Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research ~~November 4~~December 7, 2022 , 2022
and Development
Caitlin Keating-Bitonti
Multiple federal departments and agencies conduct ocean-based research and monitoring and/or Multiple federal departments and agencies conduct ocean-based research and monitoring and/or
Analyst in Natural Analyst in Natural
technological development. The interpretation of oceanographic data collected and studied by technological development. The interpretation of oceanographic data collected and studied by
Resources Policy Resources Policy
these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, nonprofit research the these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, nonprofit research the

federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers, including federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers, including
Members of Congress, on relevant societal issues and needs that extend beyond coastal Members of Congress, on relevant societal issues and needs that extend beyond coastal

communities and island states, such as climate change and characterization of the deep-sea for communities and island states, such as climate change and characterization of the deep-sea for
geohazard prediction, environmental protection, and natural resource management. geohazard prediction, environmental protection, and natural resource management.
The federal government generally is involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and technological development to The federal government generally is involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and technological development to
increase knowledge and understanding of the ocean. International interests also frame federal ocean work, as the ocean increase knowledge and understanding of the ocean. International interests also frame federal ocean work, as the ocean
supports global trade and recreation. The federal departments and agencies involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and supports global trade and recreation. The federal departments and agencies involved in ocean-based research, monitoring, and
technological development include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Aeronautics and technological development include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the National Science Space Administration, the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the National Science
Foundation, and the Office of Naval Research of the Department of the Navy, among others. Foundation, and the Office of Naval Research of the Department of the Navy, among others.
Federal ocean data collection efforts are varied and make use of many different types of tools and technology. The federal Federal ocean data collection efforts are varied and make use of many different types of tools and technology. The federal
government uses satellites, deployed instruments (e.g., buoys, floats), stationary monitoring (e.g., tide gauges), ship-based government uses satellites, deployed instruments (e.g., buoys, floats), stationary monitoring (e.g., tide gauges), ship-based
equipment (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors), and sampling (e.g., sediment corers) of targeted site locations, among other equipment (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors), and sampling (e.g., sediment corers) of targeted site locations, among other
approaches. Technology such as autonomous underwater vehicles, launched from land or ships, has the capability to collect approaches. Technology such as autonomous underwater vehicles, launched from land or ships, has the capability to collect
and automatically send large volumes of data to nearby shore facilities or back to the vessel. In addition, remote or human-and automatically send large volumes of data to nearby shore facilities or back to the vessel. In addition, remote or human-
operated vehicles and human technical divers can be used for exploration (including data collection and sampling) and operated vehicles and human technical divers can be used for exploration (including data collection and sampling) and
visualization of the ocean. Some departments and agencies also fund extramural research, such as through grants for projects visualization of the ocean. Some departments and agencies also fund extramural research, such as through grants for projects
where nonfederal entities carry out various types of ocean-based research and analysis efforts. where nonfederal entities carry out various types of ocean-based research and analysis efforts.
Congress may be interested in the potential of federal ocean-based research to inform the nation’s evolving understanding of Congress may be interested in the potential of federal ocean-based research to inform the nation’s evolving understanding of
the physical ocean and its resources. Some scientists and environmental and climate advocates argue that continuous, the physical ocean and its resources. Some scientists and environmental and climate advocates argue that continuous,
systematic ocean observations (e.g., temperature, salinity) may help identify climate impacts that contribute to ocean change systematic ocean observations (e.g., temperature, salinity) may help identify climate impacts that contribute to ocean change
(e.g., warming, sea ice melt) and, in turn, may affect society. Additionally, some experts note that using scientific knowledge (e.g., warming, sea ice melt) and, in turn, may affect society. Additionally, some experts note that using scientific knowledge
of the ocean’s current state to inform federal policy has both economic and environmental benefits. For example, federally of the ocean’s current state to inform federal policy has both economic and environmental benefits. For example, federally
collected and monitored ocean-based weather, climate, and physical Earth (i.e., seismic) data are used for early warning alerts collected and monitored ocean-based weather, climate, and physical Earth (i.e., seismic) data are used for early warning alerts
for severe events (e.g., hurricanes, tsunamis) headed for the United States and its territories. At the same time, ocean-based for severe events (e.g., hurricanes, tsunamis) headed for the United States and its territories. At the same time, ocean-based
research can be costly and time consuming, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts, compared to research can be costly and time consuming, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts, compared to
both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.
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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

Introduction
The Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Arctic, and Southern Oceans (collectively, the The Atlantic, Indian, Pacific, Arctic, and Southern Oceans (collectively, the global ocean) are ) are
interconnected and comprise 71% of Earth’s surface. The global ocean provides societal interconnected and comprise 71% of Earth’s surface. The global ocean provides societal
resources (e.g., coastal protection, storage of carbon) and affects various economic sectors (e.g., resources (e.g., coastal protection, storage of carbon) and affects various economic sectors (e.g.,
fisheries, marine transportation). For example, the ocean influences Earth’s weather and so can fisheries, marine transportation). For example, the ocean influences Earth’s weather and so can
affect things such as the amount of snowpack and spring melt, the strength and intensity of affect things such as the amount of snowpack and spring melt, the strength and intensity of
hurricanes making landfall, and seasonal crop yields. hurricanes making landfall, and seasonal crop yields.
The ocean is also a major component of the global climate system, as it absorbs, retains, and The ocean is also a major component of the global climate system, as it absorbs, retains, and
transports heat, water, and carbon. Scientists estimate with high confidence that the global ocean transports heat, water, and carbon. Scientists estimate with high confidence that the global ocean
has absorbed more than 90% of the atmosphere’s human-induced excess heat; since the 1980s, it has absorbed more than 90% of the atmosphere’s human-induced excess heat; since the 1980s, it
has very likely absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic (human-related) carbon has very likely absorbed between 20% and 30% of total anthropogenic (human-related) carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions.1 Climate change impacts on the ocean (e.g., warming) have affected dioxide (CO2) emissions.1 Climate change impacts on the ocean (e.g., warming) have affected
marine fisheries, the marine tourism and recreation sector, and global food security.2 Many view marine fisheries, the marine tourism and recreation sector, and global food security.2 Many view
the continued observation and monitoring of the global ocean as important tools for assessing the continued observation and monitoring of the global ocean as important tools for assessing
natural resources and related ecosystems in the face of these impacts. natural resources and related ecosystems in the face of these impacts.
Selected federal departments and agencies pursuing mission-based, long-term data collection and Selected federal departments and agencies pursuing mission-based, long-term data collection and
monitoring of the ocean include the Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and monitoring of the ocean include the Department of Commerce’s National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); the National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA); the Department of the Interior’s United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Bureau (NASA); the Department of the Interior’s United States Geological Survey (USGS) and Bureau
of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM); and the Department of the Navy’s (DON’s) Office of of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM); and the Department of the Navy’s (DON’s) Office of
Naval Research (ONR). The National Science Foundation (NSF)Naval Research (ONR). The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent agency that is an independent agency that
provides grant funding for short-term ocean research projects that investigate specific hypotheses provides grant funding for short-term ocean research projects that investigate specific hypotheses
and research questions. The NSF also supports research infrastructure (e.g., research facilities, and research questions. The NSF also supports research infrastructure (e.g., research facilities,
vessels, equipment and instruments, and other resources). Oceanographic data collected and vessels, equipment and instruments, and other resources). Oceanographic data collected and
studied by these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, and nonprofit studied by these federal departments and agencies—and the academic, commercial, and nonprofit
research the federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers, research the federal government helps support—provide information to domestic policymakers,
including Members of Congress. including Members of Congress.
Congressional interest in federal ocean data collection and research is multifold and includes Congressional interest in federal ocean data collection and research is multifold and includes
issues related to authorizing and funding specific ocean research activities and performing issues related to authorizing and funding specific ocean research activities and performing
oversight on the implementation of federal ocean research. Congressional funding for federal oversight on the implementation of federal ocean research. Congressional funding for federal
departments and agencies that conduct ocean-based research allows for the continued monitoring departments and agencies that conduct ocean-based research allows for the continued monitoring
of the ocean and the development of novel technologies to do so. In turn, Congress may use the of the ocean and the development of novel technologies to do so. In turn, Congress may use the
data and knowledge gained by these federal departments and agencies to inform legislation and data and knowledge gained by these federal departments and agencies to inform legislation and
oversight. Ocean research may provide other benefits, such as supporting ocean-based private-oversight. Ocean research may provide other benefits, such as supporting ocean-based private-
sector economic activities innovation and protecting sensitive marine habitats and their wildlife. sector economic activities innovation and protecting sensitive marine habitats and their wildlife.
At the same time, the collection and monitoring of ocean data by the federal government can be At the same time, the collection and monitoring of ocean data by the federal government can be
time consuming and costly, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts, time consuming and costly, and some may question the relative priority of individual efforts,
compared to both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. compared to both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.
This report provides an overview of the U.S. federal government’s efforts to collect ocean-based This report provides an overview of the U.S. federal government’s efforts to collect ocean-based
data through observations and monitoring and to conduct and support federal and U.S-based data through observations and monitoring and to conduct and support federal and U.S-based
extramural ocean-based scientific research. It also discusses selected federal grant making efforts extramural ocean-based scientific research. It also discusses selected federal grant making efforts

