 89,342 sq. km. (34,495 sq. mi., slightly smaller than Indiana).
Population: 10,998,531 (2022); 10,998,531 (2022); Amman (capital): 2.2 ~~million~~mil ion (2022). .
Country of Origin: Jordanian 69.3%, Syrian 13.3%, Palestinian 6.7%, Egyptian 6.7%, Iraqi 1.4%, other 2.6% (includes
Armenian, Circassian) (2015 est.). note: data represent population by self-identified nationality
Religion: Sunni Muslim 97.2% Sunni Muslim 97.2%;, Christian 2.2% Christian 2.2%;, Buddhist 0.4% Buddhist 0.4%;, Hindu 0.1%. Hindu 0.1%.
Percent of Population Under Age 25: 52% (2022). 52% (2022).
Youth Unemployment (ages 15-24): 37.3.% (2019). 37.3.% (2019).
Source: Graphic created by CRS using figures from CIA Graphic created by CRS using figures from CIA World Factbook. .
Country Background
Jordan, created by colonial powers after World War I, initially consisted of desert or semidesert Jordan, created by colonial powers after World War I, initially consisted of desert or semidesert
territory east of the Jordan River, inhabited largely by people of Bedouin tribal background, the territory east of the Jordan River, inhabited largely by people of Bedouin tribal background, the
original “East Bank” Jordanians.original “East Bank” Jordanians.63 The establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 brought large The establishment of the state of Israel in 1948 brought large
numbers of Palestinian refugees to Jordan, which subsequently unilaterally annexed a Palestinian numbers of Palestinian refugees to Jordan, which subsequently unilaterally annexed a Palestinian
enclave west of the Jordan River known as the West Bank—later captured by Israel in the 1967 enclave west of the Jordan River known as the West Bank—later captured by Israel in the 1967

~~5 “Jordan king places half brother Prince Hamzah under house arrest,” Al Jazeera, May 19, 2022.~~
6Arab-Israeli War.4 The “East Bank” Jordanians, though probably no longer a majority in Jordan, remain predominant in the country’s political and military establishments and form the bedrock of support for the Jordanian monarchy. Jordanians of Palestinian origin make up an estimated 55% 3 For historical background, see Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Profile: Jordan For historical background, see Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Country Profile: Jordan, September 2006. 4 Though there was little international recognition of Jordan’s 1950 annexation of the West Bank, Jordan maintained control of it (including East Jerusalem) until Israel took military control of it during the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War, and maintained its claim to it until relinquishing the claim to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1988. In an address to the nation, the late King Hussein stated on July 31, 1988, that “We respect the wish of the PLO, the sole and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people, to secede from us as an independent Palestinian state.” See http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/88_july31.html. Congressional Research Service 2 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations ~~, September~~
~~2006.~~
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~~Arab-Israeli War.7 The “East Bank” Jordanians, though probably no longer a majority in Jordan,~~
~~remain predominant in the country’s political and military establishments and form the bedrock~~
~~of support for the Jordanian monarchy. Jordanians of Palestinian origin make up an estimated~~
~~55%~~ to 70% of the population. They tend to gravitate toward employment in the private sector, to 70% of the population. They tend to gravitate toward employment in the private sector,
most likely due to their alleged general exclusion from certain public-sector and military most likely due to their alleged general exclusion from certain public-sector and military
positions.positions.85
The Hashemite Royal Family
Jordan is a hereditary constitutional monarchy Jordan is a hereditary constitutional monarchy
under the prestigious Hashemite family, under the prestigious Hashemite family,
Figure 2. King Abdullah II bin Al Hussein
which claims descent from the Prophet which claims descent from the Prophet
Muhammad. King Abdullah II (age Muhammad. King Abdullah II (age 6061) has ) has
ruled the country since 1999, when he ruled the country since 1999, when he
succeeded to the throne upon the death of his succeeded to the throne upon the death of his
father, the late King Hussein, who had ruled father, the late King Hussein, who had ruled
for 47 years. Educated largely in Britain and for 47 years. Educated largely in Britain and
the United States, King Abdullah II had the United States, King Abdullah II had
earlier pursued a military career, ultimately earlier pursued a military career, ultimately
serving as commander of Jordan’s Special serving as commander of Jordan’s Special
Operations Forces with the rank of major Operations Forces with the rank of major
general.general. The king’s son, Prince Hussein bin Abdullah Source: Alexandros Michailidis / Shutterstock.com. (born in 1994), is the designated crown prince.6 On June 1, 2023, Crown Prince Hussein married Rajwa al Saif, an architect, Saudi citizen, and second cousin to Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman. Their marriage engendered speculation as to whether this union would foster closer Jordanian-Saudi ties.7 As previously mentioned, Jordan is dependent on Saudi Arabia and other Gulf monarchies for direct aid, soft loans, and work permits for Jordanian citizens seeking opportunities abroad. The occasion was celebrated nationwide with weeklong activities and a holiday for workers, marking the first politically significant royal nuptial since King Abdullah II and Queen Rania’s wedding nearly thirty years ago. Along with other foreign dignitaries, U.S. First Lady Jill Biden attended the wedding in person, and she and President Biden offered their congratulations over social media.8 Crown Prince Hussein’s wedding also was significant for domestic political reasons. As previously mentioned, the King’s half-brother Hamzah has been under house arrest. According to one report, he remains popular amongst tribal families and, “Since the palace crisis [Hamzah’s arrest], the monarchy has ramped up efforts to burnish Hussein’s public image and cement his role as the rightful heir.”9 5~~The king’s son, Prince Hussein bin~~

~~Abdullah (born in 1994), is the designated~~
~~crown prince.9~~
Source: Alexandros Michailidis / Shutterstock.com.
~~Political System and Key Institutions~~
~~The Jordanian constitution, most recently amended in 2022, gives the king broad executive~~
~~powers.10 The king appoints the prime minister and may dismiss him or accept his resignation. He~~
~~also has the sole power to appoint the crown prince, senior military leaders, justices of the~~
~~constitutional court, and all members of the senate, as well as cabinet ministers. The constitution~~
~~enables the king to dissolve both houses of parliament and postpone lower house elections for~~
~~two years.11 The king can circumvent parliament through a constitutional mechanism that allows~~

~~7 Though there was little international recognition of Jordan’s 1950 annexation of the West Bank, Jordan maintained~~
~~control of it (including East Jerusalem) until Israel took military control of it during the June 1967 Arab-Israeli War,~~
~~and maintained its claim to it until relinquishing the claim to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1988. In~~
~~an address to the nation, the late King Hussein stated on July 31, 1988 that “We respect the wish of the PLO, the sole~~
~~and legitimate representative of the Palestinian people, to secede from us as an independent Palestinian state.” See,~~
~~http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/88_july31.html.~~
8 Speculation over the ratio of East Bankers to Palestinians (those who arrived as refugees and immigrants since 1948 Speculation over the ratio of East Bankers to Palestinians (those who arrived as refugees and immigrants since 1948
and their descendants) in Jordanian society is a sensitive domestic issue. Jordan last conducted a national census in and their descendants) in Jordanian society is a sensitive domestic issue. Jordan last conducted a national census in
2015, and it is unclear whether or not the government maintains such national-origin statistics. Over time, intermarriage 2015, and it is unclear whether or not the government maintains such national-origin statistics. Over time, intermarriage
has made it more difficult to discern distinct differences between the two communities, though divisions do persist. has made it more difficult to discern distinct differences between the two communities, though divisions do persist.
96 In July 2009, King Abdullah II named Prince Hussein (then 15 years old) as crown prince. The position had been In July 2009, King Abdullah II named Prince Hussein (then 15 years old) as crown prince. The position had been
vacant since 2004, when King Abdullah II removed the title from his half-brother, Prince Hamzah. Crown Prince Al vacant since 2004, when King Abdullah II removed the title from his half-brother, Prince Hamzah. Crown Prince Al
Hussein bin Abdullah II, now Hussein bin Abdullah II, now 2829, is a graduate of Georgetown University and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst , is a graduate of Georgetown University and the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst
(UK). He holds the rank of second lieutenant in the (UK). He holds the rank of second lieutenant in the ~~Jordan Armed Forces.~~
~~10 In the last decade, Jordan’s constitution has been amended three times (2011, 2016, and 2022).~~
~~11 The king also may declare martial law. According to Article 125, “In the event of an emergency of such a serious~~
~~nature that action under the preceding Article of the present Constitution will be considered insufficient for the defense~~
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Jordanian Armed Forces. 7 “A wishful wedding: Can Jordan fall in love with Saudi Arabia?” The Economist, May 25, 2023. 8 Jill Biden (FLOTUS), Twitter post, June 1, 2023, 1:24 p.m., available at https://twitter.com/FLOTUS/status/1664321991434813461. 9 Isabel Debre, “Young crown prince is meant to embody Jordan’s future, but his generation faces bleak prospects,” Associated Press, June 20, 2023. Congressional Research Service 3 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Political System and Key Institutions The Jordanian constitution, most recently amended in 2022, gives the king broad executive powers.10 The king appoints the prime minister and may dismiss him or accept his resignation. He also has the sole power to appoint the crown prince, senior military leaders, justices of the constitutional court, and all members of the senate, as well as cabinet ministers. The constitution enables the king to dissolve both houses of parliament and postpone lower house elections for two years.11 The king can circumvent parliament through a constitutional mechanism that allows the cabinet to issue provisional legislation when parliament is not sitting or has been dissolved.12 the cabinet to issue provisional legislation when parliament is not sitting or has been dissolved.12
The king also must approve laws before they can take effect, although a two-thirds majority of The king also must approve laws before they can take effect, although a two-thirds majority of
both houses of parliament can modify legislation. The king also can issue royal decrees, which both houses of parliament can modify legislation. The king also can issue royal decrees, which
are not subject to parliamentary scrutiny. The king commands the armed forces, declares war, and are not subject to parliamentary scrutiny. The king commands the armed forces, declares war, and
ratifies treaties. Finally, Article 195 of the Jordanian Penal Code prohibits insulting the dignity of ratifies treaties. Finally, Article 195 of the Jordanian Penal Code prohibits insulting the dignity of
the king (lèse-majesté), with criminal penalties of one to three years in prison. Article 38 of the the king (lèse-majesté), with criminal penalties of one to three years in prison. Article 38 of the
constitution grants the king the power to issue pardons. constitution grants the king the power to issue pardons.
Successive Jordanian parliaments have mostly complied with the policies laid out by the Royal Successive Jordanian parliaments have mostly complied with the policies laid out by the Royal
Court. The legislative branch’s independence has been curtailed not only by a legal system that Court. The legislative branch’s independence has been curtailed not only by a legal system that
rests authority largely in the hands of the monarch, but also by electoral laws designed to produce rests authority largely in the hands of the monarch, but also by electoral laws designed to produce
pro-palace majorities with each new election.13 Due to frequent gerrymandering, in which pro-palace majorities with each new election.13 Due to frequent gerrymandering, in which
electoral districts arguably are drawn to favor more ruralelectoral districts arguably are drawn to favor more rural, pro-government constituencies over pro-government constituencies over
densely populated urban areas, parliamentary elections have produced large pro-government densely populated urban areas, parliamentary elections have produced large pro-government
majorities dominated by representatives of prominent tribal families.14 In addition, voter turnout majorities dominated by representatives of prominent tribal families.14 In addition, voter turnout
tends to be much higher in pro-government areas, since many East Bank Jordanians depend on tends to be much higher in pro-government areas, since many East Bank Jordanians depend on
~~family/~~familial and tribal connections as a means to access patronage jobs.15 The next parliamentary election tribal connections as a means to access patronage jobs.15 The next parliamentary election
is scheduled for November 2024. is scheduled for November 2024.
Jordan’s constitution provides for an independent judiciary. According to Article 97, “Judges are Jordan’s constitution provides for an independent judiciary. According to Article 97, “Judges are
independent, and in the exercise of their judicial functions they are subject to no authority other independent, and in the exercise of their judicial functions they are subject to no authority other
than that of the law.” Jordan has three main types of courts: civil courts, special courts (some of than that of the law.” Jordan has three main types of courts: civil courts, special courts (some of
which are military/state security courts), and religious courts. State security courts administered which are military/state security courts), and religious courts. State security courts administered
by military and civilian judges handle criminal cases involving espionage, bribery of public by military and civilian judges handle criminal cases involving espionage, bribery of public
officials, trafficking in narcotics or weapons, black marketeering, and “security offenses.”16 officials, trafficking in narcotics or weapons, black marketeering, and “security offenses.”16
Religious courts for both Muslims and Christians adjudicate matters of personal status, including Religious courts for both Muslims and Christians adjudicate matters of personal status, including
~~marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance.17 The king may appoint and dismiss judges by~~
~~decree, though in practice a palace-appointed Higher Judicial Council manages court~~
~~appointments, promotions, transfers, and retirements.~~
~~Political Reform and Human Rights~~
~~Since his ascension to the throne in 1999, King Abdullah II has at times laid out a vision of~~
~~Jordan’s gradual transition from a constitutional monarchy into a full-fledged parliamentary~~
~~democracy.18 During periods of domestic unrest, Jordanian leaders have taken limited steps to~~