1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Summary for Policymakers,” in 1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Summary for Policymakers,” in The Ocean and Cryosphere in
a Changing Climate: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eds. Hans-Otto Pörtner et , eds. Hans-Otto Pörtner et
al., 2019, p. 9. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, al., 2019, p. 9. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere. .
2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at 2 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Fisheries, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-our-changing-climate. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-our-changing-climate.
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for these purposes. The report further explores the how ocean-based data may illuminate the for these purposes. The report further explores the how ocean-based data may illuminate the
impacts of climate change (e.g., data collected through NOAA’s Argo Program) and how impacts of climate change (e.g., data collected through NOAA’s Argo Program) and how
interagency collaboration and research on the seafloor and its environments may inform federal interagency collaboration and research on the seafloor and its environments may inform federal
policy on deep-sea geohazards and natural resources. policy on deep-sea geohazards and natural resources.
Federal Ocean Research Infrastructure
and Equipment
Research infrastructure contributes to the U.S. leadership role in ocean science. Federal research Research infrastructure contributes to the U.S. leadership role in ocean science. Federal research
infrastructure and equipment used to collect and monitor ocean data form the basis for much infrastructure and equipment used to collect and monitor ocean data form the basis for much
ocean research. The analysis of these data has the potential to elucidate threats (anthropogenic ocean research. The analysis of these data has the potential to elucidate threats (anthropogenic
and natural) to the ocean and its changing nature, contribute to marine resource (offshore energy) and natural) to the ocean and its changing nature, contribute to marine resource (offshore energy)
exploitation, maximize commercial fisheries yields, and provide warnings for marine geohazard exploitation, maximize commercial fisheries yields, and provide warnings for marine geohazard
and storm events. The information gained from these analyses may inform federal policy on the and storm events. The information gained from these analyses may inform federal policy on the
protection of the ocean, economic sectors that depend on marine resources, and coastal protection of the ocean, economic sectors that depend on marine resources, and coastal
communities. communities.
Federal departments and agencies have established programs and projects to collect ocean data, Federal departments and agencies have established programs and projects to collect ocean data,
using federal and nonfederal assets for observations. These data are collected through various using federal and nonfederal assets for observations. These data are collected through various
equipment, such as satellites (NOAA, NASA, USGS); ships (NOAA, USGS, BOEM, ONR); equipment, such as satellites (NOAA, NASA, USGS); ships (NOAA, USGS, BOEM, ONR);
aircraft (NOAA, NASA); and various deployed objects, such as buoys and floats (NOAA). In aircraft (NOAA, NASA); and various deployed objects, such as buoys and floats (NOAA). In
addition, federal agencies may use ocean data collected by international, regional, and private-addition, federal agencies may use ocean data collected by international, regional, and private-
sector partnerships and integrate these data into federal databases; for example, the European sector partnerships and integrate these data into federal databases; for example, the European
Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites’ polar satellite system contributes Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites’ polar satellite system contributes
to NOAA’s Joint Polar System.3 Stationary coastal equipment, such as tide and water-quality to NOAA’s Joint Polar System.3 Stationary coastal equipment, such as tide and water-quality
gauges (USGS), collect and monitor local oceanographic data. Ship-based equipment allows for gauges (USGS), collect and monitor local oceanographic data. Ship-based equipment allows for
detailed mapping (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors);4 exploration (e.g., human technical divers); detailed mapping (e.g., multibeam sonar sensors);4 exploration (e.g., human technical divers);
visualization (e.g., remote or human operated vehicles); and sampling (e.g., nets, tows, grab visualization (e.g., remote or human operated vehicles); and sampling (e.g., nets, tows, grab
samplers, sediment corers) of targeted site locations. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), samplers, sediment corers) of targeted site locations. Autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs),
routinely launched from ships, collect and automatically send large volumes of data to a nearby routinely launched from ships, collect and automatically send large volumes of data to a nearby
shore facility or back to the vessel. shore facility or back to the vessel.
Ocean data collection generally requires investment in time and resources. Lack of federal Ocean data collection generally requires investment in time and resources. Lack of federal
funding support can halt ongoing data collection. The below sections provide examples of funding support can halt ongoing data collection. The below sections provide examples of
individual U.S. federal department and agency ocean research efforts. The sections below do not individual U.S. federal department and agency ocean research efforts. The sections below do not
provide an exhaustive list of all the departments and agencies and their respective programs that provide an exhaustive list of all the departments and agencies and their respective programs that
conduct ocean-based research. conduct ocean-based research.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOAA’s mission includes to better understand the natural world (ocean, climate, space, and NOAA’s mission includes to better understand the natural world (ocean, climate, space, and
weather), help protect its resources, and monitor global weather and climate. To study the ocean, weather), help protect its resources, and monitor global weather and climate. To study the ocean,
NOAA uses satellites, ships, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), AUVs, aircraft, and other NOAA uses satellites, ships, remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), AUVs, aircraft, and other
smaller deployed instruments (e.g., buoys). NOAA is structured in six line offices that cover smaller deployed instruments (e.g., buoys). NOAA is structured in six line offices that cover

3 European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, “Metop Series,” at https://www.eumetsat.int/3 European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, “Metop Series,” at https://www.eumetsat.int/
our-satellites/metop-series. our-satellites/metop-series.
4 A 4 A multibeam sonar sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect seafloor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect seafloor
information surrounding the ship. For more information, see the Seafloor Bathymetry section ininformation surrounding the ship. For more information, see the Seafloor Bathymetry section in Appendix A.
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various aspects of the natural world.5 Four of NOAA’s six line offices are applicable to this various aspects of the natural world.5 Four of NOAA’s six line offices are applicable to this
report: National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS); Office of report: National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service (NESDIS); Office of
Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO); National Ocean Service (NOS); and Office of Oceanic Marine and Aviation Operations (OMAO); National Ocean Service (NOS); and Office of Oceanic
and Atmospheric Research (OAR). The line offices and their program offices described below are and Atmospheric Research (OAR). The line offices and their program offices described below are
not an exhaustive list of all ocean research carried out by NOAA but rather an illustration of the not an exhaustive list of all ocean research carried out by NOAA but rather an illustration of the
variety of research conducted. variety of research conducted.
NESDIS manages the nation’s operational environmental satellites and makes the environmental NESDIS manages the nation’s operational environmental satellites and makes the environmental
data collected by these satellites accessible to sources for research purposes and to enhance the data collected by these satellites accessible to sources for research purposes and to enhance the
nation’s economy and security.6 Selected NOAA satellites (i.e., NOAA-20, Suomi National Polar-nation’s economy and security.6 Selected NOAA satellites (i.e., NOAA-20, Suomi National Polar-
Orbiting Partnership, and Jason-3) are discussed in greater detail in the Orbiting Partnership, and Jason-3) are discussed in greater detail in the “National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, below.”7 elow.”7
OMAO operates specialized aircraft and ships and oversees small boat and underwater activities OMAO operates specialized aircraft and ships and oversees small boat and underwater activities
(including human technical diving) that help achieve NOAA’s environmental and scientific (including human technical diving) that help achieve NOAA’s environmental and scientific
missions. It operates 15 ships, including the missions. It operates 15 ships, including the Okeanos Explorer; four manned aircraft; and several ; four manned aircraft; and several
unmanned aircraft systems.8 unmanned aircraft systems.8
NOS leads NOAA’s navigation and charting efforts and coordinates a federal interagency NOS leads NOAA’s navigation and charting efforts and coordinates a federal interagency
program dedicated to coastal and ocean observations and research. NOS’s U.S. Integrated Ocean program dedicated to coastal and ocean observations and research. NOS’s U.S. Integrated Ocean
Observing System (IOOS) provides support, funding, guidance, and advice for tracking, Observing System (IOOS) provides support, funding, guidance, and advice for tracking,
predicting, managing, and adapting to environmental changes in the ocean, coastal system, and predicting, managing, and adapting to environmental changes in the ocean, coastal system, and
Great Lakes.9 In addition to managing some federal ocean data and modeling systems, IOOS Great Lakes.9 In addition to managing some federal ocean data and modeling systems, IOOS
integrates certain nonfederal information into these systems, which can inform decisionmaking on integrates certain nonfederal information into these systems, which can inform decisionmaking on
coastal monitoring, coastal and ocean development, and changes in the Arctic.10 coastal monitoring, coastal and ocean development, and changes in the Arctic.10
OAR conducts various aspects of ocean research across at least four offices. OAR conducts various aspects of ocean research across at least four offices.
 The Office of Ocean Exploration and Research is the only federal organization  The Office of Ocean Exploration and Research is the only federal organization
dedicated to exploring the deep ocean.11 NOAA’s dedicated to exploring the deep ocean.11 NOAA’s Okeanos Explorer is outfitted is outfitted
with the necessary technology to map the seafloor during research expeditions.12 with the necessary technology to map the seafloor during research expeditions.12
NOAA uses other infrastructure, such as aircraft equipped with remote sensing NOAA uses other infrastructure, such as aircraft equipped with remote sensing
technology and submersible ROVs, to map the depth and shape of the seafloor, technology and submersible ROVs, to map the depth and shape of the seafloor,
complementing multibeam sonar data. This office also funds non-NOAA, U.S.-complementing multibeam sonar data. This office also funds non-NOAA, U.S.-

5 NOAA, “NOAA Line Offices,” at https://www.corporateservices.noaa.gov/public/lineoffices.html. 5 NOAA, “NOAA Line Offices,” at https://www.corporateservices.noaa.gov/public/lineoffices.html.
6 NOAA, “Our Mission,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/about/our-mission. 6 NOAA, “Our Mission,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/about/our-mission.
7 NOAA, “Currently Flying,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/current-satellite-missions/currently-flying. 7 NOAA, “Currently Flying,” at https://www.nesdis.noaa.gov/current-satellite-missions/currently-flying.
8 NOAA, “Fleet,” at https://www.omao.noaa.gov/find/fleet. 8 NOAA, “Fleet,” at https://www.omao.noaa.gov/find/fleet.
9 The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009 (49 U.S.C. §§3601 et seq.) established the U.S. 9 The Integrated Coastal and Ocean Observation System Act of 2009 (49 U.S.C. §§3601 et seq.) established the U.S.
Integrated Ocean Observing System. Prior to the passing of the 2009 act, no coordinated approach to coastal and ocean Integrated Ocean Observing System. Prior to the passing of the 2009 act, no coordinated approach to coastal and ocean
observing existed; instead, nonuniform data was collected by multiple federal, tribal, state, and local agencies. observing existed; instead, nonuniform data was collected by multiple federal, tribal, state, and local agencies.
Integrated Ocean Observing System, “Senate Passing ICOOS Reauthorization,” at http://www.ioosassociation.org/Integrated Ocean Observing System, “Senate Passing ICOOS Reauthorization,” at http://www.ioosassociation.org/
senate-passing-icoos-reauthorization-2016; NOAA, “IOOS by the Numbers,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/ioos-by-senate-passing-icoos-reauthorization-2016; NOAA, “IOOS by the Numbers,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/ioos-by-
the-numbers/. the-numbers/.
10 NOAA, “Societal Benefits,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/societal-benefits/. 10 NOAA, “Societal Benefits,” at https://ioos.noaa.gov/about/societal-benefits/.
11 NOAA, “About NOAA Ocean Exploration,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html. 11 NOAA, “About NOAA Ocean Exploration,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/welcome.html.
12 While the mission equipment onboard Okeanos Explorer is operated by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and 12 While the mission equipment onboard Okeanos Explorer is operated by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and
Research within OAR, the ship is managed by NOAA’s OMAO. NOAA, “NOAA Ship Research within OAR, the ship is managed by NOAA’s OMAO. NOAA, “NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer: Meet the : Meet the
Team,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorers/explorers.html. Team,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorers/explorers.html.
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based researchers conducting ocean exploration to better document and based researchers conducting ocean exploration to better document and
understand U.S. waters.13understand U.S. waters.13
 The Climate Program Office manages a competitive grant program to fund high-  The Climate Program Office manages a competitive grant program to fund high-
priority climate science research on Earth’s climate system, including its priority climate science research on Earth’s climate system, including its
atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice components. These grants support activities atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice components. These grants support activities
related to climate observations; Earth system science; climate and societal related to climate observations; Earth system science; climate and societal
interactions; and modeling, analysis, predictions, and projections. Research interactions; and modeling, analysis, predictions, and projections. Research
results funded by these grants aim to enable scientists to quantify the amount of results funded by these grants aim to enable scientists to quantify the amount of
heat and CO2 uptake by the global ocean, to estimate rates of sea level rise, and to heat and CO2 uptake by the global ocean, to estimate rates of sea level rise, and to
provide adaptation tools for fisheries threatened by warming ocean waters, provide adaptation tools for fisheries threatened by warming ocean waters,
among other findings. among other findings.
 The Ocean Acidification Program coordinates research and activities to better  The Ocean Acidification Program coordinates research and activities to better
understand the ocean’s chemistry; how it is changing; its rate of change; how understand the ocean’s chemistry; how it is changing; its rate of change; how
change varies regionally; and how marine life (e.g., coral reefs), people, and the change varies regionally; and how marine life (e.g., coral reefs), people, and the
economy (e.g., the marine tourism and recreation sectors) are impacted. This economy (e.g., the marine tourism and recreation sectors) are impacted. This
program also provides funds for extramural research and ensures data collected program also provides funds for extramural research and ensures data collected
by funded projects are archived and accessible for future research use.14 by funded projects are archived and accessible for future research use.14
 The objective of the Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program (GOMO),  The objective of the Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing Program (GOMO),
funded under OAR’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring (SOOM),15 is funded under OAR’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring (SOOM),15 is
to conduct continuous, in situ observations for ocean-based research, monitoring, to conduct continuous, in situ observations for ocean-based research, monitoring,
and prediction. The GOMO supports more than 1 million oceanographic and prediction. The GOMO supports more than 1 million oceanographic
observations per day,16 through various activities such as the Global Ocean observations per day,16 through various activities such as the Global Ocean
Carbon Network and the Argo Program, among others. The Global Ocean Carbon Carbon Network and the Argo Program, among others. The Global Ocean Carbon
Network aims to help researchers better understand the ocean’s role in the global Network aims to help researchers better understand the ocean’s role in the global
carbon cycle, including how the ocean absorbs atmospheric CO2 and distributes carbon cycle, including how the ocean absorbs atmospheric CO2 and distributes
carbon throughout the global ocean. The Argo Program is composed of nearly carbon throughout the global ocean. The Argo Program is composed of nearly
4,000 Argo Profiling Floats4,000 Argo Profiling Floats (Figure 1). These floats drift with currents across the . These floats drift with currents across the
global ocean, capturing over time a near-global record of ocean temperature, global ocean, capturing over time a near-global record of ocean temperature,
salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH data.17 The Agro Program is international, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and pH data.17 The Agro Program is international,
with participation and program funding from over 25 countries; NOAA maintains with participation and program funding from over 25 countries; NOAA maintains
about half of the global fleet.18 about half of the global fleet.18

13 NOAA, “Federal Funding Opportunity,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/funding-opps/welcome.html. 13 NOAA, “Federal Funding Opportunity,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/about/funding-opps/welcome.html.
14 NOAA, “Data Collection and Management,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/Data.aspx. 14 NOAA, “Data Collection and Management,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/Data.aspx.
For more information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, Ocean Acidification: Frequently Asked Questions, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. 15 NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observations and Monitoring (SOOM) Program, Project Activity (PPA) is a funding line 15 NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observations and Monitoring (SOOM) Program, Project Activity (PPA) is a funding line
in NOAA’s budget. GOMO is the NOAA program that receives the initial allocation of the SOOM PPA; but SOOM is in NOAA’s budget. GOMO is the NOAA program that receives the initial allocation of the SOOM PPA; but SOOM is
not GOMO’s sole funding source. GOMO may use SOOM funds to support other programs which contribute to the not GOMO’s sole funding source. GOMO may use SOOM funds to support other programs which contribute to the
overall priorities set by GOMO. Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of overall priorities set by GOMO. Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of
Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, December 13, 2021. Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, December 13, 2021.
16 NOAA, “Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing,” at https://globalocean.noaa.gov/About-Us. 16 NOAA, “Global Ocean Monitoring and Observing,” at https://globalocean.noaa.gov/About-Us.
17. NOAA, “NOAA Updates Sea Surface Temperature Dataset,” at https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/noaa-updates-sea-17. NOAA, “NOAA Updates Sea Surface Temperature Dataset,” at https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/news/noaa-updates-sea-
surface-temperature-dataset. surface-temperature-dataset.
18 NOAA, “Argo Program Achieves Milestone with Two Million Ocean Measurements,” at https://research.noaa.gov/ 18 NOAA, “Argo Program Achieves Milestone with Two Million Ocean Measurements,” at https://research.noaa.gov/
article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2398/Argo-Program-Achieves-Milestone-with-Two-Million-Ocean-Measurements. article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2398/Argo-Program-Achieves-Milestone-with-Two-Million-Ocean-Measurements.
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Figure 1. NOAA Argo Profiling Float 10-Day Data Collection Cycle

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Argo Program,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Argo Program,” at
https://globalocean.noaa.gov/Research/Argo-Program. https://globalocean.noaa.gov/Research/Argo-Program.
Notes: At the end of the 10-day cycle, Argo floats transmit data to satellites from which it is col ected and At the end of the 10-day cycle, Argo floats transmit data to satellites from which it is col ected and
processed for public use. Abbreviations included in the figure include kilometers = km, centimeters per second = processed for public use. Abbreviations included in the figure include kilometers = km, centimeters per second =
cm/s, minutes = min, and hours = hrs. cm/s, minutes = min, and hours = hrs.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA studies the Earth, including its ocean and climate, the sun, and the solar system and NASA studies the Earth, including its ocean and climate, the sun, and the solar system and
beyond. In the 1960s, NASA began launching satellites to monitor Earth’s weather. NASA has beyond. In the 1960s, NASA began launching satellites to monitor Earth’s weather. NASA has
since expanded the types of Earth-observing data it collects with satellites to study Earth’s since expanded the types of Earth-observing data it collects with satellites to study Earth’s
climate system. climate system.
NASA’s Earth Science Division plans, develops, and operates missions that support the science NASA’s Earth Science Division plans, develops, and operates missions that support the science
of Earth’s atmosphere, land cover and vegetation, ocean currents and upper-ocean life, and of Earth’s atmosphere, land cover and vegetation, ocean currents and upper-ocean life, and
continental and sea ice.19 The bulleted list below is not an exhaustive list of all ocean research continental and sea ice.19 The bulleted list below is not an exhaustive list of all ocean research
missions carried out by NASA but describes selected satellites that support NASA’s Earth missions carried out by NASA but describes selected satellites that support NASA’s Earth
observing missions and supply ocean data to researchers.observing missions and supply ocean data to researchers.
  Aqua. This satellite’s mission is to collect information about Earth’s global water This satellite’s mission is to collect information about Earth’s global water
cycle, including sea surface temperature (SST) and ocean color. The satellite has cycle, including sea surface temperature (SST) and ocean color. The satellite has