10 In the last twelve years, Jordan’s constitution has been amended three times (2011, 2016, and 2022). 11 The king also may declare martial law. According to Article 125, “In the event of an emergency of such a serious nature that action under the preceding Article of the present Constitution will be considered insufficient for the defense of the Kingdom, the King may by a Royal Decree, based on a decision of the Council of Ministers, declare martial law of the Kingdom, the King may by a Royal Decree, based on a decision of the Council of Ministers, declare martial law
in the whole or any part of the Kingdom.” in the whole or any part of the Kingdom.”
See Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan Constitutional Court, “Jordanian Constitution,” available at https://cco.gov.jo/en-us/Jordanian-Constitutional. 12 Amendments to Article 94 in 2011 12 Amendments to Article 94 in 2011 ~~have~~ put some restrictions on when the executive is allowed to issue temporary put some restrictions on when the executive is allowed to issue temporary
laws. laws.
13 13 Kristen Kao, “How Jordan’s Election Revealed Enduring Weaknesses in Its Political System,” “How Jordan’s Election Revealed Enduring Weaknesses in Its Political System,” Washington Post, October 3, 2016. , October 3, 2016.
14 Rachel Bessette, “Jordan’s Parliamentary Elections: Why They Do (and Don’t) Matter for the Kingdom’s Future,” 14 Rachel Bessette, “Jordan’s Parliamentary Elections: Why They Do (and Don’t) Matter for the Kingdom’s Future,”
Lawfare, September 29, 2016. , September 29, 2016.
15 Sean L. Yom, “Tribal Politics in Contemporary Jordan: The Case of the Hirak Movement,” 15 Sean L. Yom, “Tribal Politics in Contemporary Jordan: The Case of the Hirak Movement,” Middle East Journal, ,
~~Vol. 68, No~~vol. 68, no. 2 (Spring 2014), pp. 229-247. . 2 (Spring 2014), pp. 229-247.
16 See U.S. Embassy in Jordan, 16 See U.S. Embassy in Jordan, “Jordanian Legal System,Jordanian Legal System,” available at https://jo.usembassy.gov/u-s-citizen-services/ available at https://jo.usembassy.gov/u-s-citizen-services/
local-resources-of-u-s-citizens/attorneys/jordanian-legal-system/. local-resources-of-u-s-citizens/attorneys/jordanian-legal-system/.
~~17 In Muslim sharia courts, the testimony of one man equals that of two women, with exceptions in certain cases. U.S.~~
~~Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Jordan, March 30, 2021.~~
~~18 See “Making Our Democratic System Work for All Jordanians,” Abdullah II ibn Al Hussein, January 16, 2013. Also,~~
~~see Curtis R. Ryan, “The King’s Speech,” Foreign Policy, June 17, 2011.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

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~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

Congressional Research Service 4 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations marriage, divorce, child custody, and inheritance.17 The king may appoint and dismiss judges by decree, though in practice a palace-appointed Higher Judicial Council manages court appointments, promotions, transfers, and retirements. Political Reform and Human Rights Since his ascension to the throne in 1999, King Abdullah II has at times laid out a vision of Jordan’s gradual transition from a constitutional monarchy into a full-fledged parliamentary democracy.18 During periods of domestic unrest, Jordanian leaders have taken limited steps to liberalize the political system without fundamentally altering the monarchical power structure. In liberalize the political system without fundamentally altering the monarchical power structure. In
times of crisis, the government also often appeals for Jordanian unity,19 while calling the times of crisis, the government also often appeals for Jordanian unity,19 while calling the
opposition divisive or even disloyal.20 opposition divisive or even disloyal.20
Gender Issues in Jordan
Jordan has consistently ranked in the bottom quintile of the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap index Jordan has consistently ranked in the bottom quintile of the World Economic Forum’s Global Gender Gap index
(122 of 146 countries in 2022, though above most countries in the (122 of 146 countries in 2022, though above most countries in the ~~North Africa Middle East~~Middle East and North Africa region). Some have region). Some have
pointed to “traditional attitudes, discriminatory legislation, a lack of access to public transportation and pay pointed to “traditional attitudes, discriminatory legislation, a lack of access to public transportation and pay
disparities” as barriers to women’s advancement in Jordan.21 Despite having one of the highest rates of female disparities” as barriers to women’s advancement in Jordan.21 Despite having one of the highest rates of female
literacy in the Middle East, Jordan’s female labor force participation rate is considered low (15% as of 2021).22 literacy in the Middle East, Jordan’s female labor force participation rate is considered low (15% as of 2021).22
Unequal pay also is an issue in Jordan, where the gender wage gap (as of 2018) is estimated at 18% in the public Unequal pay also is an issue in Jordan, where the gender wage gap (as of 2018) is estimated at 18% in the public
sector and 14% in the private sector.23 sector and 14% in the private sector.23
~~In 2022, Jordan amended the title of Chapter Two of the constitution, which guarantees equal rights for all~~
~~citizens. The title was changed from “Rights and Duties of Jordanians” to “The Rights and Duties of Jordanian Men~~
~~and Women.” During parliamentary debate over this change, an altercation broke out, as some Jordanian~~
~~lawmakers opposed granting women greater equality, especial y on matters of inheritance and citizenship.24~~
Jordan has received funding through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-Jordan has received funding through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-
administered Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Fund, launched in 2019, specifically to support administered Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Fund, launched in 2019, specifically to support
government efforts to amend the country’s labor code to prohibit gender discrimination.government efforts to amend the country’s labor code to prohibit gender discrimination.2524 USAID allocates U.S. USAID allocates U.S.
bilateral economic assistance to support programs that protect victims of gender-based violence, improve bilateral economic assistance to support programs that protect victims of gender-based violence, improve
women’s access to jobs and leadership opportunities in the private sector, and support the advancement of women’s access to jobs and leadership opportunities in the private sector, and support the advancement of
women to decision-making positions. In addition to partnering with various government ministries, USAID also women to decision-making positions. In addition to partnering with various government ministries, USAID also
partners with the Jordanian National Commission for Women headed by Princess Basma Bint Talal, paternal aunt partners with the Jordanian National Commission for Women headed by Princess Basma Bint Talal, paternal aunt
to King Abdul ah II. to King Abdul ah II.
Unlike in neighboring Egypt, the kingdom tolerates Muslim Brotherhood political activity, and Unlike in neighboring Egypt, the kingdom tolerates Muslim Brotherhood political activity, and
Brotherhood candidates sometimes compete in parliamentary electionsBrotherhood candidates sometimes compete in parliamentary elections~~. (The~~, though the Brotherhood also Brotherhood also
has boycotted previous elections in protest.has boycotted previous elections in protest.) The Brotherhood is currently divided between The Brotherhood is currently divided between
Islamists who are willing to participate in the political system and those who reject it. In the 2020 Islamists who are willing to participate in the political system and those who reject it. In the 2020
parliamentary election, Brotherhood candidates ran together on a list called the National Alliance parliamentary election, Brotherhood candidates ran together on a list called the National Alliance
~~Reform. The list won 10 seats in Jordan’s 130-member House of Representatives (down from 16~~
~~in the 2016 election); of those 10 seats, 6 went to actual Islamist-leaning candidates.26~~
~~Over the past 15 years, as Jordan’s economic growth has stalled (see Figure 3 below), economic~~
~~grievances have spurred protests in Jordan, and authorities have responded by limiting the space~~
~~for the expression of political opposition. While traditionally, Jordan had been considered to be~~
~~somewhat more tolerant of dissent than its Arab neighbors, the international democracy watchdog~~

17 In Muslim sharia courts, the testimony of one man equals that of two women, with exceptions in certain cases. U.S. Department of State, 2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Jordan, March 30, 2021. 18 See Abdullah II ibn Al Hussein, “Making Our Democratic System Work for All Jordanians,” royal discussion paper, January 16, 2013; Curtis R. Ryan, “The King’s Speech,” Foreign Policy, June 17, 2011. 19 In 2002, just a few years into his reign and amid a Palestinian uprising against Israelis (including in the neighboring 19 In 2002, just a few years into his reign and amid a Palestinian uprising against Israelis (including in the neighboring
West Bank), King Abdullah II launched a West Bank), King Abdullah II launched a ~~nation-wide~~nationwide campaign known as “Jordan First,” in which he called on campaign known as “Jordan First,” in which he called on
citizens to reaffirm their “loyalty to the homeland.” Seecitizens to reaffirm their “loyalty to the homeland.” See, Sana Abdallah, “Jordan’s King Launches Identity Campaign,” Sana Abdallah, “Jordan’s King Launches Identity Campaign,”
UPI, October 31, 2002. , October 31, 2002.
20 “Jordan’s solid national unity is what makes it special—King,” 20 “Jordan’s solid national unity is what makes it special—King,” Jordan Times, September 16, 2015. , September 16, 2015.
21 Rana F. Sweis, “Women, 86 Percent Absent from Jordan’s Work Force, Are Left Behind,” 21 Rana F. Sweis, “Women, 86 Percent Absent from Jordan’s Work Force, Are Left Behind,” New York Times, April 3, April 3,
2021. 2021.
22 Holly Welborn Benner and Anders Pedersen, “Want Jordan to prosper? Engage women!” 22 Holly Welborn Benner and Anders Pedersen, “Want Jordan to prosper? Engage women!” World Bank Blog, ,
December 22, 2021. December 22, 2021.
23 International Labour Organization, Gender Equality and Decent Work in Jordan 23 International Labour Organization, Gender Equality and Decent Work in Jordan, April 30, 2021. 24 U.S. Department of State, Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Annual Report 2020-2021, January 2021. Congressional Research Service 5 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Reform. The list won 10 seats in Jordan’s 130-member House of Representatives (down from 16 in the 2016 election); of those 10 seats, 6 went to actual Islamist-leaning candidates.25 Over the past 15 years, as Jordan’s economic growth has stalled (see Figure 3), economic grievances have spurred protests in Jordan, and authorities have responded by limiting the space for the expression of political opposition. Trucker Strike Turns Violent In late 2022/early 2023, truck drivers across the kingdom went on strike to protest higher diesel fuel prices. Though Jordan has been working with the IMF under a structural reform program to maintain fuel prices in line with the global market, it had temporarily reinstated fuel subsidies after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. It began re-phasing them out later in 2022, which caused widespread discontent. Protesters clashed with police, who used tear gas to disperse crowds. The authorities also suspended access to some social media platforms. In the impoverished southern province of Ma’an, a police commander was murdered during the unrest and, during an attempt to arrest a suspect, three more policemen were kil ed. In order to negotiate an end to the truckers’ strike, though the government maintained its commitment to eliminating fuel subsidies, it did allow commercial haulers to raise their rates for commercial haulage and transport.26 While traditionally Jordan had been considered to be somewhat more tolerant of dissent than its Arab neighbors, the international democracy watchdog ~~, April 30, 2021.~~
~~24 Celine Alkhaldi, “Jordanian Lawmakers Trade Punches in Parliament amid Heated Discussion on Women’s Rights,”~~
CNN, December 29, 2021.
~~25 U.S. Department of State, Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Annual Report 2020-2021, January 2021.~~
~~26 Suha Ma’ayeh and Rana F. Sweis, “Jordan’s 2020 Parliamentary Election: Settling for the Status Quo,” Konrad~~
~~Adenauer Stiftung, February 2021.~~
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organization Freedom House changed Jordan’s rating in 2021 from “partially freeorganization Freedom House changed Jordan’s rating in 2021 from “partially free” to “not free,” to “not free,”
asserting that Jordan’s status declined due to harsh new restrictions on freedom of assembly, asserting that Jordan’s status declined due to harsh new restrictions on freedom of assembly,
among other things (it also ranked “not free” in 2022among other things (it also ranked “not free” in 2022 and 2023).27 In September 2022, Human Rights ).27 In September 2022, Human Rights
Watch stated that “Civic space in Jordan has shrunk over the past four years as authorities Watch stated that “Civic space in Jordan has shrunk over the past four years as authorities
persecute and harass citizens organizing peacefully and engaging in political dissent.”persecute and harass citizens organizing peacefully and engaging in political dissent.” 28 Internet 28 Internet
freedom is a particularly sensitive issue in Jordan, where journalists have decried the ambiguity freedom is a particularly sensitive issue in Jordan, where journalists have decried the ambiguity
of cybercrime legislation, such as Article 11 of the 2015 Cybercrime Law.29 The law states that of cybercrime legislation, such as Article 11 of the 2015 Cybercrime Law.29 The law states that
“anyone who on purpose posts or reposts statements or information on the internet, that include “anyone who on purpose posts or reposts statements or information on the internet, that include
tort and slander, or the denigration of anyone, faces no less than three months in jail and a fine of tort and slander, or the denigration of anyone, faces no less than three months in jail and a fine of
no less than JD100 [or 100 Jordanian no less than JD100 [or 100 Jordanian dinars] ($140) and not more than JD1,000 ($1,400).” 25 Suha Ma’ayeh and Rana F. Sweis, Jordan’s 2020 Parliamentary Election: Settling for the Status Quo, Konrad Adenauer Stiftung, February 2021. 26 Suleiman Al-Khalidi, “Jordan truckers’ strike exposes woes of impoverished south,” Reuters, January 12, 2023. ~~dinars] ($140) and not more than JD1,000 ($1,400).”~~
~~Figure 3. Twenty Years of GDP Growth in Jordan~~
~~2002 to 2022~~

Source: International Monetary Fund DATAMAPPER
~~Economy~~
~~Though Jordan is a net oil importer, many of its citizens benefit indirectly from energy revenues~~
~~in GCC states because of remittances sent by family members working in those countries. With~~
~~higher global oil prices and the return of international tourism, Jordan’s economy has fared better~~
~~than originally anticipated in 2022.30 GDP growth for the year is now projected to be 2.7% (up~~
~~from earlier predictions of 2.4%).~~