19 NASA, “NASA Earth Science Division Mission,” October 18, 2021, at https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30065. 19 NASA, “NASA Earth Science Division Mission,” October 18, 2021, at https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/30065.
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four operating instruments that collect and transmit high-quality data to inform four operating instruments that collect and transmit high-quality data to inform
weather forecasts, carbon management, coastal management, disaster weather forecasts, carbon management, coastal management, disaster
management, and water management.20 management, and water management.20
  OCO-2. This satellite is the first satellite to collect space-based measurements of This satellite is the first satellite to collect space-based measurements of
atmospheric CO2.21 These measurements help identify areas that are natural CO2 atmospheric CO2.21 These measurements help identify areas that are natural CO2
sinks, such as the ocean.sinks, such as the ocean.
  Terra. This satellite is equipped with five instruments that are capable of This satellite is equipped with five instruments that are capable of
comparing different aspects of Earth over time, including SST and ocean color.22 comparing different aspects of Earth over time, including SST and ocean color.22
  Jason-3. This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with
technology to collect detailed sea level measurements (altimetry) to gain insight technology to collect detailed sea level measurements (altimetry) to gain insight
into ocean circulation and climate change.23 into ocean circulation and climate change.23
  Sentinel-6. This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with This NASA and NOAA partnership satellite is equipped with
technology capable of collecting sea level measurements within 1 centimeter of technology capable of collecting sea level measurements within 1 centimeter of
precision.24 precision.24
  GRACE-FO. This satellite broadly tracks Earth’s water, including ice sheets and This satellite broadly tracks Earth’s water, including ice sheets and
glaciers, and sea level changes due water additions to the ocean.25 glaciers, and sea level changes due water additions to the ocean.25
  ICESat-2. This satellite measures Earth’s ice coverage within 4 millimeters of This satellite measures Earth’s ice coverage within 4 millimeters of
precision using its only onboard instrument, the Advanced Topographic Laser precision using its only onboard instrument, the Advanced Topographic Laser
Altimeter System.26 Altimeter System.26
  Landsat 8 and 9. These satellites are a collaboration between NASA and USGS . These satellites are a collaboration between NASA and USGS
that primarily collect data on Earth’s land surface (i.e., not the ocean) but also that primarily collect data on Earth’s land surface (i.e., not the ocean) but also
provide information on shallow coastal seafloor bathymetry.27 provide information on shallow coastal seafloor bathymetry.27
  Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP). This satellite was This satellite was
developed by NASA for NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System to provide data for developed by NASA for NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System to provide data for
weather forecasts and extreme storm events. Suomi NPP carries five research weather forecasts and extreme storm events. Suomi NPP carries five research
instruments to monitor the climate system (e.g., ocean color) while collecting the instruments to monitor the climate system (e.g., ocean color) while collecting the
operational requirements for weather forecasting (e.g., SST), demonstrating the operational requirements for weather forecasting (e.g., SST), demonstrating the
multifunctional nature of satellite technology.28 multifunctional nature of satellite technology.28
  NOAA-20. This satellite, Suomi NPP’s successor and also built by NASA for This satellite, Suomi NPP’s successor and also built by NASA for
NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System, collects data on SST and ocean color.29 NOAA’s Joint Polar Satellite System, collects data on SST and ocean color.29

20 NASA, “Aqua Earth-Observing Satellite Mission,” at https://aqua.nasa.gov/. 20 NASA, “Aqua Earth-Observing Satellite Mission,” at https://aqua.nasa.gov/.
21 NASA, “Quick Facts,” at https://ocov2.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/quick-facts/. 21 NASA, “Quick Facts,” at https://ocov2.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/quick-facts/.
22 NASA, “Terra Instruments,” at https://terra.nasa.gov/about/terra-instruments. 22 NASA, “Terra Instruments,” at https://terra.nasa.gov/about/terra-instruments.
23 NASA, “Jason-3,” at https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/jason-3. 23 NASA, “Jason-3,” at https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/jason-3.
24 NASA, “Sentinel-6 Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/overview. 24 NASA, “Sentinel-6 Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/overview.
25 NASA, “Mission,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/overview/. 25 NASA, “Mission,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/overview/.
26 Anna Heiney, “ICESat-2 Successfully Launched on Final Flight of Delta II Rocket,” NASA ICESat-2 blog, 26 Anna Heiney, “ICESat-2 Successfully Launched on Final Flight of Delta II Rocket,” NASA ICESat-2 blog,
September 15, 2018, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/icesat2/. September 15, 2018, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/icesat2/.
27 NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. 27 NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/.
For more information, see CRS Report R46560, For more information, see CRS Report R46560, Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, ,
by Anna E. Normand. by Anna E. Normand.
28 NASA, “NPP Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/mission_overview/index.html. For 28 NASA, “NPP Mission Overview,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/NPP/mission_overview/index.html. For
more information on NOAA’s polar-orbiting weather satellites, see CRS Report R44335, more information on NOAA’s polar-orbiting weather satellites, see CRS Report R44335, Minding the Data Gap:
NOAA’s Polar-Orbiting Weather Satellites and Strategies for Data Continuity, by Peter Folger. , by Peter Folger.
29 NOAA, “Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Program Office,” at https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/. 29 NOAA, “Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS) Program Office,” at https://www.jpss.noaa.gov/.
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link to page 14 link to page 16 link to page 14 link to page 16 Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

United States Geological Survey
The USGS is a scientific agency within the Department of the Interior (DOI).30 USGS scientists The USGS is a scientific agency within the Department of the Interior (DOI).30 USGS scientists
monitor, analyze, and predict the current and evolving dynamics of the Earth. A core USGS monitor, analyze, and predict the current and evolving dynamics of the Earth. A core USGS
mission is mapping, which includes coastal maps generated from bathymetric surveys;31 mission is mapping, which includes coastal maps generated from bathymetric surveys;31
generally, NOAA is the primary federal source for ocean bathymetric data. The USGS also generally, NOAA is the primary federal source for ocean bathymetric data. The USGS also
collects, monitors, and analyzes natural resources data, including for resources found in the collects, monitors, and analyzes natural resources data, including for resources found in the
ocean, such as sand and gravel for construction and minerals required for emerging ocean, such as sand and gravel for construction and minerals required for emerging
technologies.32 technologies.32
At least three selected USGS programs are engaged in ocean-based research. At least three selected USGS programs are engaged in ocean-based research.
 The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program, within the Natural Hazards  The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program, within the Natural Hazards
Mission Area, collects and manages data, such as information about gas hydrates, Mission Area, collects and manages data, such as information about gas hydrates,
hydrothermal vent deposits, and rare Earth minerals.33 This program also hydrothermal vent deposits, and rare Earth minerals.33 This program also
supports other ocean science topics, such as mapping the extent of the continental supports other ocean science topics, such as mapping the extent of the continental
shelf; studying factors related to sea level rise; and conducting research on ocean shelf; studying factors related to sea level rise; and conducting research on ocean
ecosystems, including benthic ecosystems (i.e., organisms living on or in seafloor ecosystems, including benthic ecosystems (i.e., organisms living on or in seafloor
sediments). sediments).
 The Groundwater and Streamflow Information Program, within the Water  The Groundwater and Streamflow Information Program, within the Water
Resources Mission, deploys, operates, and retrieves sensors for coastal storm Resources Mission, deploys, operates, and retrieves sensors for coastal storm
events, including tide gauges and other water sensors (seevents, including tide gauges and other water sensors (see Table 1 and Table 2). .
The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program augments data collection The Coastal/Marine Hazards and Resources Program augments data collection
and other activities associated with storm events as needed.34 and other activities associated with storm events as needed.34
 The Climate Research and Development Program, within the Ecosystems  The Climate Research and Development Program, within the Ecosystems
Mission Area, supports monitoring of the Arctic, sea ice, and sea level rise. This Mission Area, supports monitoring of the Arctic, sea ice, and sea level rise. This
program also collects and analyzes deep-sea sediments to reconstruct changes in program also collects and analyzes deep-sea sediments to reconstruct changes in
past climate and oceanographic conditions. past climate and oceanographic conditions.
Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
BOEM, an agency within DOI, manages the development of the nation’s energy and mineral BOEM, an agency within DOI, manages the development of the nation’s energy and mineral
resources on the outer continental shelf (OCS), which includes submerged lands, subsoil, and resources on the outer continental shelf (OCS), which includes submerged lands, subsoil, and
seabeds under U.S. jurisdiction.35 BOEM conducts geological and geophysical (G&G) surveys to seabeds under U.S. jurisdiction.35 BOEM conducts geological and geophysical (G&G) surveys to

30 For more background on the USGS, see CRS In Focus IF11433, 30 For more background on the USGS, see CRS In Focus IF11433, The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): FY2021
Appropriations Process and Background, by Anna E. Normand. , by Anna E. Normand.
31 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Sea Floor Mapping Group,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/sea- 31 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Sea Floor Mapping Group,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/sea-
floor-mapping-group?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. floor-mapping-group?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.
32 USGS, “Ocean Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/ocean-resources; USGS, “Celebrate 32 USGS, “Ocean Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/whcmsc/science/ocean-resources; USGS, “Celebrate
June as Oceans Month,” June 2, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/celebrate-june-oceans-month. June as Oceans Month,” June 2, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/celebrate-june-oceans-month.
33 USGS, “Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/coastal-33 USGS, “Coastal and Marine Hazards and Resources Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/natural-hazards/coastal-
marine-hazards-and-resources/science/ocean-resources. marine-hazards-and-resources/science/ocean-resources.
34 USGS funding for these activities primarily comes from reimbursable partners (typically the Federal Emergency 34 USGS funding for these activities primarily comes from reimbursable partners (typically the Federal Emergency
Management Agency) as storm events occur. Email correspondence with USGS, Congressional Liaison, Congressional Management Agency) as storm events occur. Email correspondence with USGS, Congressional Liaison, Congressional
Liaison Office, on January 7, 2022. Liaison Office, on January 7, 2022.
35 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356b) defines the outer continental shelf (OCS) 35 The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356b) defines the outer continental shelf (OCS)
as all federally controlled submerged lands, subsoil, and seabed. The OCS generally begins 3 nautical miles as all federally controlled submerged lands, subsoil, and seabed. The OCS generally begins 3 nautical miles
(international nautical mile = 6,076.1 feet) off the coastline and extends for at least 200 nautical miles to the edge of the (international nautical mile = 6,076.1 feet) off the coastline and extends for at least 200 nautical miles to the edge of the
exclusive economic zone, or farther if the continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles. For more information, exclusive economic zone, or farther if the continental shelf extends beyond 200 nautical miles. For more information,
see CRS Report RL33404, see CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework, by Adam Vann. , by Adam Vann.
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obtain data on oil and gas reserves located on the OCS, identify sites for offshore renewable obtain data on oil and gas reserves located on the OCS, identify sites for offshore renewable
energy structures, and locate marine mineral resources.36 energy structures, and locate marine mineral resources.36
BOEM conducts two types of G&G surveys: deep penetration airgun surveys and high-resolution BOEM conducts two types of G&G surveys: deep penetration airgun surveys and high-resolution
geophysical (HRG) surveys to characterize the subsurface of the seafloor (i.e., different layers of geophysical (HRG) surveys to characterize the subsurface of the seafloor (i.e., different layers of
rock beneath the seafloor).37 Deep penetration airgun surveys are also used for oil and gas rock beneath the seafloor).37 Deep penetration airgun surveys are also used for oil and gas
exploration. HRG surveys can be used for oil and gas exploration, siting for renewable energy exploration. HRG surveys can be used for oil and gas exploration, siting for renewable energy
structures, and sand and gravel identification. HRG equipment can include multibeam sonars, structures, and sand and gravel identification. HRG equipment can include multibeam sonars,
sidescan sonars, and sub-bottom profilers. These surveys typically operate at higher frequencies sidescan sonars, and sub-bottom profilers. These surveys typically operate at higher frequencies
and image smaller structures at higher levels of detail as compared with airgun surveys. and image smaller structures at higher levels of detail as compared with airgun surveys.
BOEM has four programs, among other activities, that involve ocean-based studies and the BOEM has four programs, among other activities, that involve ocean-based studies and the
management of related scientific research and data. management of related scientific research and data.
 The Conventional Energy Program, among other activities, conducts assessments  The Conventional Energy Program, among other activities, conducts assessments
of the oil and gas resource potential on the OCS, including G&G surveys to of the oil and gas resource potential on the OCS, including G&G surveys to
obtain data useful for oil and gas exploration, inventories of oil and gas reserves, obtain data useful for oil and gas exploration, inventories of oil and gas reserves,
and economic evaluations. and economic evaluations.
 The Renewable Energy Program, among other activities, funds and manages  The Renewable Energy Program, among other activities, funds and manages
scientific research related to renewable energy projects on the OCS (e.g., scientific research related to renewable energy projects on the OCS (e.g.,
potential environmental and ecological stressors during the construction and potential environmental and ecological stressors during the construction and
operation of offshore renewable energy facilities).operation of offshore renewable energy facilities).
 The Environmental Program funds and manages relevant environmental studies  The Environmental Program funds and manages relevant environmental studies
including, but not limited to, physical oceanography, protected species, including, but not limited to, physical oceanography, protected species,
economics, and cultural resources.economics, and cultural resources.
 The Marine Minerals Program, among other activities, conducts environmental  The Marine Minerals Program, among other activities, conducts environmental
studies and assessments, performs resource evaluation studies, and contributes studies and assessments, performs resource evaluation studies, and contributes
data for data for bathymetric maps.38 Initiatives include the National Offshore Critical .38 Initiatives include the National Offshore Critical
Mineral Inventory, the National Offshore Sand Inventory, and the Marine Mineral Inventory, the National Offshore Sand Inventory, and the Marine
Minerals Information System (with information on OCS sand and gravel Minerals Information System (with information on OCS sand and gravel
resources).resources).
National Science Foundation
NSF promotes the progress of science by funding extramural research, largely through grants NSF promotes the progress of science by funding extramural research, largely through grants
awarded in support of academic research.39 The types of data collected, and the modes of data awarded in support of academic research.39 The types of data collected, and the modes of data
collection and observation, depend on the awarded research project. Funding duration for NSF collection and observation, depend on the awarded research project. Funding duration for NSF
grants generally ranges from one to five years, with an average of three years for research grants generally ranges from one to five years, with an average of three years for research
grants.40 grants.40

36 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at 36 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at
https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf. https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf.
37 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at 37 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), “Fact Sheet: Geological and Geophysical (G&G) Surveys,” at
https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf. https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Overview.pdf.
38 38 Bathymetric maps give the ocean’s depth relative to sea level and show the three-dimensional features of the seafloor give the ocean’s depth relative to sea level and show the three-dimensional features of the seafloor
(similar to topographic maps). NOAA, “What Is Bathymetry,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathymetry.html. (similar to topographic maps). NOAA, “What Is Bathymetry,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathymetry.html.
39 For more information on the National Science Foundation (NSF), see CRS Report R46753, 39 For more information on the National Science Foundation (NSF), see CRS Report R46753, The National Science
Foundation: An Overview, by Laurie A. Harris. , by Laurie A. Harris.
40 NSF, 40 NSF, Merit Review Process: Fiscal Year 2019 Digest, December 2020, pp. 7, 20, https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/, December 2020, pp. 7, 20, https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/
.publications/2020/merit_review/FY-2019/nsb202038.pdf. .publications/2020/merit_review/FY-2019/nsb202038.pdf.
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The Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE) within the NSF Directorate for Geosciences, provides The Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE) within the NSF Directorate for Geosciences, provides
funding support to advance understanding of all aspects of the global ocean (including human funding support to advance understanding of all aspects of the global ocean (including human
interactions),41 and gives the nation’s academic community the opportunity to obtain funds to interactions),41 and gives the nation’s academic community the opportunity to obtain funds to
work toward advancing this understanding through competitive grants. Aspects of ocean research work toward advancing this understanding through competitive grants. Aspects of ocean research
may also be supported by other NSF Directorates (e.g., Directorate for Biological Sciences, may also be supported by other NSF Directorates (e.g., Directorate for Biological Sciences,
Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences). In general, about 30% of OCE’s funding Directorate for Mathematical and Physical Sciences). In general, about 30% of OCE’s funding
each year goes to new research grants, with the remaining 70% supporting grants made in each year goes to new research grants, with the remaining 70% supporting grants made in
previous years and research infrastructure.42 Also within NSF’s Directorate for Geosciences is the previous years and research infrastructure.42 Also within NSF’s Directorate for Geosciences is the
Office of Polar Programs (OPP), which includes research funding for scientists supported by NSF Office of Polar Programs (OPP), which includes research funding for scientists supported by NSF
and by other U.S. departments and agencies studying the polar regions, including the Southern and by other U.S. departments and agencies studying the polar regions, including the Southern
and Arctic Oceans. OPP leverages both interagency and international partnerships. and Arctic Oceans. OPP leverages both interagency and international partnerships.
Both OCE and OPP support the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP),43 including Both OCE and OPP support the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP),43 including
infrastructure programs that focus on observing today’s changing ocean while better infrastructure programs that focus on observing today’s changing ocean while better
understanding past climate events to inform future climate change. For FY2022, the USGCRP understanding past climate events to inform future climate change. For FY2022, the USGCRP
established five research themes, including the Ocean’s Role in Climate Change.44 established five research themes, including the Ocean’s Role in Climate Change.44
NSF is part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS),45 which NSF is part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS),45 which
provides a forum for the research and education community and the federal government to work provides a forum for the research and education community and the federal government to work
cooperatively on oceanographic research while coordinating a federally supported Academic cooperatively on oceanographic research while coordinating a federally supported Academic
Research Fleet (ARF).46 For example, the R/V Research Fleet (ARF).46 For example, the R/V Sikuliaq is a research vessel owned by the NSF is a research vessel owned by the NSF
and operated by the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences at the University of Alaska and operated by the College of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences at the University of Alaska
Fairbanks, specializing in polar-focused ocean research. OCE also oversees the Regional Class Fairbanks, specializing in polar-focused ocean research. OCE also oversees the Regional Class
Research Vessel (RCRV) project, which is currently funding the construction of three ships for Research Vessel (RCRV) project, which is currently funding the construction of three ships for
inclusion in the ARF to support the needs of researchers in coastal zones.47 The transition of these inclusion in the ARF to support the needs of researchers in coastal zones.47 The transition of these
three new ships from construction to operations is estimated for Fall 2022.48 three new ships from construction to operations is estimated for Fall 2022.48
NSF also provides support to the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), an NSF also provides support to the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP), an
international marine research collaboration that uses research platforms to drill and recover international marine research collaboration that uses research platforms to drill and recover
seafloor sediments that can be used to study the dynamics of the sub-seafloor and the past 200 seafloor sediments that can be used to study the dynamics of the sub-seafloor and the past 200
million years of Earth’s history.49 Seafloor sediments can be used to reconstruct the extent of sea million years of Earth’s history.49 Seafloor sediments can be used to reconstruct the extent of sea