~~27 Freedom House,~~ ~~Jordan,~~ 27 Freedom House, “Jordan:Freedom in the World 2021.
Country Report,” available at https://freedomhouse.org/country/jordan/freedom-world/2021. 28 Human Rights Watch, 28 Human Rights Watch, “Jordan: Government Crushes Civic SpaceJordan: Government Crushes Civic Space, Detentions, Interrogations, Harassment and Detentions, Interrogations, Harassment and
Restrictions on Basic Rights,Restrictions on Basic Rights,” September 18, 2022. September 18, 2022.
29 Mustafa Abu Sneineh, “Jordan: Prominent Palestinian journalist detained at airport under Cybercrime Law,” 29 Mustafa Abu Sneineh, “Jordan: Prominent Palestinian journalist detained at airport under Cybercrime Law,” Middle
East Eye, March 8, 2022. , March 8, 2022.
~~30 “Jordan’s economy posts faster growth despite global turmoil –IMF,” Reuters, November 15, 2022.~~
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~~Despite this somewhat more positive outlook, economists remain concerned about Jordan’s~~
~~sovereign debt load (114% of GDP in 2021). According to The Economist, “Jordan's total~~
~~debt/GDP ratio is high by regional standards and limits the government'~~Congressional Research Service 6 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Figure 3. Twenty Years of GDP Growth in Jordan (2002 to 2022) Source: International Monetary Fund DATAMAPPER. Economy In 2023, Jordan’s post-pandemic recovery has continued, with GDP growth for the year projected to be 2.7%. Jordan’s fiscal policy would appear in line with IMF-efforts to reduce spending and borrowing. According to the IMF’s most recent assessment: Despite a challenging global and regional environment, Jordan has maintained macroeconomic stability and access to international capital markets through prudent monetary and fiscal policies. As a result, the [IMF] program remains firmly on track, with key program targets met and continued strong progress on structural benchmarks. The central government reduced its primary deficit (excluding grants) by 0.8 percent of GDP in 2022, to 3.7 percent of GDP, by taking timely measures to offset the higher cost of subsidies. Meanwhile, the CBJ has successfully maintained monetary and financial stability. It remains committed to the peg and has raised policy rates in line with the U.S. Federal Reserve. As a result, inflation has been relatively moderate and has started to decline. The banking system remains well-capitalized and liquid, as also confirmed by the recent Financial System Sustainability Assessment.30 Despite this somewhat more positive outlook, economists remain concerned about Jordan’s sovereign debt load (108% of GDP in 2022). According to The Economist, “Jordan’s total debt/GDP ratio is high by regional standards and limits the government’s ability to provide s ability to provide
subsidies or fund social support, increasing the risk of social unrest.”31 Servicing Jordan’s subsidies or fund social support, increasing the risk of social unrest.”31 Servicing Jordan’s
growing national debt continues to constrain government spending, increasing the possibility that growing national debt continues to constrain government spending, increasing the possibility that
without external assistance, costs in the form of increased taxes and reduced subsidies may be without external assistance, costs in the form of increased taxes and reduced subsidies may be
passed on to Jordanian consumers. The World Bank has noted that Jordan benefits from a passed on to Jordanian consumers. The World Bank has noted that Jordan benefits from a
30 International Monetary Fund, “IMF Staff Reach Staff-Level Agreement with Jordan on the Sixth Review Under the Extended Fund Facility,” press release no. 23/156, May 17, 2023. 31 Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report Jordan, November 20, 2022. Congressional Research Service 7 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations “relatively favorable debt structure,” in that its external creditors provide concessional loans on “relatively favorable debt structure,” in that its external creditors provide concessional loans on
favorable repayment terms.32 favorable repayment terms.32
Foreign Relations
Jordan, Israel, and the Palestinians
Background The Jordanian government has long described efforts to secure a lasting end to the Israeli-The Jordanian government has long described efforts to secure a lasting end to the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict as one of its highest priorities. In 1994, Jordan and Israel signed a peace Palestinian conflict as one of its highest priorities. In 1994, Jordan and Israel signed a peace
treaty.33 Nearly three decades after the signing of the Jordanian-Israeli peace treaty, the treaty.33 Nearly three decades after the signing of the Jordanian-Israeli peace treaty, the
persistence of Israeli-Palestinian conflict continues to be a major challenge for Jordan, as the persistence of Israeli-Palestinian conflict continues to be a major challenge for Jordan, as the
issue of Palestinian rights resonates with much of the population, and the conflict has soured issue of Palestinian rights resonates with much of the population, and the conflict has soured
attempts to improve Jordanian-Israeli people-to-people relations. attempts to improve Jordanian-Israeli people-to-people relations.
~~While Jordanian-Israeli government-to-government~~According to a recent poll conducted by the Washington Institute for Near East Policy: Despite being officially at peace with Israel for almost three decades, a solid majority (84%) of Jordanians across all age groups stand opposed to having business deals with Israeli companies even if it would help their economy. This data is consistent with Jordanian attitudes documented in past polls between July 2020 and March 2022…. Moreover, a majority (60%) of Jordanians view Hamas firing missiles at Israel at least somewhat positively, whereas a minority of 37% of Jordanians consider such actions to be negative for the region.34 While Jordanian-Israeli military cooperation is quietly ongoing, civil military cooperation is quietly ongoing, civil
relations between governments wax and wane depending on the attitudes and policy positions of relations between governments wax and wane depending on the attitudes and policy positions of
the countries’ respective leaders. Typically, right-of-center Israeli parties, which tend to take the countries’ respective leaders. Typically, right-of-center Israeli parties, which tend to take
positions opposing positions opposing or the exchange of land for peace with the Palestinians, have more difficult the exchange of land for peace with the Palestinians, have more difficult
relations with the kingdom when in power, as evidenced by the era of strained ties between King relations with the kingdom when in power, as evidenced by the era of strained ties between King
Abdullah II and Benjamin Netanyahu during Abdullah II and Benjamin Netanyahu during ~~his~~the latter’s second stint as prime minister (2009-2021). second stint as prime minister (2009-2021).34
35 Right-of-Right-of-center parties have dominated Israeli politics since 2001. ~~center parties have dominated Israeli politics since 2001.~~
~~In the wake of the November 2022 Israeli election, Jordanian officials are concerned that the next~~
~~Israeli coalition government, which will likely be led once again by Prime Minister Netanyahu~~
~~and include ultra-nationalist parties within the Religious Zionism electoral list, may exacerbate~~
~~ongoing Israeli-Arab tensions in Israel and the West Bank.35 Since the election, Jordanian officials~~
~~have repeatedly called on the new Israeli government to maintain the historic “status quo” (see~~
text box below) that allows only Muslims to worship at the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif

~~31 Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Report Jordan, November 20, 2022.~~
32 World Bank, Jordan Economic Monitor32 World Bank, Jordan Economic Monitor,: Global Turbulence Dampens Recovery and Job Creation, Spring 2022. Global Turbulence Dampens Recovery and Job Creation, Spring 2022.
33 Jordan and Israel signed the peace treaty on October 26, 1994. Later, the two countries exchanged ambassadors, 33 Jordan and Israel signed the peace treaty on October 26, 1994. Later, the two countries exchanged ambassadors,
Israel returned approximately 131 square miles of territory near the Rift Valley to Jordan, Jordan’s parliament repealed Israel returned approximately 131 square miles of territory near the Rift Valley to Jordan, Jordan’s parliament repealed
laws banning contacts with Israel, and the two countries signed a number of bilateral agreements between 1994 and laws banning contacts with Israel, and the two countries signed a number of bilateral agreements between 1994 and
1996 to normalize economic and cultural links. Water sharing, a recurring problem, is addressed in Annex II of the 1996 to normalize economic and cultural links. Water sharing, a recurring problem, is addressed in Annex II of the
treaty and coordinated by the Joint Water Committee treaty and coordinated by the Joint Water Committee ~~comprised of~~compriing Israeli and Jordanian officials. According to the Israeli and Jordanian officials. According to the
1994 treaty, in exchange for certain Jordanian concessions to Israel, Israel agreed to supply Jordan with 50 million 1994 treaty, in exchange for certain Jordanian concessions to Israel, Israel agreed to supply Jordan with 50 million
cubic meters of water a year from the northern part of Israel (in a separate agreement, Israel agreed to sell Jordan cubic meters of water a year from the northern part of Israel (in a separate agreement, Israel agreed to sell Jordan
another 10 million cubic meters in 2010). The Annex also states that “Israel and Jordan shall cooperate in finding another 10 million cubic meters in 2010). The Annex also states that “Israel and Jordan shall cooperate in finding
sources for the supply to Jordan of an additional quantity of (50) MCM/year [million cubic meters] of water of sources for the supply to Jordan of an additional quantity of (50) MCM/year [million cubic meters] of water of
drinkable standards.” drinkable standards.”
34See Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty Annex II,” available at https://www.gov.il/en/Departments/General/israel-jordan-peace-treaty-annex-2. 34 Faris Almaari, “New Public Opinion Poll: Jordanians Favor De-escalation in the Region, But Sentiment Against Israel Remains,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Fikra Forum, June 9, 2023. 35 David Schenker and Ghaith al-Omari, “Getting the Israel-Jordan Relationship back on Track,” David Schenker and Ghaith al-Omari, “Getting the Israel-Jordan Relationship back on Track,” ~~Policy Alert,~~ The The
Washington Institute for Near East Policy, March 12, 2021. Washington Institute for Near East Policy, March 12, 2021.
~~35 Daoud Kuttab, “Jordan braces for Netanyahu and his right-wing government,” Axios, November 9, 2022.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

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~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

~~(“Mount/Haram”) in Jerusalem’s Old City.36~~Congressional Research Service 8 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Current Tensions with Israel In line with the pattern mentioned above, during 2023, the kingdom and Israel’s right-of-center coalition government (led by returning Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu after his 18-month displacement by a different coalition) have often clashed politically over Israeli-Palestinian issues. Many of Jordan’s objections stem from the actions of two Israeli ultra-nationalist members of Netanyahu’s cabinet, Finance Minister Bezalel Smotrich and National Security Minister Itamar Ben Gvir. Smotrich has devoted his career to expanding Jewish control in the West Bank, and Ben Gvir expresses many similar views. In January 2023, Ben Gvir visited Jerusalem’s Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif (Mount/Haram) a few days after taking office, triggering statements of condemnation or concern from the Jordanian government and others within the region and globally.36 Ben Gvir made another visit in May 2023, again triggering substantial criticism from Jordan and elsewhere.37 In March 2023, Smotrich gave a speech at a podium featuring a map that included Jordan and the occupied West Bank as part of Israel. The Jordanian government called on the international community to denounce such actions.38 Jordanian officials have repeatedly called on the new Israeli government to maintain the historic “status quo” (see text box below) that allows only Muslims to worship at the Temple Mount/Haram al Sharif (“Mount/Haram”) in Jerusalem’s Old City.39 Jordanian officials have long asserted that Israeli Jordanian officials have long asserted that Israeli
authorities under successive governments—regardless of their political tilt—have undermined the authorities under successive governments—regardless of their political tilt—have undermined the
status quo’s prohibition of non-Muslim worship prohibition of non-Muslim worship ~~in the main mosque compound on the Mount/Haram.37 In a~~
~~speech before the United Nations General Assembly in September 2022, King Abdullah II warned~~
~~that “undermining Jerusalem’s legal and historical status quo triggers global tensions and deepens~~
~~religious divides.”38~~
~~Holy Sites in Jerusalem39~~on the Mount/Haram.40 In an interview with CNN, King Abdullah II warned against any Israeli provocations regarding the Mount/Haram, saying: If people want to get into a conflict with us, we’re quite prepared.... I always like to believe that, let’s look at the glass half full, but we have certain red lines… And if people want to push those red lines, then we will deal with that.41 36 “Jordan delivers statement at Security Council meeting on Israeli violations of Al-Haram Al-Sharif,” Jordan News Agency (Petra), January 6, 2023. 37 “U.S., UAE, Jordan, Egypt Slam Ben-Gvir’s Temple Mount Visit: ‘Serious Status Quo Violation,’” Haaretz, May 21, 2023. 38 Barak Ravid, “Jordan condemns far-right Israeli minister over ‘Greater Israel’ map,” Axios, March 20, 2023. 39 “Jordan said to warn incoming government against touching Temple Mount status quo,” Times of Israel, November 7, 2022. 40 “Jordan pushing to restore Jerusalem mosque status quo–sources,” Reuters, April 27, 2022. 41 Zeena Saifi, “Jordan king warns of ‘red lines’ in Jerusalem as Netanyahu returns to office,” CNN, December 28, 2022. Congressional Research Service 9 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Holy Sites in Jerusalem42
Per arrangements dating back to 1967 (when the Israeli military seized East Jerusalem—including its Old City— Per arrangements dating back to 1967 (when the Israeli military seized East Jerusalem—including its Old City—
from Jordan) and then subsequently confirmed in the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty, Israel acknowledges a from Jordan) and then subsequently confirmed in the 1994 Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty, Israel acknowledges a
continuing role for Jordan vis-à-vis Jerusalem’s historic Muslim shrines.continuing role for Jordan vis-à-vis Jerusalem’s historic Muslim shrines.4043 A Jordanian A Jordanian waqf (or Islamic custodial (or Islamic custodial
trust) has long administered the Temple Mount (known by Muslims as the Haram al Sharif or Noble Sanctuary) trust) has long administered the Temple Mount (known by Muslims as the Haram al Sharif or Noble Sanctuary)
and its holy sites, and this role is key to bolstering the religious legitimacy of the Jordanian royal family’s rule. As and its holy sites, and this role is key to bolstering the religious legitimacy of the Jordanian royal family’s rule. As
mentioned above, Jordanian monarchs trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad. Disputes over Jerusalem mentioned above, Jordanian monarchs trace their lineage to the Prophet Muhammad. Disputes over Jerusalem
that appear to circumscribe King Abdul ah II’s role as guardian of the Islamic holy sites create a domestic political that appear to circumscribe King Abdul ah II’s role as guardian of the Islamic holy sites create a domestic political
problem for the king. Jewish worship on the Mount/Haram is prohibited under a long-standing “status quo” problem for the king. Jewish worship on the Mount/Haram is prohibited under a long-standing “status quo”
arrangement that dates back to the era of Ottoman control during the centuries before World War I. arrangement that dates back to the era of Ottoman control during the centuries before World War I.
~~Water Scarcity and Regional Water Cooperation~~
~~According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Jordan is the second-~~
~~most water poor nation in the world in terms of water resources per inhabitant.41 Jordan’s increase~~
~~in water scarcity over the past 75 years is attributable to population growth, a decrease in the flow~~
~~of the Yarmouk River due to the building of dams upstream in Syria, gradual declines in rainfall,~~
~~and depleting groundwater resources due to overuse.42 The illegal construction of thousands of~~
~~private wells has also contributed to unsustainable groundwater extraction. The large influx of~~
~~Syrian refugees has heightened water demand in the north. A Stanford University study predicts~~
~~that dwindling water supplies and continued population growth will, without intervention, halve~~
~~per capita water use in Jordan by the end of this century.43~~
~~To secure new sources of water, Jordan is increasing its regional cooperation. In 2021, Israel~~
~~agreed to sell Jordan 50 million cubic meters of additional water annually from the Sea of~~
~~Galilee. Also in 2021, Israel, Jordan, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) reached a trilateral~~