41 NSF, “About the Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE),” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/about.jsp. 41 NSF, “About the Division of Ocean Sciences (OCE),” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/oce/about.jsp.
42 NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Geosciences,” p. GEO-11, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/42 NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Geosciences,” p. GEO-11, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/
budget/fy2022/pdf/49_fy2022.pdf. Hereinafter referred to as “FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response.” budget/fy2022/pdf/49_fy2022.pdf. Hereinafter referred to as “FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response.”
43 The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was mandated by Congress in the Global Change Research 43 The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) was mandated by Congress in the Global Change Research
Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-606) to coordinate federal research and investments across 13 departments and agencies to Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-606) to coordinate federal research and investments across 13 departments and agencies to
advance understanding of the changing Earth system. USGCRP, “About USGCRP,” at https://www.globalchange.gov/advance understanding of the changing Earth system. USGCRP, “About USGCRP,” at https://www.globalchange.gov/
about. about.
44 FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response, p. GEO-10. 44 FY2022 NSF GEO Budget Response, p. GEO-10.
45 University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), “UNOLS Charter,” at https://www.unols.org/45 University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS), “UNOLS Charter,” at https://www.unols.org/
sites/default/files/UNOLS_Charter_2019.pdf. sites/default/files/UNOLS_Charter_2019.pdf.
46 ARF vessels support the needs of all federal oceanographic research stakeholders, particularly NSF, NOAA, and 46 ARF vessels support the needs of all federal oceanographic research stakeholders, particularly NSF, NOAA, and
ONR. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction,” p. ONR. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction,” p.
MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf. MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf.
47 Regional Class Research Vessels (RCRV) was designed to support the eight high-priority science questions 47 Regional Class Research Vessels (RCRV) was designed to support the eight high-priority science questions
identified in the 2015 National Academies report on sea change. The National Academies, “Sea Change: 2015-2025 identified in the 2015 National Academies report on sea change. The National Academies, “Sea Change: 2015-2025
Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences,” 2015, at http://www.nap.edu/read/21655/chapter /1. Decadal Survey of Ocean Sciences,” 2015, at http://www.nap.edu/read/21655/chapter /1.
48 The total appropriated RCRV funds are $358.97 million, which is $16.03 million below the authorized total project 48 The total appropriated RCRV funds are $358.97 million, which is $16.03 million below the authorized total project
cost of $356 million. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities cost of $356 million. NSF, “FY 2022 NSF Budget Response to Congress—Major Research Equipment and Facilities
Construction,” p. MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf. Construction,” p. MREFC-35, at https://www.nsf.gov/about/budget/fy2022/pdf/58f_fy2022.pdf.
49 Jason Daley, “This 340-Million-Year-Old Ocean Crust Could Date Back to Pangaea,” 49 Jason Daley, “This 340-Million-Year-Old Ocean Crust Could Date Back to Pangaea,” Smithsonian Magazine, ,
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ice during past glaciation events. The sediments also reflect past changes in deep-sea circulation ice during past glaciation events. The sediments also reflect past changes in deep-sea circulation
patterns, which help distribute and sequester (or bury) atmospheric CO2 in the deep sea. patterns, which help distribute and sequester (or bury) atmospheric CO2 in the deep sea.
Office of Naval Research
ONR within the DON aims to provide science- and technology-based solutions for current and ONR within the DON aims to provide science- and technology-based solutions for current and
future naval challenges. ONR oversees the execution of the science and technology (S&T) future naval challenges. ONR oversees the execution of the science and technology (S&T)
portion of DON’s overall research and development account. ONR addresses a wide range of portion of DON’s overall research and development account. ONR addresses a wide range of
potential S&T issues of interest to the Navy. A portion of those issues are ocean-based, including potential S&T issues of interest to the Navy. A portion of those issues are ocean-based, including
ocean engineering, maritime sensing, undersea and remote sensing system development, ocean ocean engineering, maritime sensing, undersea and remote sensing system development, ocean
acoustics, Arctic changes, and physical oceanography monitoring. acoustics, Arctic changes, and physical oceanography monitoring.
ONR and NSF are the two primary federal support agencies of the UNOLS fleet of academic ONR and NSF are the two primary federal support agencies of the UNOLS fleet of academic
research vessels. ONR owns three UNOLS academic research vessels and, together with the research vessels. ONR owns three UNOLS academic research vessels and, together with the
operating institutions, coordinates their research missions and ship schedules. operating institutions, coordinates their research missions and ship schedules.
The Department of the Navy’s Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) collects and The Department of the Navy’s Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) collects and
analyzes oceanographic data to support national security and provide knowledge of the maritime analyzes oceanographic data to support national security and provide knowledge of the maritime
battlespace. Civilian and military members of NAVOCEANO are generally qualified as battlespace. Civilian and military members of NAVOCEANO are generally qualified as
hydrographers and survey technicians capable of hydrographic surveys (descriptions of seafloor hydrographers and survey technicians capable of hydrographic surveys (descriptions of seafloor
features) anywhere in the world.50 features) anywhere in the world.50
Oceanographic Data
Oceanographic data consist of measurements of the physical state of the ocean (e.g., sea level is a Oceanographic data consist of measurements of the physical state of the ocean (e.g., sea level is a
physical variable) and the amount of chemical elements in the seawater (e.g., dissolved oxygen is physical variable) and the amount of chemical elements in the seawater (e.g., dissolved oxygen is
a biogeochemical variable). Oceanographic data provide a basis for insights into the ocean a biogeochemical variable). Oceanographic data provide a basis for insights into the ocean
ecosystem and its changing environment, aspects of climate change, and the distribution and ecosystem and its changing environment, aspects of climate change, and the distribution and
availability of marine resources. Physical oceanographic datavailability of marine resources. Physical oceanographic data (Table 1) also can provide also can provide
information on oceanographic processes, such as ocean upwellinginformation on oceanographic processes, such as ocean upwelling (Figure 2) and ocean current and ocean current
and circulation patterns.51 Whereas an oceanographic variable can provide insight into various and circulation patterns.51 Whereas an oceanographic variable can provide insight into various
characteristics of the ocean, the combination of more than one physical or biogeochemical characteristics of the ocean, the combination of more than one physical or biogeochemical
variable often can provide additional confidence about the scientific interpretations of the ocean’s variable often can provide additional confidence about the scientific interpretations of the ocean’s
current and future state through scientific modeling studies. Select common physical current and future state through scientific modeling studies. Select common physical
oceanographic data are summarized below ioceanographic data are summarized below in Table 1. These data are discussed in more detail in These data are discussed in more detail in
Appendix A.

August 17, 2016, at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-bit-seafloor-discovered-mediterranean-August 17, 2016, at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-bit-seafloor-discovered-mediterranean-
180960153/. 180960153/.
50 NAVOCEANO, “Fleet Survey Team,” at https://www.cnmoc.usff.navy.mil/Organization/Naval-Oceanographic- 50 NAVOCEANO, “Fleet Survey Team,” at https://www.cnmoc.usff.navy.mil/Organization/Naval-Oceanographic-
Office/Fleet-Survey-Team/. Office/Fleet-Survey-Team/.
51 Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for deep water 51 Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for deep water
to move to the surface. Upwelled waters are rich in nutrients and ocean upwelling is a natural fertilization process for to move to the surface. Upwelled waters are rich in nutrients and ocean upwelling is a natural fertilization process for
the surface ocean, stimulating the base of the marine food web. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box the surface ocean, stimulating the base of the marine food web. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box
entitled “Ocean Upwelling” entitled “Ocean Upwelling” in Appendix A. NOAA, “What Is Upwelling?” https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ NOAA, “What Is Upwelling?” https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/
upwelling.html. upwelling.html.
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Table 1. Selected Physical Oceanographic Variables
(common physical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies) (common physical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies)
Physical Oceanographic
Instrumentation and
Variable
Equipment Examples
Selected Uses/Purposes
Ocean Temperature Ocean Temperature
Argo Profiling Floats (NO Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);a
 
Forecast and track pending Forecast and track pending
Unmanned Surface Wave Gliders Unmanned Surface Wave Gliders
short- and mid-term weather short- and mid-term weather
(NO (NOAA);b CTD Sensors CTD Sensors
events (including storms and events (including storms and
(NOAA/USGS (NOAA/USGS);c Research Vessels Research Vessels
hurricanes) and long-term hurricanes) and long-term
(NO (NOAA);d Submersible ROVs Submersible ROVs
climate patterns, such as the El climate patterns, such as the El
(NOAA (NOAA);e Earth-Observing Earth-Observing
Niño Southern Oscil ation Niño Southern Oscil ation;h
Satellites (NOAA/NAS Satellites (NOAA/NASA);f Water-Water-
 