~~36 “Jordan said to warn incoming government against touching Temple Mount status quo,” Times of Israel, November~~
~~7, 2022.~~
~~37 “Jordan pushing to restore Jerusalem mosque status quo – sources,” Reuters, April 27, 2022.~~
~~38 “King delivers Jordan’s address at 77th UNGA session,” Jordan News Agency (Petra), September 20, 2022.~~
~~39 For more information on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476,~~ ~~Israel: Background and U.S.~~
~~Relations, by Jim Zanotti.~~
40Some Israeli actions appear to be aimed at reducing tensions with Jordan. On January 24, 2023, Prime Minister Netanyahu traveled to Jordan for talks with King Abdullah II in a visit that had not been previously announced publicly. According to statements by the Israeli government, the two discussed regional security issues and Israeli-Jordanian cooperation; Jordanian statements affirmed that the King stressed the “importance of respecting the historical and legal status quo in Al Aqsa Mosque/Al Haram Al Sharif.”44 In March 2023, the Israeli Foreign Ministry announced that “Israel is committed to maintaining the status quo, freedom of worship for all and preventing any escalation, along with maintaining Israel’s right to protect its citizens.”45 Moreover, amidst ongoing Israeli-Palestinian violence in the West Bank and Israeli plans to construct additional West Bank settlements, Jordan has joined multilateral efforts to de-escalate tensions. In February 2023, the United States, Israel, the Palestinian Authority (PA), Jordan, and Egypt issued a communique from Aqaba, Jordan aimed at de-escalating tensions and violence by committing Israel and the PA to suspend unilateral measures for a few months.46 After the communique’s release, the White House issued a press release thanking King Abdullah II for “convening this historic gathering.”47 The five parties reconvened the following month in Sharm El Sheikh, Egypt, and restated the Aqaba commitments.48 Throughout April 2023, several events strained the bilateral Israeli-Jordanian relationship, such as: • King Abdullah II spoke to a visiting Palestinian delegation led by PA President Mahmoud Abbas. In his speech, he “stressed that it is the duty of every Muslim to deter Israeli escalations against Islamic and Christian holy sites in 42 For more information on Jerusalem and its holy sites, see CRS Report RL33476, Israel: Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti. 43 Article 9, Clause 2, of the peace treaty says that “Israel respects the present special role of the Hashemite Kingdom Article 9, Clause 2, of the peace treaty says that “Israel respects the present special role of the Hashemite Kingdom
of Jordan in Muslim Holy shrines in Jerusalem. When negotiations on the permanent status will take place, Israel will of Jordan in Muslim Holy shrines in Jerusalem. When negotiations on the permanent status will take place, Israel will
give high priority to the Jordanian historic role in these shrines.” In 2013, the give high priority to the Jordanian historic role in these shrines.” In 2013, the ~~Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO)~~
PLO reaffirmed in a bilateral agreement with Jordan that the King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan will continue to reaffirmed in a bilateral agreement with Jordan that the King of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan will continue to
serve as the “Custodian of the Holy Sites in Jerusalem,” a title that successive Jordanian monarchs have used since serve as the “Custodian of the Holy Sites in Jerusalem,” a title that successive Jordanian monarchs have used since
~~1924 (see footnote below).~~
~~41 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,~~ 1924. 44 The Royal Hashemite Court (@RHCJO), Twitter post, January 24, 3023, 8:30 a.m., available at https://twitter.com/RHCJO/status/1617877490940379137. 45 Tova Lazaroff, “Israel is committed to Temple Mount status quo, it assures foreign envoys,” Jerusalem Post, March 21, 2023. 46 U.S. Department of State, “Aqaba Joint Communique,” media note, February 26, 2023. 47 The White House, “Statement from National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan Welcoming the Aqaba Meeting and Communique”, press release, February 26, 2023. 48 U.S. Department of State, “Joint Communique from the March 19 meeting in Sharm El Sheikh,” media note, March 19, 2023. Congressional Research Service 10 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Jerusalem…”49 One U.S. think tank, the Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD), accused the king of “engaging in rhetoric that might be popular among certain swaths of Jordanian society but could ultimately undermine the vital ties with Israel that keep Jordan safe and stable.”50 • Israeli police entered Al Aqsa Mosque (normally the exclusive province of Muslims) on Jerusalem’s Mount/Haram to eject Palestinians who had barricaded themselves inside overnight—some reportedly with rocks, fireworks, and improvised explosives. The force used by the police against Palestinian worshippers and the arrests of hundreds prompted strong negative reactions and statements of concern from several regional and international actors, including Jordan. After the arrests, a Jordanian Foreign Ministry spokesperson warned Israel that should police “assault worshipers again, in an attempt to empty [the mosque] of worshipers, in preparation for major incursions into the mosque,” it would, “push the situation towards more tension and violence, for which everyone will pay the price…”51 • Israel arrested Imad al Adwan, an elected member of Jordan’s parliament, at the Allenby border crossing on suspicion of arms smuggling. At the time of his arrest, Israeli authorities confiscated 12 rifles and 194 pistols in his car. Al Adwan has been subsequently released by Israel and returned to Jordan, where he will stand trial after parliament voted to strip him of immunity from prosecution.52 In public remarks, Israeli Foreign Minister Eli Cohen did not hold the Jordanian government responsible for Adwan’s action, describing it as a “foolhardy criminal act.”53 Water Scarcity and Regional Water Cooperation According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Jordan is the second-most water poor nation in the world in terms of water resources per inhabitant.54 Jordan’s increase in water scarcity over the past 75 years is attributable to population growth, a decrease in the flow of the Yarmouk River due to the building of dams upstream in Syria, gradual declines in rainfall, and depleting groundwater resources due to overuse.55 The illegal construction of thousands of private wells has also contributed to unsustainable groundwater extraction. The large influx of Syrian refugees has heightened water demand in the north. A Stanford University study predicts that dwindling water supplies and continued population growth will, without intervention, halve per capita water use in Jordan by the end of this century.56 49 “Jordan King Abdullah: Muslims have duty to protect Islamic, Christian holy sites from Israel persecution,” Middle East Monitor (MEMO), April 3, 2023. 50 “Jordan’s King Incites Anti-Israel Sentiment,” Flash Brief, Foundation for Defense of Democracies, April 4, 2023. 51 Mohammed Tawfeeq and Jo Shelley, “Jordan warns Israel of ‘catastrophic consequences’ if al-Aqsa mosque stormed again,” CNN, April 8, 2023. 52 “Jordanian lawmaker charged for trying to smuggle over 200 guns into West Bank,” Times of Israel, May 17, 2023. 53 “Jordanian lawmaker must face trial for weapon smuggling - Israel's Cohen,” Jerusalem Post, April 24, 2023. 54 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, Review of World Water Resources by CountryReview of World Water Resources by Country, 2003, available at https://www.fao.org/3/Y4473E/y4473e00.htm#Contents. 55~~, Rome, 2003.~~
42 Deepthi Rajsekhar and Steven M. Gorelick, “Increasing drought in Jordan: Climate Change and Cascading Syrian Deepthi Rajsekhar and Steven M. Gorelick, “Increasing drought in Jordan: Climate Change and Cascading Syrian
Land-Use Impacts on Reducing Transboundary Flow,” Land-Use Impacts on Reducing Transboundary Flow,” Science Advances, , ~~August 30, 2017:~~ vol. 3, no. 8vol. 3, no. 8 (August 30, 2017). 56.
43 Josie Garthwaite, “Stanford Study Reveals a Deepening Water Crisis in Jordan—and a Way Forward,” Stanford Josie Garthwaite, “Stanford Study Reveals a Deepening Water Crisis in Jordan—and a Way Forward,” Stanford
University News, March 29, 2021. University News, March 29, 2021.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

811 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Water Scarcity in Jordan In Jordan, water scarcity is most acute in rural areas and in small vil ages and towns, a disparity with urban areas that has the potential for breeding resentment against the government. The agricultural sector uses 50% of the kingdom’s water, but accounts only for 5.6% of its GDP. However, according to one analysis, if the government were to limit water usage for agricultural production, it would be considered “highly politically contentious.”57 In Jordan, many citizens already do not have access to constantly running water; instead, water is released to specific locales either weekly or monthly. Only those with means are able to purchase water storage tanks and water distributed privately by truck.58 To secure new sources of water, Jordan is increasing its regional cooperation. In 2021, Israel agreed to sell Jordan 50 million cubic meters of additional water annually from the Sea of Galilee. Furthermore, Israel, Jordan, and the UAE reached a trilateral

~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

energy-for-water agreementenergy-for-water agreement in 2021, whereby the UAE is to finance additional solar production capacity , whereby the UAE is to finance additional solar production capacity
in Jordan to be exported to Israel (600 megawatts) in exchange for 200 million cubic meters of in Jordan to be exported to Israel (600 megawatts) in exchange for 200 million cubic meters of
desalinated water.desalinated water.59 On November 22, 2021, Special Presidential Envoy for Climate John Kerry On November 22, 2021, Special Presidential Envoy for Climate John Kerry
traveled to the UAE for the signing ceremony traveled to the UAE for the signing ceremony ~~for~~of the energy-for-water deal, dubbed “Project the energy-for-water deal, dubbed “Project
~~Prosperity.”~~
Prosperity.” In November 2022, at the United Nations Climate Change Conference, commonly referred to as COP27, Jordan and Israel signed their first environmental treaty since the 1994 peace treaty, pledging to mutually rehabilitate the Jordan River. In a “Joint Declaration of Intent,” both sides agreed to (among other things): • remove pollution sources in their respective territories by constructing wastewater treatment facilities; • improve the quality of freshwater flows in the river in accordance with their respective plans; • promote regional tourism with the view of generating additional employment opportunities in the region; and • promote sustainable agriculture, including by controlling agricultural drainage and reducing the use of chemical pesticides.60 Despite this agreement, one report notes that since its signing, the only progress on Jordan River rehabilitation has been made where “both river banks are located in Israel.”61 The Jordanian government, in conjunction with faith-based organizations such as the Baptist World Alliance, are currently directing resources toward expanding tourism infrastructure at “Bethany Beyond The Jordan,” a UNESCO-designated World Heritage Site (2015) on the east bank of the Jordan River, which Christians believe to be the spot where Jesus was baptized.62 57 Economist Intelligence Unit, “Jordan’s government warns of looming water crisis,” July 28, 2022. 58 Karen Zraick, “Jordan Is Running Out of Water, a Grim Glimpse of the Future,” New York Times, November 9, 2022. 59 The UAE’s Masdar renewable energy company is one of the primary investors in renewable energy in Jordan. To date, Masdar has helped construct the 117-megawatt Tafila Wind Farm and the 200-megawatt Baynouna Solar Power plant. See Masdar, “Masdar Inaugurates 200MW Baynouna Solar Park, the Largest of Its Kind in Jordan,” February 25, 2023. 60 Israeli Ministry of Environmental Protection, “Joining forces to address climate change impact: Israel and Jordan to cooperate on Jordan River restoration,” November 17, 2022. 61 Sue Serkes, “Quietly, a stretch of the Jordan River is being cleaned up and transformed,” Times of Israel, March 11, 2023. 62 “Jordan eyes tourism bonanza in expansion of Jesus’ baptism site,” Reuters, December 14, 2022. Congressional Research Service 12 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Figure 4. Israeli and Jordanian Ministers Sign Jordan River Agreement Source: Twitter, then-Israeli Environmental Protection Minister Tamar Zandberg, November 17, 2022, 5:46 a.m. Jordan also is pursuing domestic water development projects. In July 2021, after years of delays Jordan also is pursuing domestic water development projects. In July 2021, after years of delays
in evaluating the now-defunct trilateral project (Israel-Jordan-Palestinian Authority) known as the in evaluating the now-defunct trilateral project (Israel-Jordan-Palestinian Authority) known as the
Red-Dead Sea Conveyance Project, Jordan moved ahead with plans to build its own desalination Red-Dead Sea Conveyance Project, Jordan moved ahead with plans to build its own desalination
plant in Aqaba, along with a water treatment facility, pumping station, and a 280-mile pipeline to plant in Aqaba, along with a water treatment facility, pumping station, and a 280-mile pipeline to
carry water to Amman and elsewhere. The aim of the Aqaba-Amman Water Desalination and carry water to Amman and elsewhere. The aim of the Aqaba-Amman Water Desalination and
Conveyance Project (AAWDCP) is to bring 300 million cubic meters of potable water annually to Conveyance Project (AAWDCP) is to bring 300 million cubic meters of potable water annually to
water-stressed areas. The Jordanian government is currently evaluating private company bids for water-stressed areas. The Jordanian government is currently evaluating private company bids for
the $2.5 billion project. USAID and the European Investment Bank (EIB) have provided funding the $2.5 billion project. USAID and the European Investment Bank (EIB) have provided funding
to conduct feasibility studies.to conduct feasibility studies.4463 According to USAID, the U.S. government has provided over $10 According to USAID, the U.S. government has provided over $10
million in technical support to the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation to study the million in technical support to the Jordanian Ministry of Water and Irrigation to study the
feasibility of the AAWDCP; over the next five years, the United States government has pledged feasibility of the AAWDCP; over the next five years, the United States government has pledged
$700 million, with $300 million in grant funding from USAID, subject to the availability of $700 million, with $300 million in grant funding from USAID, subject to the availability of
funds, and up to $400 million in loans to the project company from the U.S. Development funds, and up to $400 million in loans to the project company from the U.S. Development
Finance Corporation, subject to bankability requirements.Finance Corporation, subject to bankability requirements.45
~~Water Scarcity in Jordan~~
~~In Jordan, water scarcity is most acute in rural areas and in small vil ages and towns, a disparity with urban areas~~
~~that has the potential for breeding resentment against the government based in Amman. The agricultural sector~~
~~uses 50% of the kingdom’s water, but accounts only for 5.6% of its GDP. However, according to one analysis, if~~
~~the government were to limit water usage for agricultural production, it would be considered “highly political y~~
~~contentious.”46 In Jordan, many citizens already do not have access to constantly running water; instead water is~~
~~released to specific locales either weekly or monthly. Only those with means are able to purchase water storage~~
~~tanks and water distributed privately by truck.47~~
~~Syria~~
~~The ongoing civil war in Syria has created unstable conditions along portions of the 225-mile~~
64 Syria In March 2023, the conflict in Syria—involving the Syrian government and its partners , and various opposition and extremist groups, and a number of international actors—marked its twelfth year. Analysts estimate that the conflict has killed over half a million people (including combatants) and displaced half of Syria’s prewar population of 22 million. For Jordan, the ongoing civil war in Syria has created unstable conditions along portions of the 225-mile 63 USAID, Jordan Water Infrastructure, Annual Progress Report, Period 12th—July 1, 2020, to June 30, 2021, July 15, 2021, available at https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00XM3M.pdf. 64 CRS Correspondence with USAID, April 2022. Congressional Research Service 13 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Jordanian-Syrian border, where criminal networks smuggle synthetic drugs into Jordan and Jordanian-Syrian border, where criminal networks smuggle synthetic drugs into Jordan and
Iranian-backed militias, such as Hezbollah, attempt to gain influence. For the past several years, Iranian-backed militias, such as Hezbollah, attempt to gain influence. For the past several years,
Syrian-based synthetic drug smugglers have routinely attempted to penetrate Jordan’s borders and Syrian-based synthetic drug smugglers have routinely attempted to penetrate Jordan’s borders and
traffic Captagon pills.traffic Captagon pills.48 Captagon (the drug compound fenethylline hydrochloride) is a popular Captagon (the drug compound fenethylline hydrochloride) is a popular
and cheap amphetamine-type stimulant used across the Middle East. and cheap amphetamine-type stimulant used across the Middle East. ~~According to one report:~~
~~After a decade of civil war and conflict in Syria, there aren’t many job prospects, leaving~~
~~many to turn to drug trafficking to support themselves, fueling what is now a multi-billion-~~
~~dollar trade. While the Syrian government publicly denounces Captagon trafficking, many~~
~~Syrian business and military leaders have been implicated in its illicit lifecycle.~~

~~44 USAID, Jordan Water Infrastructure, Annual Progress Report, Period 12th—July 1, 2020, to June 30, 2021.~~
~~45 CRS Correspondence with USAID, April 2022.~~
~~46 Economist Intelligence Unit, “Jordan's government warns of looming water crisis,” July 28, 2022.~~
~~47 Karen Zraick, “Jordan Is Running Out of Water, a Grim Glimpse of the Future,” New York Times, November 9,~~
~~2022.~~
~~48 “Jordan says drug trafficking from Syria is ‘organised,’” Agence France Presse, February 17, 2022.~~
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~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

~~Circumstantially, most of the amphetamine is manufactured in areas controlled by the~~
~~regime or their associates. Drug trafficking has become Syria’s highest grossing export, far~~
~~beyond any legal exports, essentially making it a “narco-state.” 49~~
~~In order to counter Captagon smuggling, the Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) have allocated more~~
~~human and technological resources to enhance its Directorate of Border Security. In addition, it~~
~~has loosened rules of engagement for its soldiers to more forcefully engage smugglers.50 Jordan~~
~~also relies on longtime U.S. security assistance for its border security. Since 2009, the Jordan~~
~~Border Security Program has helped Jordan secure its land borders by providing the JAF~~
~~“forward-looking infrared cameras, surveillance radars, fencing sensors, and intrusion detection~~
~~devices.”51~~
~~In October 2022, Jordan’s Public Security Directorate (PSD) signed an agreement with the State~~
~~Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) to strengthen~~
~~cooperation on countering drug trafficking. The agreement commits both parties to sharing~~
~~information, technology, and science related to tackling cross-border narcotics trafficking.52 In~~
~~Congress, H.R. 6265, the “Countering Assad’s Proliferation Trafficking And Garnering Of~~
~~Narcotics Act” or the “CAPTAGON Act,” would, among other things, require the Administration~~
~~to provide specific committees with a “written strategy to disrupt and dismantle narcotics~~
~~production and trafficking and affiliated networks linked to the regime of Bashar al-Assad in~~
~~Syria.”53 In fall 2022, the Royal Jordanian Air Force received the first U.S. upgraded IOMAX Air~~
~~Tractor AT-802 Border Patrol Aircraft (BPA).54 Nearly a decade ago, the UAE gifted six AT-802s~~
~~to Jordan, and the United States is in the process of upgrading their capabilities to assist in~~
~~patrolling and defending Jordan’s borders.~~
~~In addition to narcotics smuggling, Jordan has broader concerns about the presence of Iranian-~~
~~sponsored militias in Syria moving closer to the Jordanian border.55 As Russia has redeployed~~
~~some of its forces from Syria to Ukraine, Jordan has engaged Russian officials in order to ensure~~
~~a continued security presence in Syria’s southern governorates. According to one report, Russia~~
~~has “stepped up military police patrols along the Syrian side of the border in a move to assure~~
~~Jordan it will not allow Teheran-backed militias to hold sway along the border area.”56~~
~~The kingdom also continues to host hundreds of thousands of Syrian refugees, many of whom are~~
~~reluctant to return to their homes for fear of Syrian regime retribution against them.57 As of~~
~~October 2022, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that~~
~~there are 676,621 registered Syrian refugees in Jordan.~~

~~49 U.S. Department of State, Captagon: Drug Trafficking in the Middle East, Overseas Security Advisory Council~~
~~(OSAC), Bureau of Diplomatic Security, April 25, 2022.~~
~~50 Elliot Chapman, Shady Alkhayer, and Mohammed Najib, “Border busts: Jordanian authorities respond to Syrian drug~~
~~trafficking groups,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 21, 2022.~~
~~51 U.S. Department of Defense,~~ Despite the lack of resolution to the Syria conflict and the persistence of the Asad government, Jordan (along with other Arab states) has normalized diplomatic relations with the Asad government, possibly reflecting the Jordanian government’s judgement that Asad appears to have largely prevailed in the conflict against opposition forces. Jordan also may have been following the lead of Saudi Arabia, which, according to one report, “played a key role in pushing for Syria’s return to the Arab League.”65 Prior to 2023, Jordan had been slowly reengaging with Syria. Though King Abdullah II was the first Arab leader to openly call for Syrian President Bashar al Asad’s resignation in November 2011, since the Asad regime reclaimed control of southern Syria (with the help of Russia, Iran, and Hezbollah) around 2018, Jordan had sought to return to normal bilateral ties. Along the kingdom’s northern border with Syria, many Jordanian residents share familial ties with Syrian families. In 2018, Jordan and Syria opened the Nasib/Jaber border crossing to facilitate greater bilateral trade and economic relations. In 2021, King Abdullah II received his first reported phone call from President Asad in over a decade. Despite the Asad regime’s broader acceptance by fellow Arab states, Jordan continues to seek assurances from Syria that it intends to crack down against the Captagon trade. In May 2023, one day after the Arab League formally readmitted Syria, the Royal Jordanian Air Force conducted multiple air strikes inside Syrian territory, killing a major narcotics trafficker (and his family) and destroying a building that housed a drug factory reportedly linked to the Iran-backed Lebanese group Hezbollah.66 According to a report citing two anonymous Jordanian officials, “The strikes were a message to Damascus that it should not mistake Amman’s resolve at time it was leading an Arab effort to end Syria’s estrangement.”67 Since the airstrikes, Jordan also has downed several unmanned aerial vehicles carrying narcotics and weapons over Jordanian air space.68 To counter Captagon smuggling, the Jordanian Armed Forces (JAF) have allocated more human and technological resources to enhance their Directorate of Border Security. In addition, the JAF has loosened rules of engagement for its soldiers to more forcefully engage smugglers.69 Jordan also relies on longtime U.S. security assistance for its border security. Since 2009, the Jordan Border Security Program has helped Jordan secure its land borders by providing the JAF “forward-looking infrared cameras, surveillance radars, fencing sensors, and intrusion detection devices.”70 In October 2022, Jordan’s Public Security Directorate (PSD) signed an agreement with the State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) to strengthen 65 Kareem Chehayeb and Abby Sewell, “What’s behind Syria’s return to the Arab League?” Associated Press, May 8, 2023. 66 “Jordan strikes Iran-linked drugs factory in southern Syria – sources,” Reuters, May 8, 2023. 67 Ibid. 68 “Jordan says it downs second drone from Syria this week,” Reuters, June 16, 2023. 69 Elliot Chapman, Shady Alkhayer, and Mohammed Najib, “Border busts: Jordanian authorities respond to Syrian drug trafficking groups,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, July 21, 2022. 70 U.S. Department of Defense, Office of Inspector General, Audit of Jordan Border Security Program OversightInspector General, Audit of Jordan Border Security Program Oversight, ~~, December 20,~~
~~2019.~~
~~52 Elliot Chapman, “US-Jordan agreement on combating drug smuggling likely to increase Jordanian intelligence and~~
~~policing capabilities,” Jane’s Country Risk Daily Report, October 11, 2022.~~
~~53 H.R. 6265 was passed by the House in September 2022, and incorporated into the House-engrossed version of the~~
~~FY2023 NDAA (Section 1229).~~
~~54 Gareth Jennings, “Jordan to receive IOMAX-upgraded Air Tractor,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 21, 2022.~~
~~55 “Jordan's King Abdullah II says Tehran should stop interfering in region,” The National (UAE), July 24, 2022.~~
~~56 “Jordan seeks more coordination with Russia to bring stability to southern Syria,” Reuters, November 3, 2022.~~
~~57 “Trapped in Jordan, Syrian Refugees See No Way Home,” Associated Press, September 11, 2019.~~
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December 20, 2019, available at https://www.dodig.mil/Reports/Audits-and-Evaluations/Article/2046324/audit-of-jordan-border-security-program-oversight-dodig-2020-043/. Congressional Research Service 14 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations cooperation on countering drug trafficking. The agreement commits both parties to sharing information, technology, and science related to tackling cross-border narcotics trafficking.71 In 2022, the Royal Jordanian Air Force received the first U.S. upgraded IOMAX Air Tractor AT-802 Border Patrol Aircraft (BPA).72 Nearly a decade ago, the UAE gifted six AT-802s to Jordan, and the United States is in the process of upgrading their capabilities to assist in patrolling and defending Jordan’s borders. The kingdom also continues to host hundreds of thousands of Syrian refugees, many of whom are reluctant to return to their homes for fear of Syrian regime retribution against them.73 As of May 2023, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that there are 660,022 registered Syrian refugees in Jordan. Since 2011, the influx of Syrian refugees has placed tremendous strain on Jordan’s government Since 2011, the influx of Syrian refugees has placed tremendous strain on Jordan’s government
and local economies, especially in the northern governorates of Mafraq, Irbid, Ar Ramtha, and and local economies, especially in the northern governorates of Mafraq, Irbid, Ar Ramtha, and
Zarqa. With the Syrian crisis now in its second decade, an entire generation of Syrian refugees are Zarqa. With the Syrian crisis now in its second decade, an entire generation of Syrian refugees are
being raised in Jordan. In the Zaatari Refugee Camp in northern Jordan, home to about 11% of being raised in Jordan. In the Zaatari Refugee Camp in northern Jordan, home to about 11% of
the registered Syrian refugees in Jordan, refugees have received food, shelter, and medical the registered Syrian refugees in Jordan, refugees have received food, shelter, and medical
services, but now seek education and employment services.services, but now seek education and employment services.58
~~Figure 4. Syrian Refugees in Jordan~~

Source: UN High Commissioner for Refugees, October 31, 2022.
74 U.S. Relations Overview
U.S. officials frequently express their support for Jordan, citing its role in promoting Middle East U.S. officials frequently express their support for Jordan, citing its role in promoting Middle East
peace, combatting terrorism, and serving as a refuge to displaced people.peace, combatting terrorism, and serving as a refuge to displaced people.~~59 As part of the July~~
~~2022 summit of the leaders of the United States, the Gulf Cooperation Council, and Egypt, Iraq,~~
~~and Jordan (GCC+3), President Biden held a private meeting with King Abdullah II. According to~~
~~the White House readout of their encounter,60 President Biden expressed his appreciation for~~

~~58 Taylor Luck, “Not gone, but forgotten? Syrian refugees struggle to move forward,” Christian Science Monitor,~~
~~September 14, 2022.~~
~~59 U.S. Department of State, Secretary Antony J. Blinken And Jordanian Foreign Minister Ayman Safadi At a Joint~~
~~Press Availability, September 16, 2022.~~
~~60 White House, Joint Statement Following Meeting of President Joseph R. Biden and His Majesty King Abdullah II of~~
~~Jordan, Jeddah, July 16, 2022.~~
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~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

~~Jordan’s housing of more than 675,000 Syrian refugees, support for Iraq’s stability, and~~
~~partnership in the fight against global terrorism. The two leaders reiterated their commitment to~~
~~pursuing a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and also recognized “the necessity~~
~~of upholding the historic status quo in Jerusalem’s holy sites,” and the “key role of the Hashemite~~
~~Custodianship in that regard.”61~~
~~The Allenby Bridge Crossing between the West Bank and Jordan~~
~~During President Biden’s July 2022 trip to the Middle East, the President sought Israeli cooperation in increasing~~
~~Palestinian accessibility to the Allenby Bridge (referred to by Jordanians as the King Hussein Bridge). Due to Israeli~~
~~security concerns, most Palestinians in the West Bank are barred from traveling abroad through Israel’s Ben~~
~~Gurion Airport; instead, they cross over into Jordan via the Allenby Bridge and fly abroad from the main~~
~~international airport in Amman. 62 However, crossing times are limited and can take considerable time. The Biden~~
~~Administration has urged Israel to enable access “24 hours per day, 7 days per week” and has supported working~~
~~groups to make the crossing more efficient for travelers while addressing Israel’s security considerations.63~~
~~According to Israeli officials, ae pilot program to operate the Allenby crossing between the West Bank and Jordan~~
~~24/7 began in November 2022.~~
~~Many U.S. policymakers advocate for continued robust U.S. assistance to the kingdom. Annual~~
~~aid to Jordan has tripled in historical terms over the past 15 years. According to the U.S. State~~
~~Department, the United States and Jordan have a 1996 Status of~~ In February 2023, Vice President Kamala Harris hosted King Abdullah II at the White House, where the Vice President “reaffirmed the strength of the bilateral partnership and our commitment to Jordan’s security and economic prosperity.”75 The Vice President also “underscored the importance of upholding the status quo at the Haram al-Sharif/Temple Mount, recognizing Jordan’s crucial role as the custodian of Muslim holy places in Jerusalem and as a force for stability.”76 During her Senate confirmation hearing, Ambassador-designate to Jordan Yael Lempert, the current Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of State at the Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, testified that U.S. goals in Jordan are focused on “supporting economic growth, strengthening water security, and deepening our strong security cooperation.”77 U.S.-Jordanian Security Cooperation U.S.-Jordanian security cooperation is arguably at the heart of the bilateral relationship. According to the U.S. State Department, the United States and Jordan have a 1996 Status of 71 Elliot Chapman, “US-Jordan agreement on combating drug smuggling likely to increase Jordanian intelligence and policing capabilities,” Jane’s Country Risk Daily Report, October 11, 2022. 72 Gareth Jennings, “Jordan to receive IOMAX-upgraded Air Tractor,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 21, 2022. 73 “Trapped in Jordan, Syrian Refugees See No Way Home,” Associated Press, September 11, 2019. 74 Taylor Luck, “Not gone, but forgotten? Syrian refugees struggle to move forward,” Christian Science Monitor, September 14, 2022. 75 The White House, “Readout of Vice President Kamala Harris’s Meeting with His Majesty King Abdullah II of Jordan,” press release, February 2, 2023. 76 Ibid. 77 Statement of Yael Lempert, Nominee for U.S. Ambassador to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, May 4, 2023. Congressional Research Service 15 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Forces Agreement, a 2006 Forces Agreement, a 2006
Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement, and a 2021 Defense Cooperation Agreement Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement, and a 2021 Defense Cooperation Agreement
(DCA).(DCA).64
78 The 2021 DCA formalizes years of U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation, which became more The 2021 DCA formalizes years of U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation, which became more
visible at the start of CJTF-OIR against the Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL/ISIS) in 2014. visible at the start of CJTF-OIR against the Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIL/ISIS) in 2014.
In September 2022, the United States and Jordan participated in the 10th iteration of Eager Lion, In September 2022, the United States and Jordan participated in the 10th iteration of Eager Lion,
the largest multinational military exercise hosted by Jordan. According to U.S. Central Command the largest multinational military exercise hosted by Jordan. According to U.S. Central Command
(CENTCOM), (CENTCOM), “approximately 1,700 U.S. approximately 1,700 U.S. ~~service members,~~ servicemembers, 2,200 Jordanian Armed Forces, and 2,200 Jordanian Armed Forces, and
~~591 coalition personnel from 28 other partner nations participated in Eager Lion 2022.65~~
~~Jordanian air bases have been particularly important for the U.S. conduct of intelligence,~~
~~surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions in Syria and Iraq. U.S. forces~~
~~have operated out of various Jordanian air bases, such as Muwaffaq Salti Air Base in Azraq,~~
~~Jordan.66 While the United States never officially acknowledged its presence at Muwaffaq Salti~~
~~Air Base prior to the 2021 agreement, according to one report, “satellite imagery shows it has~~
~~hosted US Air Force (USAF) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and fast jets since at least~~
~~2016.”67~~
~~As of June 2022, there are approximately 2,833 United States military personnel deployed to~~
~~Jordan to counter the Islamic State and enhance Jordan’s security.68 Though the 2021 DCA~~