Quality Gauge (USGS Quality Gauge (USGS)

Track ocean circulation Track ocean circulation
g
patterns, such as the Gulf patterns, such as the Gulf
StrStream;i
 
Monitor ocean upwellin Monitor ocean upwelling,j
which can be applied to track which can be applied to track
the occurrence of specific the occurrence of specific
marine species marine species
Ice Ice
Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Understand impact of climate Understand impact of climate
(NOAA/NAS (NOAA/NASA);k Research Vessels Research Vessels
change on polar region change on polar regions;o
(NS (NSF);l Moored (Stationary) Buoys oored (Stationary) Buoys
 
(NO (NOAA);

Predict and quantify rate of sea Predict and quantify rate of sea
m Aircraft (NASAircraft (NASA)n
level ri level rise;o
 
Predict freshening (salinity Predict freshening (salinity
decline) of surface ocean water decline) of surface ocean water
in polar regionin polar regionso
Sea Level Sea Level
Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Predict coastal sea level trends Predict coastal sea level trends
(NOAA/NAS (NOAA/NASA);p Tide Gauges Tide Gauges
and floodin and flooding;i
(NOAA/USGS (NOAA/USGS);q Water-Level Water-Level
 
Sensors (USGS Sensors (USGS)

Quantify the rate of sea level Quantify the rate of sea level
g
ri rise;o
 
Inform safe vessel navigatio Inform safe vessel navigationr
Chlorophyll (ocean color) Chlorophyll (ocean color)
Earth-Observing Satellites Earth-Observing Satellites
 
Monitor ocean upwelling and Monitor ocean upwelling and
(NOAA/NAS (NOAA/NASA)j
provide an estimate for living provide an estimate for living
phytoplankton in the near-phytoplankton in the near-
surface wsurface waterj
Seafloor Bathymetry Seafloor Bathymetry
Research Vessels Equipped with Research Vessels Equipped with
 
Quantify water dept Quantify water depth;u
Geological and Geophysical Survey Geological and Geophysical Survey
 
Provide information on Provide information on
Equipment (NOAA/BOEM Equipment (NOAA/BOEM/USGSUSGS);s
seafloor sediment type that seafloor sediment type that
Submersible ROVs (NOAA) Submersible ROVs (NOAA);e
could aid siting of natural could aid siting of natural
Aircraft Equipped with lidar Aircraft Equipped with lidar
resour resources;v
(NO (NOAA);t Earth-Observing Earth-Observing
Satellites (NASA/USGSSatellites (NASA/USGS)i
 
Identify seafloor geologic Identify seafloor geologic
features (faults or subduction features (faults or subduction
zones) that could produce zones) that could produce
natural hazards (earthquakes natural hazards (earthquakes
or tsunamior tsunamis);u
 
Determine the extent of the Determine the extent of the
U.S. continental shelfU.S. continental shelf;w
 
Inform safe vessel navigatio Inform safe vessel navigationu
Source: For additional information and source data, refer For additional information and source data, refer to Appendix A.
Notes: BOEM = Bureau of Ocean Energy Management; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth BOEM = Bureau of Ocean Energy Management; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth
Sensors; lidar = light detection and ranging; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = Sensors; lidar = light detection and ranging; NASA = National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA =
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Science Foundation = NSF; ONR = Office of Naval National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Science Foundation = NSF; ONR = Office of Naval
Research; ROV = remote-operated vehicle; USGS = U.S. Geological Survey. Research; ROV = remote-operated vehicle; USGS = U.S. Geological Survey.
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a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/. a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.
b. Wave gliders are inexpensive surfboard-looking autonomous vehicles that col ect surface ocean data. b. Wave gliders are inexpensive surfboard-looking autonomous vehicles that col ect surface ocean data.
NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders. NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders.
c. A Conductivity, Depth, and Temperature (CDT) sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of c. A Conductivity, Depth, and Temperature (CDT) sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of
the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does “CDT” the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does “CDT”
Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html. Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html.
d. NOAA, “Observation Platforms: Vessels,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/vessels/ d. NOAA, “Observation Platforms: Vessels,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/vessels/
vessels.html. vessels.html.
e. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/ e. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/
deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html. deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html.
f. f.
NASA, “Ocean Temperature,” https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceTemperature; NOAA, “How Are NASA, “Ocean Temperature,” https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceTemperature; NOAA, “How Are
Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites-ocean.html. Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites-ocean.html.
g. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/ g. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/
science/storm-tide-monitoring. science/storm-tide-monitoring.
h. NOAA; “SST—Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.climate.gov/maps-data/data-snapshots/data- h. NOAA; “SST—Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.climate.gov/maps-data/data-snapshots/data-
source/sst-sea-surface-temperature; NASA, “Recipe for a Hurricane,” at https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/ source/sst-sea-surface-temperature; NASA, “Recipe for a Hurricane,” at https://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/
environment/HURRICANE_RECIPE.html. environment/HURRICANE_RECIPE.html.
i. i.
NOAA, “How Are Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites- NOAA, “How Are Satellites Used to Observe the Ocean?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/satellites-
ocean.html. ocean.html.
j. j.
Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for Ocean upwelling occurs when wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, allowing for
deep water to move to the surface. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box entitled “Ocean deep water to move to the surface. For more information on ocean upwelling, see text box entitled “Ocean
Upwelling” inUpwelling” in Appendix A. NASA, “Remote Sensing,” at https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/ NASA, “Remote Sensing,” at https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/
oceanography/living-ocean/remote-sensing; NASA, “VIRRS Single-Sensor S-NPP and NOAA-20 Anomaly oceanography/living-ocean/remote-sensing; NASA, “VIRRS Single-Sensor S-NPP and NOAA-20 Anomaly
Products,” at https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/satellite-data-products/ocean-color/anomaly.html. Products,” at https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/satellite-data-products/ocean-color/anomaly.html.
k. NASA, “Our Mission,” at https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission; NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data k. NASA, “Our Mission,” at https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov/mission; NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data
Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satel ite- Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satel ite-
data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/; NASA, “VIIRS—Sea Ice Concentration, Ice Thickness, Ice Surface data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/; NASA, “VIIRS—Sea Ice Concentration, Ice Thickness, Ice Surface
Temperature,” https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/Temperature,” https://coastwatch.noaa.gov/cw/~~satel ite~~satellite-data-products/sea-ice/viirs-sea-ice-concentration--data-products/sea-ice/viirs-sea-ice-concentration-
ice-thickness-ice-surface-temperature.html. ice-thickness-ice-surface-temperature.html.
l. l.
NSF, “USAP Ships,” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/support/ships.jsp. NSF, “USAP Ships,” at https://www.nsf.gov/geo/opp/support/ships.jsp.
m. NOAA, “Meet 5 NOAA Buoys that Help Scientists Understand Our Weather, Climate and Ocean Health,” m. NOAA, “Meet 5 NOAA Buoys that Help Scientists Understand Our Weather, Climate and Ocean Health,”
at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2762/Meet-5-NOAA-Buoys-that-help-scientists- at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2762/Meet-5-NOAA-Buoys-that-help-scientists-
understand-our-weather-climate-and-ocean-health. understand-our-weather-climate-and-ocean-health.
n. NASA, “IceBridge—Aircraft, Instruments, Satellites,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/ n. NASA, “IceBridge—Aircraft, Instruments, Satellites,” at https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/icebridge/
instruments/index.html. instruments/index.html.
o. NASA, “Understanding Sea Level,” at https://sealevel.nasa.gov/understanding-sea level/global-sea o. NASA, “Understanding Sea Level,” at https://sealevel.nasa.gov/understanding-sea level/global-sea
level/overview. level/overview.
p. NASA, “NASA, US, European Partner Satellite Returns First Sea Level Measurements,” at p. NASA, “NASA, US, European Partner Satellite Returns First Sea Level Measurements,” at
https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3052/nasa-us-european-partner-satellite-returns-first-sea level-measurements/. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3052/nasa-us-european-partner-satellite-returns-first-sea level-measurements/.
q. NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html. q. NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html.
r. NOAA, “Maritime Services,” at https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/maritime.html. r. NOAA, “Maritime Services,” at https://tidesandcurrents.noaa.gov/maritime.html.
s. NOAA, “Ten Years of Col ecting Ocean Exploration Data from NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer,” at s. NOAA, “Ten Years of Col ecting Ocean Exploration Data from NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer,” at
https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex10years/welcome.html; BOEM, “Geological and Geophysical (G&G) https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/ex10years/welcome.html; BOEM, “Geological and Geophysical (G&G)
Surveys,” at https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-Surveys,” at https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/about-boem/BOEM-Regions/Atlantic-Region/GandG-
Overview.pdf; USGS, “Marine Seismic Imaging” at https://www.usgs.gov/programs/coastal-and-marine-Overview.pdf; USGS, “Marine Seismic Imaging” at https://www.usgs.gov/programs/coastal-and-marine-
hazards-and-resources-program/science/marine-seismic-imaging. hazards-and-resources-program/science/marine-seismic-imaging.
t. t.
NOAA, “What Is Lidar,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lidar.html. NOAA, “What Is Lidar,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/lidar.html.
u. NOAA, “How Is Bathymetric Data Used?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathyuses.html. u. NOAA, “How Is Bathymetric Data Used?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/bathyuses.html.
v. NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/v. NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/
seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html. seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html.
w. NOAA, “NOAA’s Participation in the U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Project,” at w. NOAA, “NOAA’s Participation in the U.S. Extended Continental Shelf Project,” at
https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1810/ecs/welcome.html. For more information, see https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1810/ecs/welcome.html. For more information, see
CRS Report R41153, CRS Report R41153, Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress, coordinated by Ronald , coordinated by Ronald
O'Rourke. O'Rourke.
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Federal Involvement in Ocean-Based Research and Development