~~61 Ibid.~~
~~62 See U.S. Department of State Bureau of Consular Affairs, Israel, the West Bank and Gaza International Travel~~
~~Information, “Entry, Exit, and Visa Requirements.”~~
~~63 White House, Fact Sheet: The United States-Palestinian Relationship, July 14, 2022.~~
~~64 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Security Cooperation with Jordan, Fact Sheet, May 21, 2021.~~
~~65 U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Central Command, Jordan Hosts U.S. forces and partner nations for premiere~~
~~Exercise Eager Lion, September 4, 2022.~~
~~66 The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2018 (P.L. 115-91) authorized $143 million in Air Force construction~~
~~funds to expand the ramp space at Muwaffaq Salti Air Base.~~
~~67 “Jeremy Binnie, “US Carrying out Major Upgrade to Jordanian Airbase,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, December 1, 2021.~~
~~68 White House, Letter to the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore of the Senate regarding the War Powers~~
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~~governs U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation, the presence of armed U.S. military personnel in the~~
~~kingdom remains a sensitive domestic issue in Jordanian politics.69According to the 2021~~
~~agreement~~
~~Jordan shall provide unimpeded access to and use of Agreed Facilities and Areas to U.S.~~
~~forces, U.S. personnel, U.S. contractors, and others as mutually agreed, for activities~~
~~including-visits; training; exercises; maneuvers; transit; support and related activities;~~
~~refueling of aircraft; landing and recovery of aircraft; bunkering of vessels; temporary~~
~~maintenance of vehicles, vessels, and aircraft; accommodation of personnel;~~
~~communications; staging and deploying of forces and materiel; pre-positioning of~~
~~equipment, supplies, and materiel; security assistance and cooperation activities; joint and~~
~~combined training activities; humanitarian and disaster relief; contingency operations; and~~
~~other activities as mutually agreed by the Parties or their Executive Agents.70~~591 coalition personnel from 28 other partner nations” participated or observed in Eager Lion 2022.79 In June 2023, the U.S. Air Force deployed F-22 Raptors to U.S. Central Command’s area of responsibility in a demonstration of U.S. resolve in countering “increasingly unsafe and unprofessional behavior by Russian aircraft in the region.”80 As of June 2023, there are approximately 2,936 United States military personnel deployed to Jordan to counter the Islamic State and enhance Jordan’s and regional security.81 Though the 2021 DCA governs U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation, the presence of armed U.S. military personnel in the kingdom remains a sensitive domestic issue in Jordanian politics.82 According to the 2021 agreement: Jordan shall provide unimpeded access to and use of Agreed Facilities and Areas to U.S. forces, U.S. personnel, U.S. contractors, and others as mutually agreed, for activities including-visits; training; exercises; maneuvers; transit; support and related activities; refueling of aircraft; landing and recovery of aircraft; bunkering of vessels; temporary maintenance of vehicles, vessels, and aircraft; accommodation of personnel; communications; staging and deploying of forces and materiel; pre-positioning of equipment, supplies, and materiel; security assistance and cooperation activities; joint and combined training activities; humanitarian and disaster relief; contingency operations; and other activities as mutually agreed by the Parties or their Executive Agents.83 According to one defense report, the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing, which is officially located in “Southwest Asia” may be based in Jordan,84 where it operates in support of CJTF-OIR against the Islamic State.85 The wing operates combat aircraft, such as the F-15E and F-16C, transport and refueling aircraft, such as the HC-130P and KC-135R, and Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) unmanned craft, such as the MQ-9.86 Jordanian air bases have been particularly important for the U.S. conduct of intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions in Syria and Iraq. U.S. forces have operated out of various Jordanian air bases, such as Muwaffaq Salti Air Base in Azraq, 78 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Security Cooperation with Jordan,” fact sheet, May 21, 2021. 79 U.S. Department of Defense, “U.S. Central Command, Jordan Hosts U.S. forces and partner nations for premiere Exercise Eager Lion,” September 4, 2022. 80 U.S. Department of Defense, “U.S. Central Command, F-22 Raptors Demonstrate Air Superiority in CENTCOM,” June 14, 2023. 81 White House, “Letter to the Speaker of the House and President pro tempore of the Senate regarding the War Powers Report,” press release, June 8, 2023. 82 Saud al Sharafat, “Critics react to US-Jordan defense agreement,” Al Monitor, April 1, 2021. 83 U.S. Department of State, Agreement between the United States of America and Jordan with Exchange of Notes, Treaties and Other International Acts Series 21-317, signed at Amman January 31, 2021, entered into force March 17, 2021. 84 J.P. Lawrence, “Pentagon awards latest contract in $265 million project to expand remote air base in Jordan,” Stars and Stripes, May 13, 2022. 85 U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Air Force Central, “332nd Air Expeditionary Wing Fact Sheet.” 86 Ibid. Congressional Research Service 16 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Jordan.87 While the United States never officially acknowledged its presence at Muwaffaq Salti Air Base prior to the 2021 agreement, according to one report, “satellite imagery shows it has hosted US Air Force (USAF) unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and fast jets since at least 2016.”88
Beyond the need to use Jordanian facilities to counter the Islamic State throughout the region, Beyond the need to use Jordanian facilities to counter the Islamic State throughout the region,
CENTCOM may seek to partner more closely with Jordan in order to position U.S. materiel to CENTCOM may seek to partner more closely with Jordan in order to position U.S. materiel to
counter Iran. In summer 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that equipment and counter Iran. In summer 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense announced that equipment and
materiel previously stored at a now-closed U.S. base in Qatar would be moved to Jordan.materiel previously stored at a now-closed U.S. base in Qatar would be moved to Jordan.7189
The Case of Ahlam al Tamimi
Ahlam al Tamimi is a Jordanian national who Ahlam al Tamimi is a Jordanian national who ~~participated~~was an accomplice in the 2001 suicide bombing of in the 2001 suicide bombing of a a
Jerusalem pizza restaurant that killed 15 people, including two Americans. In Israel, she had been Jerusalem pizza restaurant that killed 15 people, including two Americans. In Israel, she had been
sentenced to life in prison but was released and returned to Jordan in 2011 as part of a prisoner sentenced to life in prison but was released and returned to Jordan in 2011 as part of a prisoner
exchange deal between Israel and Hamas. The U.S. Justice Department filed criminal charges exchange deal between Israel and Hamas. The U.S. Justice Department filed criminal charges
against Tamimi in 2013, and those charges were unsealed in early 2017. Tamimi is on the Federal against Tamimi in 2013, and those charges were unsealed in early 2017. Tamimi is on the Federal
Bureau of Investigation’s Most Wanted Terrorist List.Bureau of Investigation’s Most Wanted Terrorist List.7290 The United States and Jordan have an The United States and Jordan have an
extradition treaty, which, according to the U.S. State Department, entered into force on July 29, extradition treaty, which, according to the U.S. State Department, entered into force on July 29,
1995.1995.7391 The United States requested Tamimi’s extradition in 2017, but Jordan’s Court of The United States requested Tamimi’s extradition in 2017, but Jordan’s Court of
Cassation ruled that the extradition treaty was invalid. In November 2019, the State Department Cassation ruled that the extradition treaty was invalid. In November 2019, the State Department
said that “the United States regards the extradition treaty as valid.” said that “the United States regards the extradition treaty as valid.”
According to According to aan April 2021 media account April 2021 media account, one reason why the U.S. and Israeli governments have one reason why the U.S. and Israeli governments have
not applied further visible pressure on the government of Jordan to extradite Tamimi is concern not applied further visible pressure on the government of Jordan to extradite Tamimi is concern
for the stability of Jordan.for the stability of Jordan.7492 One unnamed U.S. State Department official noted that “while [King] One unnamed U.S. State Department official noted that “while [King]
Abdullah has no love for Tamimi, giving her up to America would put the king in a very difficult Abdullah has no love for Tamimi, giving her up to America would put the king in a very difficult
position with his own people.”position with his own people.”7593 On March 23, 2022, six lawmakers sent a letter to Secretary of On March 23, 2022, six lawmakers sent a letter to Secretary of
State Blinken requesting responses to questions regarding why Jordan has not State Blinken requesting responses to questions regarding why Jordan has not extradited Tamimi.94 In July 2022, the U.S. National Security Council said that the “U.S. government continues to seek her extradition and the Government of Jordan’s assistance in bringing her to justice for her role in the heinous attack.”95 During her recent confirmation hearing, U.S. Ambassador-designate to Jordan Yael Lempert remarked that “if confirmed, I will 87 The National Defense Authorization Act for FY2018 (P.L. 115-91) authorized $143 million in Air Force construction funds to expand the ramp space at Muwaffaq Salti Air Base. 88 Jeremy Binnie, “US Carrying out Major Upgrade to Jordanian Airbase,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, December 1, 2021. 89~~extradited~~

~~Report, June 8, 2022.~~
~~69 Saud al Sharafat, “Critics react to US-Jordan defense agreement,” Al Monitor, April 1, 2021.~~
~~70 U.S. Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series 21-317, Agreement between the United States~~
~~of America and Jordan with Exchange of Notes, Signed at Amman January 31, 2021, Entered into force March 17,~~
~~2021.~~
71 J.P. Lawrence, “US Military Shifts Army Basing from Qatar to Jordan in Move that Could Provide Leverage against J.P. Lawrence, “US Military Shifts Army Basing from Qatar to Jordan in Move that Could Provide Leverage against
Iran,” Iran,” Stars and Stripes, July 1, 2021. , July 1, 2021.
72 90 Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Most Wanted Terrorist: Ahlam Ahmad al-Tamimi,” available at https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/wanted_terrorists/ahlam-ahmad-al-tamimi/@@download.pdf.https://www.fbi.gov/wanted/wanted_terrorists/ahlam-ahmad-al-tamimi/@@download.pdf.
91 The kingdom’s courts have ruled that Al Tamimi cannot be extradited until such a treaty is endorsed by the Jordanian The kingdom’s courts have ruled that Al Tamimi cannot be extradited until such a treaty is endorsed by the Jordanian
parliament. parliament.
7492 Yonah Jeremy Bob, “Justice Ignored,” Yonah Jeremy Bob, “Justice Ignored,” Jerusalem Post, April 30, 2021. , April 30, 2021.
~~75 Op. cit.~~
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~~Tamimi.76 In July 2022, the National Security Council said that the “U.S. government continues~~
~~to seek her extradition and the Government of Jordan’s assistance in bringing her to justice for~~
~~her role in the heinous attack.”77~~93 Op. cit. 94 Congressman Greg Steube (@RepGregStebe), Twitter post, March 24, 2022, 10:36 a.m., available at https://twitter.com/RepGregSteube/status/1507003370254520321?s=20. 95 “US seeks extradition of Palestinian attacker in Jordan,” Associated Press, July 11, 2022. Congressional Research Service 17 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations do everything in my power to ensure that Ahlam al Tamimi faces justice in the United States for her horrific crimes.”96
U.S. Foreign Assistance to Jordan
The United States has provided economic and military aid to Jordan since 1951 and 1957, The United States has provided economic and military aid to Jordan since 1951 and 1957,
respectively. Total bilateral U.S. aid (overseen by the Departments of State and Defense) to respectively. Total bilateral U.S. aid (overseen by the Departments of State and Defense) to
Jordan through FY2020 amounted to approximately $26.4 billion. Jordan also has received over Jordan through FY2020 amounted to approximately $26.4 billion. Jordan also has received over
$1.$1.879 billion in additional military aid since FY2015, channeled through the Defense billion in additional military aid since FY2015, channeled through the Defense
Department’s various security assistance accounts. U.S. assistance to Jordan accounts for over Department’s various security assistance accounts. U.S. assistance to Jordan accounts for over
40% of the total 40% of the total amount of official aid the kingdom receives annually. Many U.S. policymakers advocate for continued robust U.S. assistance to the kingdom. Annual aid to Jordan has tripled in historical terms over the past 15 years. ~~amount of official aid the kingdom receives annually. For FY2023, the Biden~~
~~Administration is requesting $1.45 billion in total bilateral assistance, which would make Jordan,~~
~~after Israel, the second-largest targeted recipient of annual U.S. foreign aid in the President’s~~
~~congressional budget justification.~~
~~Table 1. Bilateral Aid to Jordan~~
~~(in millions of current dollars)~~
~~FY2018~~
~~FY2019~~
~~FY2020~~
~~FY2021~~
~~FY2022~~
~~FY2023~~

~~actual~~
~~actual~~
~~actual~~
~~actual~~
~~enacted~~
~~request~~
DA
—
—
—
~~85.00~~
—
—
~~ESF~~
~~1,082.40~~
~~1,082.40~~
~~1,082.40~~
~~1,122.40~~
~~1,207.40~~
~~1,035.80~~
~~FMF~~
~~425.00~~
~~425.00~~
~~425.00~~
~~425.00~~
~~425.00~~
~~400.00~~
~~IMET~~
~~4.01~~
~~3.99~~
~~4.00~~
~~4.00~~
~~4.00~~
~~3.80~~
~~NADR~~
~~13.60~~
~~13.60~~
~~13.60~~
~~13.60~~
~~13.60~~
~~10.40~~
~~Total~~
~~1,525.01~~
~~1,524.99~~
~~1,525.00~~
~~1,650.00~~
~~1,650.00~~
~~1,450.00~~
Sources: Department of State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs Congressional Budget Justifications
~~(FY2020-FY2023), P.L. 117-103, and CRS calculations and rounding.~~
Notes: Prior-year funds not included in this table: $125 mil ion in ESF in FY2020 (P.L. 116-93); $50 mil ion in
~~Relief and Recovery Fund (RRF) aid in FY2019 (P.L. 116-6).~~
U.S.-Jordanian Agreement on Foreign Assistance
On September 16, 2022, the United States and Jordan signed their fourth Memorandum of On September 16, 2022, the United States and Jordan signed their fourth Memorandum of
Understanding (MOU) governing U.S. foreign aid to Jordan. The seven-year agreement (FY2023-Understanding (MOU) governing U.S. foreign aid to Jordan. The seven-year agreement (FY2023-
FY2029), subject to appropriations of Congress, commits the Administration to seeking a total of FY2029), subject to appropriations of Congress, commits the Administration to seeking a total of
$1.45 billion in annual economic and military aid for Jordan. When compared to the previous $1.45 billion in annual economic and military aid for Jordan. When compared to the previous
MOU, this fourth MOU is 13.7% higher annually and lasts for seven fiscal years instead of five. MOU, this fourth MOU is 13.7% higher annually and lasts for seven fiscal years instead of five.
It represents the largest multi-year U.S. foreign assistance commitment ($10.15 billion over seven It represents the largest multi-year U.S. foreign assistance commitment ($10.15 billion over seven
years) to the kingdom. Congress has appropriated between $1.5 billion and $1.65 billion in total years) to the kingdom. Congress has appropriated between $1.5 billion and $1.65 billion in total
annual aid to Jordan since FY2018. annual aid to Jordan since FY2018.

~~76 Twitter, Congressman Greg Steube, March 24, 2022.~~
~~77 “US seeks extradition of Palestinian attacker in Jordan,” Associated Press, July 11, 2022.~~
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Figure 5. U.S. Aid to Jordan over Decades

Source: CRS GraphicsCRS Graphics.
Notes: Includes bilateral U.S. military and economic assistance only. Does not include funds administered by the Includes bilateral U.S. military and economic assistance only. Does not include funds administered by the
U.S. Defense Department. U.S. Defense Department.
96 CQ Congressional Transcripts, U.S. Congress, Senate Foreign Relations Committee, hearing on Pending Nominations, 118th Cong., 1st sess., May 4, 2023. Congressional Research Service 18 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations The new MOU is subdivided into four baskets of funds, including The new MOU is subdivided into four baskets of funds, including: $610 million in Economic $610 million in Economic
Support Funds (ESF) for direct U.S. budget support for the Jordanian governmentSupport Funds (ESF) for direct U.S. budget support for the Jordanian government – —the most of the most of
any country worldwide; $400 million in Foreign Military Funds (FMF) for Jordanian Armed any country worldwide; $400 million in Foreign Military Funds (FMF) for Jordanian Armed
Forces to procure U.S. equipment; $350 million in ESF for USAID programming; and $75 Forces to procure U.S. equipment; $350 million in ESF for USAID programming; and $75
million in “incentive” ESF to support Jordanian economic and public sector reforms.million in “incentive” ESF to support Jordanian economic and public sector reforms.7897 Although Although
the Jordanian media has described the new MOU as coming with “no strings attached” and the the Jordanian media has described the new MOU as coming with “no strings attached” and the
Biden Administration has been careful to discuss reforms stipulated in the new MOU as Biden Administration has been careful to discuss reforms stipulated in the new MOU as
emanating from Jordan, the new agreement does call on Jordan to take specific steps with regard emanating from Jordan, the new agreement does call on Jordan to take specific steps with regard
to its water sector and civil workforce.to its water sector and civil workforce.7998 According to Secretary of State Antony Blinken: According to Secretary of State Antony Blinken:
The MOU will support key reforms conceived of, and led by, King Abdullah’s government The MOU will support key reforms conceived of, and led by, King Abdullah’s government
focusing on improving the lives of Jordanians in tangiblefocusing on improving the lives of Jordanians in tangible ways, reforms like improving ways, reforms like improving
essential public services, tackling the water crisis, which is being exacerbated by climate essential public services, tackling the water crisis, which is being exacerbated by climate
change, expanding economic opportunities so that everyone in Jordan, including women, change, expanding economic opportunities so that everyone in Jordan, including women,
under-served groups can reach their full potential.under-served groups can reach their full potential.80

7899 For FY2024, the Biden Administration is seeking a total of $1.45 billion in assistance for Jordan in line with the MOU. According to the FY2024 CBJ, U.S. economic aid to Jordan will “advance the Government of Jordan’s (GoJ) economic reform agenda, mitigate the impacts of refugees from neighboring countries, and provide direct budget support to the GoJ for non-military expenditures, thereby decreasing the GoJ’s budget shortfalls.”100 Table 1. U.S. Bilateral Aid to Jordan: FY2020-FY2024 Request In millions of current U.S. dollars FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 FY2023 FY2024 Account Actual Actual Actual Enacted Request Development Assistance (DA) — 85.00 — — — Economic Support Fund (ESF) 1,082.40 1,122.40 1,203.40 1,210.80 1,035.80 Foreign Military Financing (FMF) 425.00 425.00 425.00 425.00 400.00 International Military Education 4.00 4.00 1.95 3.80 3.80 and Training (IMET) INCLE — — 2.50 — 2.50 Non-Proliferation, Anti- 13.60 13.60 13.20 10.40 5.90 Terrorism, Demining and Related Programs (NADR) Global Health Programs (GHP) — — 4.00 — 2.00 Total 1,525.00 1,650.00 1,650.05 1,650.00 1,450.00 Sources: Department of State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs Congressional Budget Justifications (FY2021-FY2024) and CRS calculations and rounding. 97 According to the text of the new MOU, the $75 million in ESF incentive funds are “intended to be disbursed through According to the text of the new MOU, the $75 million in ESF incentive funds are “intended to be disbursed through
modalities determined by the two governments.” Seemodalities determined by the two governments.” See, Memorandum of Understanding on Strategic Partnership Memorandum of Understanding on Strategic Partnership
between The Government of the United States of America and The Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. between The Government of the United States of America and The Government of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.
7998 Mohammad Ghazal, “No strings attached to $10.15b US aid package to Jordan Mohammad Ghazal, “No strings attached to $10.15b US aid package to Jordan — —ambassador,” ambassador,” Jordan Times, ,
October 5, 2022. October 5, 2022.
8099 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Department of State, “Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Jordanian Foreign Minister Ayman Safadi at a Joint Press Secretary Antony J. Blinken and Jordanian Foreign Minister Ayman Safadi at a Joint Press
Availability,Availability,” press release, September 16, 2022. 100 U.S. Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification: Foreign Operations Appendix 2, Fiscal Year 2024, p. 286 ~~September 16, 2022~~. .
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Notes: In FY2020 (P.L. 116-93), Congress permitted $125 mil ion in prior-year ESF to be made available for Jordan. Those funds are not included in this table. Figure 6. State Department and USAID Assistance to Jordan, FY2010-FY2023
(Executive branch requests vs. actual allocations in millions of current dollars) (Executive branch requests vs. actual allocations in millions of current dollars)

Source: Created by CRS using data from annual State Department Congressional Budget Justifications, Created by CRS using data from annual State Department Congressional Budget Justifications,
legislation, and explanatory statements. legislation, and explanatory statements.
Notes: Economic aid from the fol owing accounts: Economic Support Fund Economic aid from the fol owing accounts: Economic Support Fund ~~(ESF)~~, and Food for Peace Act, Title , and Food for Peace Act, Title
II (P.L. 480). Military aid from the fol owing accounts: Foreign Military FinancingII (P.L. 480). Military aid from the fol owing accounts: Foreign Military Financing ~~(FMF)~~, International Military , International Military
Education and Training (IMET), International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE), and Education and Training (IMET), International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE), and
Nonproliferation, Anti-Terrorism, Demining and Related Programs (NADR). Nonproliferation, Anti-Terrorism, Demining and Related Programs (NADR).
Economic Assistance
The United States provides economic aid to Jordan for (1) budgetary support (cash transfer), (2) The United States provides economic aid to Jordan for (1) budgetary support (cash transfer), (2)
USAID programs in Jordan, and (3) loan guarantees. As noted, the cash transfer portion of U.S. USAID programs in Jordan, and (3) loan guarantees. As noted, the cash transfer portion of U.S.
economic assistance to Jordan is the largest amount of budget support given to any U.S. foreign economic assistance to Jordan is the largest amount of budget support given to any U.S. foreign
aid recipient worldwide.aid recipient worldwide.81101 U.S. cash assistance is provided to help the kingdom with foreign debt U.S. cash assistance is provided to help the kingdom with foreign debt
payments, Syrian refugee support, and fuel import costs. (Jordan is almost entirely reliant on payments, Syrian refugee support, and fuel import costs. (Jordan is almost entirely reliant on
imports for its domestic energy needs.)imports for its domestic energy needs.) ~~According to USAID, ESF cash transfer funds are~~
~~deposited in a single tranche into a U.S.-domiciled interest-bearing account and are not~~
~~commingled with other funds.82 U.S. budget support (excluding military aid) to Jordan represents~~
~~6% of the kingdom’s entire annual budget ($15 billion for 2022).~~

81 101 Other budget support aid recipients include the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and Palau Other budget support aid recipients include the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and Palau.
~~82 USAID Congressional Notification, May 15, 2020~~. .
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Figure 7. U.S. Cash Transfers to Jordan
(Obligated funds since 2011 in millions of dollars) (Obligated funds since 2011 in millions of dollars)

Source: Created by CRS with data from USAID Foreign Aid Explorer. Created by CRS with data from USAID Foreign Aid Explorer.
~~USAID programs in Jordan focus on a variety of sectors, including democracy assistance, water~~
~~conservation, decentralization, health, and education (particularly building and renovating public~~
~~schools).~~
~~ In the democracy sector, U.S. assistance has supported capacity-building~~
~~programs for the parliament’s support offices, the Jordanian Judicial Council, the~~
~~Jordan Integrity and Anti-Corruption Commission, and the Ministry of Justice.~~
~~The International Republican Institute and the National Democratic Institute also~~
~~have received U.S. grants to train, among other groups, the Jordanian~~
~~Independent Election Commission (IEC),83 Jordanian political parties, and~~
~~members of parliament.~~
~~ In the water sector, the bulk of U.S. economic assistance is devoted to~~
~~optimizing the management of scarce water resources. USAID helps improve the~~
~~capacity of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, as well as local water utilities,~~
~~such as Miyahuna, Aqaba Water Company, the Yarmouk Water Companies, the~~
~~Water Authority of Jordan, and the Jordan Valley Authority.~~
~~ In the area of decentralization, Chemonics International is USAID’s primary~~
~~U.S. partner in implementing the Cities Implementing Transparent, Innovative,~~
~~and Effective Solutions (CITIES) project, which aims to improve how Jordanian~~
~~municipalities deliver core services.84 USAID also uses ESF to fund~~
~~infrastructure development in Jordanian municipalities in order to help create~~
~~jobs for Syrian refugees and Jordanians.~~

~~83 USAID also has provided grant assistance to the IEC to improve the transparency of elections administration.~~
~~84 Chemonics International, Strengthening Municipal Governance in Jordan, at https://chemonics.com/projects/~~
~~strengthening-municipal-governance-jordan/.~~
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~~ In the health sector, USAID grants support the Jordanian Ministry of Health in~~
~~responding to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, in conjunction with~~
~~implementing partners, such as Family Health International (FHI), Management~~
~~Systems International (MSI), and Abt Associates, USAID provides funding to~~
~~deliver improved reproductive, maternal, neonatal, and child health services.85~~
~~ In the education sector, USAID has supported the Jordan Compact Education~~
~~Fund, a multi-donor funding mechanism that has enabled 134,121 Syrian~~
~~children to enroll in Jordanian schools.86~~
~~U.S. Sovereign Loan Guarantees (or LGs) allow recipient governments (in this case, Jordan) to~~
~~issue debt securities that are fully guaranteed by the United States government in capital~~
~~markets,87 effectively subsidizing the cost for governments of accessing financing. Since 2013,~~
~~Congress has authorized88 LGs for Jordan and appropriated $413 million in ESF (the “subsidy~~
~~cost”) to support three separate tranches, enabling Jordan to borrow a total of $3.75 billion at~~
~~concessional lending rates.89~~
~~Humanitarian Assistance for Syrian Refugees in Jordan~~
~~The U.S. State Department estimates that, since large-scale U.S. aid to Syrian refugees began in~~
~~FY2012, it has allocated nearly $~~Humanitarian Assistance for Syrian Refugees in Jordan The U.S. State Department estimates that, since large-scale U.S. aid to Syrian refugees began in FY2012, it has allocated $2.2 billion in humanitarian assistance from global accounts for 2 billion in humanitarian assistance from global accounts for
programs in Jordan to meet the needs of Syrian refugees and, indirectly, to ease the burden on programs in Jordan to meet the needs of Syrian refugees and, indirectly, to ease the burden on
Jordan.Jordan.90 U.S. humanitarian assistance is provided both as cash assistance to refugees and through U.S. humanitarian assistance is provided both as cash assistance to refugees and through
programs to meet their basic needs, such as child health care, education, water, and sanitation.programs to meet their basic needs, such as child health care, education, water, and sanitation. To
~~help prevent the spread of COVID-19 in Jordan, the United States has provided $8.4 million in~~
~~aid, most of which is targeted toward Syrian refugees living in Jordan.91~~
Military Assistance
U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation is a key component in bilateral relations. U.S. military U.S.-Jordanian military cooperation is a key component in bilateral relations. U.S. military
assistance is primarily directed toward enabling the Jordanian military to procure and maintain assistance is primarily directed toward enabling the Jordanian military to procure and maintain
U.S.-origin conventional weapons systems. U.S. and Jordanian officials have conducted U.S.-origin conventional weapons systems. U.S. and Jordanian officials have conducted 4243
meetings of the U.S.-Jordan Joint Military Commission (JMC) in which high-level officers from meetings of the U.S.-Jordan Joint Military Commission (JMC) in which high-level officers from
both countries engage in discussions on enhancing cooperation and future procurement. Annual both countries engage in discussions on enhancing cooperation and future procurement. Annual

~~85 USAID, Congressional Notification #59, FY2020—Country Narrative, December 3, 2020.~~
~~86 U.S. Department of State, Country Reports on Terrorism, 2019.~~
~~87 “A Helping Hand,” International Financial Law Review, April 2014.~~
~~88 Congress initially authorized additional economic assistance to Jordan in Section 7041 of P.L. 112-74, the~~
~~Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012. P.L. 113-6, the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act,~~
~~2013, specified that such assistance should take the form of a loan guarantee. Section 1706(j) of the same act also~~
~~appropriated $30 million (from FY2011) for the initial cost of sovereign loan guarantees. Congress reauthorized loan~~
~~guarantees for Jordan in Section 7034 in each of the past eight consolidated appropriations acts (FY2015-FY2022).~~
~~89 For the latest Loan Guarantee Agreement between the United States and Jordan, see Treaties and Other International~~
~~Acts Series 15-624, Loan Guarantee Agreement between the United States of America and Jordan, Signed at Amman~~
~~May 31, 2015.~~
~~90 CRS Correspondence with USAID, April 2022.~~
~~91 USAID, State Department: Update: The United States Continues to Lead the Global Response to COVID-19,~~
~~available at https://www.usaid.gov/news-information/coronavirus/fact-sheets/may-29-2020-update-united-states-~~
~~continues-lead-global-response-covid-19.~~
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~~U.S. military aid represents at least 20% of Jordan’s total military defense budget.92 According to~~
~~the State Department, Jordan receives one of the largest allocations of International Military~~
~~Education and Training (IMET) funding worldwide, and IMET graduates in Jordan include “King~~
~~Abdullah II, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Vice Chairman, the Air Force~~
~~commander, the Special Forces commander, and numerous other commanders.”93~~
~~Foreign Military Financing (FMF)~~ U.S. military aid represents at least 20% of Jordan’s total military defense budget.102 According to the State Department, Jordan receives one of the largest allocations of International Military Education and Training (IMET) funding worldwide, and IMET graduates in Jordan include “King Abdullah II, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Vice Chairman, the Air Force commander, the Special Forces commander, and numerous other commanders.”103 102 According to Jane’s, Jordan’s 2022 defense budget is $2.17 billion. See Jane’s Defence Budgets, Jordan, April 5, 2022. 103 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Security Cooperation with Jordan,” fact sheet, October 26, 2018. Congressional Research Service 21 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations Foreign Military Financing and DOD Security Assistance
FMF overseen by the State Department is designed to support the Jordanian armed forces’ FMF overseen by the State Department is designed to support the Jordanian armed forces’
multiyear (usually five-year) procurement plans, while DOD-administered security assistance multiyear (usually five-year) procurement plans, while DOD-administered security assistance
supports ad hoc defense systems to respond to immediate threats and other contingencies. FMF supports ad hoc defense systems to respond to immediate threats and other contingencies. FMF
may be used to purchase new equipment (e.g., precision-guided munitions, night vision) or to may be used to purchase new equipment (e.g., precision-guided munitions, night vision) or to
sustain previous acquisitions (e.g., Blackhawk helicopters, AT-802 fixed-wing aircraft). FMF sustain previous acquisitions (e.g., Blackhawk helicopters, AT-802 fixed-wing aircraft). FMF
grants have enabled the Royal Jordanian Air Force to procure munitions for its F-16 fighter grants have enabled the Royal Jordanian Air Force to procure munitions for its F-16 fighter
aircraft and a fleet of 31 UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters.aircraft and a fleet of 31 UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters.94104
Figure 8. U.S.-Supplied Black Hawk Helicopters for Jordan

Source: : Jane’s Defence Weekly. .
In June 2022, the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF) signed a Letter of Acceptance (LOA) with In June 2022, the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF) signed a Letter of Acceptance (LOA) with
Lockheed Martin to acquire eight F-16 Block 70/72 aircraft. In February 2022, the Defense Lockheed Martin to acquire eight F-16 Block 70/72 aircraft. In February 2022, the Defense
Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) notified Congress of the potential sale of up to 12 F-16 Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) notified Congress of the potential sale of up to 12 F-16
Block 70 fighters to Jordan estimated at $4.21 billion. It is unclear whether the Biden Block 70 fighters to Jordan estimated at $4.21 billion. It is unclear whether the Biden
Administration has granted Jordan the ability to finance the purchase over multiple years, which Administration has granted Jordan the ability to finance the purchase over multiple years, which
may be necessary given the cost of the proposed sale.may be necessary given the cost of the proposed sale.~~95According~~105According to Jane’s World Air Forces, the RJAF fields 43 F-16A and 18 F-16B Fighting Falcons, and it is in the process of upgrading its fleet.106 In 2021, DSCA notified Congress of a potential Foreign Military Sale to Jordan of a $60 million Lockheed Martin F-16 Air Combat Training Center. As a result of the Syrian civil war and CJTF-OIR against the Islamic State, the United States has increased military aid to Jordan and channeled these increases through DOD-managed accounts (e.g., 333/1226/Coalition Support Funds). DOD assistance has helped finance the creation of the Jordan Border Security System, an integrated network of guard towers, surveillance cameras, and radar to guard the kingdom’s borders with Syria and Iraq. According CENTCOM correspondence with CRS, DOD funds support the maintenance and upgrades of UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters, 104 Gareth Jennings, “US Contracts Black Hawk for Jordan’s Royal Squadron,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 21, 2020. 105 Section 23 of the Arms Export Control Act (22 U.S.C. §276351) authorizes the President to finance the “procurement of defense articles, defense services, and design and construction services by friendly foreign countries and international organizations, on such terms and conditions as he may determine consistent with the requirements of this section.” 106 Gareth Jennings, “Jordan signs LOA for F-16 Block 70s,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, June 17, 2022. Congressional Research Service 22 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations reimbursement to the Royal Jordanian Air Force for flight time patrols and fuel in support of CJTF-OIR, and reimbursement for U.S. equipment Jordan needs to comply with CJTF-OIR technological requirements, such as friendly fire pods on F-16 fighters.107 ~~to Jane’s World Air Forces, the~~
~~RJAF fields 43 F-16A and 18 F-16B Fighting Falcons, and it is in the process of upgrading its~~

~~92 According to Jane’s, Jordan’s 2022 defense budget is $2.17 billion. See Jane’s Defence Budgets, Jordan, April 5,~~
~~2022.~~
~~93 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Security Cooperation with Jordan, Fact Sheet, October 26, 2018.~~
~~94 Gareth Jennings, “US Contracts Black Hawk for Jordan’s Royal Squadron,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 21,~~
~~2020.~~
~~95 Section 23 of the Arms Export Control Act (22 U.S.C. §276351) authorizes the President to finance the~~
~~“procurement of defense articles, defense services, and design and construction services by friendly foreign countries~~
~~and international organizations, on such terms and conditions as he may determine consistent with the requirements of~~
~~this section.”~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

19

~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

~~fleet.96 Last year, DSCA notified Congress of a potential Foreign Military Sale to Jordan of a $60~~
~~million Lockheed Martin F-16 Air Combat Training Center.~~
~~As a result of the Syrian civil war and CJTF-OIR against the Islamic State, the United States has~~
~~increased military aid to Jordan and channeled these increases through DOD-managed accounts~~
~~(e.g., 333/1226/Coalition Support Funds). DOD assistance has helped finance the creation of the~~
~~Jordan Border Security System, an integrated network of guard towers, surveillance cameras, and~~
~~radar to guard the kingdom’s borders with Syria and Iraq. According CENTCOM correspondence~~
~~with CRS, DOD funds support the maintenance and upgrades of UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters,~~
~~reimbursement to the Royal Jordanian Air Force for flight time patrols and fuel in support of~~
~~CJTF-OIR, and reimbursement for U.S. equipment Jordan needs to comply with CJTF-OIR~~
~~technological requirements, such as friendly fire pods on F-16 fighters.97~~
~~In December 2021, the United States Air Force, under C-130 Ramp-to-Ramp (R2R) transfer~~
~~program, donated three C-130 transport aircraft to the Royal Jordanian Air Force. According to~~
~~the U.S. Embassy in Amman, Jordan, “The transfer of the USAF C-130 aircraft boosts RJAF~~
~~fixed wing tactical airlift capability by nearly 50% and saves RJAF approximately $30 million in~~
~~equipment renovation costs.”98~~
Excess Defense Articles
In 1996, the United States granted Jordan Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) status, a designation In 1996, the United States granted Jordan Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) status, a designation
that, among other things, makes Jordan eligible to receive excess U.S. defense articles, training, that, among other things, makes Jordan eligible to receive excess U.S. defense articles, training,
and loans of equipment for cooperative research and development.and loans of equipment for cooperative research and development.99108 In the past decade, the In the past decade, the
United States has provided $83.3 million (current $ value) in excess U.S. defense articles to United States has provided $83.3 million (current $ value) in excess U.S. defense articles to
Jordan, including three AH-1 Cobra Helicopters, 45 Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles Jordan, including three AH-1 Cobra Helicopters, 45 Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles
(MRAPs), and M577A3 Tracked Command Post Carriers.(MRAPs), and M577A3 Tracked Command Post Carriers.~~100~~109 In December 2021, the United States Air Force, under C-130 Ramp-to-Ramp (R2R) transfer program, donated three C-130 transport aircraft to the Royal Jordanian Air Force. According to the U.S. Embassy in Amman, Jordan, “The transfer of the USAF C-130 aircraft boosts RJAF fixed wing tactical airlift capability by nearly 50% and saves RJAF approximately $30 million in equipment renovation costs.”110 Table 2. U.S. Foreign Aid Obligations to Jordan: 1946-2020 (in millions of current dollars) Total Economic Assistance Total Military Assistance Total $17,201.700 $9,252.900 $26,454.600 Source: USAID Overseas Loans and Grants, July 1, 1945-September 30, 2020. Author Information Jeremy M. Sharp Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs 107 CRS Correspondence with CENTCOM officials, August 24, 2022. 108 See “Presidential Determination No. 97-4 of November 12, 1996, Designation of Jordan as
~~Congressional Action~~
~~FY2023 National Defense Authorization bills~~ ~~- In House and Senate drafts of the National~~
~~Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 7900 and S. 4543), lawmakers would authorize $50 million for~~
~~the U.S. Air Force to construct petroleum storage units and new hangars at the Muwaffaq Salti~~
~~Air Base in Jordan. Section 1611 of S. 4543 would mandate U.S.-Jordanian cybersecurity~~
~~cooperation, such as training in computer network defense, and requires the Defense Department~~
~~to report to Congress on the implementation of cooperation.~~
FY2023 State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) bills – H.R.
~~8282, the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Appropriations Act,~~
~~2023 would provide Jordan “not less than” $1.65 billion in total aid, of which “not less than”~~
~~$1.035 billion is for ESF, “including for budget support, incentive funds, and programs~~
~~administered by USAID” that are “consistent with the applicable bilateral agreement between the~~
~~Government of the United States and the Government of Jordan for fiscal year 2023.” The bill~~
~~also would provide an additional $200 million in ESF made available “pursuant to the~~

~~96 Gareth Jennings, “Jordan signs LOA for F-16 Block 70s,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, June 17, 2022.~~
~~97 CRS Correspondence with CENTCOM officials, August 24, 2022.~~
~~98 U.S. Department of State, U.S. Embassy in Jordan, United States Air Force Transfers Three C-130 Aircraft to Royal~~
~~Jordanian Air Force, December 9, 2021.~~
~~99 See Designation of Jordan As~~ Major Non-NATO Major Non-NATO Ally,” 61 Federal Register 59809, November 25, 1996. 109~~Ally, Determination of President of the United States, No. 97-4,~~
~~November 12, 1996, 61 F.R. 59809.~~
~~100 Defense Security Cooperation Agency, EDA DataBase Tool, accessed April 2022.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~

20

~~Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations~~

~~commitments made under such bilateral agreement.” The bill also would commit “not less than”~~
~~$400 million in FMF. S. 4662, the Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related~~
~~Programs Appropriations Act, 2023 would provide Jordan $1.457 billion in total aid. The bill~~
~~would set aside $75 million in appropriated ESF and make it available through FY2026 for~~
~~“assistance if negotiated benchmarks towards reforms are met.” In report language accompanying~~
~~the Senate-introduced bill, appropriators expressed concern with “corruption and abuses within~~
~~Jordan’s judicial system, including arbitrary and incommunicado detention, mistreatment of~~
~~detainees by law enforcement personnel, and irregularities by prosecutorial authorities, and urges~~
~~the Government of Jordan to prioritize law enforcement and judicial reforms.”~~

FY2023 Defense Appropriations - H.R. 8236, the Department of Defense
~~Appropriations Act, 2023, would set a floor of “not less than” $150 million for Jordan for~~
~~border security. The bill also sets a ceiling of “up to” $500 million in the same defense~~
~~account to support the armed forces of Jordan and to enhance security along its borders.~~
~~The Senate companion bill, S. 4663, names Jordan as eligible for defense appropriations,~~
~~but does not provide either a specific amount or a minimum/maximum threshold.~~
~~Table 2. U.S. Foreign Aid Obligations to Jordan: 1946-2020~~
~~(in millions of current dollars)~~
~~Total Economic Assistance~~
~~Total Military Assistance~~
~~Total~~
~~$17,201.700~~
~~$9,252.900~~
~~$26,454.600~~
Source: USAID Overseas Loans and Grants, July 1, 1945-September 30, 2020.

~~Author Information~~

~~Jeremy M. Sharp~~

~~Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs~~

Defense Security Cooperation Agency, EDA DataBase Tool, accessed April 2022. 110 U.S. Department of State, “U.S. Embassy in Jordan, United States Air Force Transfers Three C-130 Aircraft to Royal Jordanian Air Force,” December 9, 2021. Congressional Research Service 23 Jordan: Background and U.S. Relations

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