Figure 2. Major Areas of Coastal Upwelling

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Upwelling,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Upwelling,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/03coastal4.html. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/03coastal4.html.
Notes: Areas of major coastal upwelling are shown in red. For additional information on ocean upwelling, see Areas of major coastal upwelling are shown in red. For additional information on ocean upwelling, see
text box entitled “Ocean Upwelling” intext box entitled “Ocean Upwelling” in Appendix A.
The concentrations of biogeochemical variables The concentrations of biogeochemical variables (Table 2) in seawater are influenced by mixing in seawater are influenced by mixing
of waters with different concentrations (e.g., upwelled deep-sea water mixing with near-surface of waters with different concentrations (e.g., upwelled deep-sea water mixing with near-surface
water), biogeochemical processes (e.g., marine carbon cycle), and atmospheric inputs (e.g., water), biogeochemical processes (e.g., marine carbon cycle), and atmospheric inputs (e.g.,
diffusion of dissolved oxygen across the atmosphere-surface water interface), among other diffusion of dissolved oxygen across the atmosphere-surface water interface), among other
factors. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions and agricultural or wastewater discharge have also altered factors. Anthropogenic CO2 emissions and agricultural or wastewater discharge have also altered
biogeochemical variables (e.g., pH and dissolved oxygen).52 Selected common biogeochemical biogeochemical variables (e.g., pH and dissolved oxygen).52 Selected common biogeochemical
oceanographic data are summarized below ioceanographic data are summarized below in Table 2. These data are discussed in more detail in These data are discussed in more detail in
Appendix B.
Table 2. Selected Biogeochemical Oceanographic Variables
(common biogeochemical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies) (common biogeochemical oceanographic data collected and studied by federal departments and agencies)
Biogeochemical
Instrumentation and
Oceanographic Variable
Equipment Examples
Selected Use/Purpose
Salinity Salinity
Argo Profiling Floats (NO Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);a
 
Provide insight into the water Provide insight into the water
Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOA Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOAA);b
cycl cycle;f
Submersible ROVs (NOAA Submersible ROVs (NOAA);c CTD CTD
 
Trace ocean circulation Trace ocean circulation
Sensors (NOAA/USGS Sensors (NOAA/USGS);d Water-Water-
pattern patterns;f
Quality Gauge (USGS Quality Gauge (USGS)e
 
Monitor runoff from land or ice Monitor runoff from land or ice
melmelt;f
 
Predict hurricane intensi Predict hurricane intensityg

52 For information on the effects of human-associated discharge on coastal ocean waters, see CRS Report R46921, 52 For information on the effects of human-associated discharge on coastal ocean waters, see CRS Report R46921,
Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Background, Statutory Authorities, and Issues for Congress, by Eva Lipiec. , by Eva Lipiec.
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Biogeochemical
Instrumentation and
Oceanographic Variable
Equipment Examples
Selected Use/Purpose
Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved Oxygen
Argo Profiling Floats (NO Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);a
 
Serve as indicator of the health Serve as indicator of the health
Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOA Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOAA);b
of the marine ecosyste of the marine ecosystem;h
Submersible ROVs (NOAA Submersible ROVs (NOAA);c
 
Water-Quality Gauge (USGS Water-Quality Gauge (USGS)

Correlate with surface ocean Correlate with surface ocean
e
temperatur temperatureh
pH pH
Argo Profiling Floats (NO Argo Profiling Floats (NOAA);a
 
Quantify rate of anthropogenic Quantify rate of anthropogenic
Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOA Unmanned Wave Gliders (NOAA);b
carbon uptake by the o carbon uptake by the ocean;k
Moored Buoys Equipped with CO2 Moored Buoys Equipped with CO2
 
Sensors (NO Sensors (NOAA);

Serve as indicator for ocean Serve as indicator for ocean
i Earth-Observing Earth-Observing
acidificatio acidificationk
Satellites (NASA/NOAA Satellites (NASA/NOAA);j
Source: For additional background information and source data refer For additional background information and source data refer to Appendix B.
Notes: CO2 = carbon dioxide; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Sensors; NASA = CO2 = carbon dioxide; CTD Sensors = Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth Sensors; NASA =
National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Aeronautics and Space Administration; NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration;
USGS = U.S. Geological Survey. USGS = U.S. Geological Survey.
a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/. a. NOAA, “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.
b. NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders; NOAA, b. NOAA, “Surface Wave Gliders,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/edd/surface-wave-gliders; NOAA,
“Autonomous Surface Vehicles,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Autonomous+Surface+Vehicles. “Autonomous Surface Vehicles,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/Autonomous+Surface+Vehicles.
c. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/ c. NOAA, “Remotely Operated Vehicle Deep Discoverer,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/subs/
deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html. deep-discoverer/deep-discoverer.html.
d. A Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CDT) sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of d. A Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CDT) sensor detects how the conductivity and temperature of
the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does ‘CDT’ the seawater changes with water depth, which can be used to derive salinity. NOAA, “What Does ‘CDT’
Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html. Stand For?” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/ctd.html.
e. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/ e. USGS, “Storm-Tide Monitoring,” June 9, 2018, at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/
science/storm-tide-monitoring. science/storm-tide-monitoring.
f. f.
NASA, “Salinity/Density,” at https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceSalinity. NASA, “Salinity/Density,” at https://podaac.jpl.nasa.gov/SeaSurfaceSalinity.
g. NOAA, “Measuring Salt in the Ocean May Be Key to Predicting Hurricane Intensity,” December 16, 2021, g. NOAA, “Measuring Salt in the Ocean May Be Key to Predicting Hurricane Intensity,” December 16, 2021,
at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2819/Measuring-salt-in-the-ocean-may-be-key-to- at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/587/ArticleID/2819/Measuring-salt-in-the-ocean-may-be-key-to-
predicting-how-hurricanes-strengthen. predicting-how-hurricanes-strengthen.
h. USGS, “Dissolved Oxygen and Water,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/ h. USGS, “Dissolved Oxygen and Water,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/
dissolved-oxygen-and-water. dissolved-oxygen-and-water.
i. i.
NOAA, “Buoys and Other Autonomous Systems,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/ NOAA, “Buoys and Other Autonomous Systems,” at https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/
Buoys+and+Autonomous+Systems. Buoys+and+Autonomous+Systems.
j. j.
Joseph Salisbury et al., “How Can Present and Future Satellite Missions Support Scientific Studies that Joseph Salisbury et al., “How Can Present and Future Satellite Missions Support Scientific Studies that
Address Ocean Acidification?” Address Ocean Acidification?” Oceanography, vol. 28 (October 2015); NOAA, “Ocean Acidification from , vol. 28 (October 2015); NOAA, “Ocean Acidification from
Space,” June 2, 2016, at https://carbon.nasa.gov/pdfs/20160602%20NASA%20SSAI%20Gledhil .pdf. Space,” June 2, 2016, at https://carbon.nasa.gov/pdfs/20160602%20NASA%20SSAI%20Gledhil .pdf.
k. Environmental Protection Agency, “Climate Change Indicators: Ocean Acidity,” at https://www.epa.gov/ k. Environmental Protection Agency, “Climate Change Indicators: Ocean Acidity,” at https://www.epa.gov/
climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-ocean-acidity. climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-ocean-acidity.
Ocean Data Trends and Climate Change
Ocean data and observation trends over time have informed scientific reports that have Ocean data and observation trends over time have informed scientific reports that have
highlighted the nature and rate of change the global ocean has experienced, as well as the highlighted the nature and rate of change the global ocean has experienced, as well as the
potential impacts of these changes. potential impacts of these changes.
  Ocean Temperature. Warming surface ocean waters affect weather patterns and Warming surface ocean waters affect weather patterns and
storms, including hurricanes. The 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate storms, including hurricanes. The 2019 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) Change (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing
Climate found evidence for an increase in the global proportion of category 4-5 found evidence for an increase in the global proportion of category 4-5
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tropical cyclones in recent decades and the proportion of tropical cyclones are tropical cyclones in recent decades and the proportion of tropical cyclones are
projected to increase with continued warming.53 projected to increase with continued warming.53
  Ice. Warming near-surface air temperatures in the Arctic are melting continental Warming near-surface air temperatures in the Arctic are melting continental
ice (ice sheet and glacier) across the region.54 The climate modeling results for ice (ice sheet and glacier) across the region.54 The climate modeling results for
the mid- and high greenhouse gas emissions scenarios published in the 2021 the mid- and high greenhouse gas emissions scenarios published in the 2021
IPCC IPCC Sixth Assessment Report project the Arctic to be “practically” sea-ice free project the Arctic to be “practically” sea-ice free
during the month of September between 2050-2100.55 during the month of September between 2050-2100.55
  Sea level. Continental ice melt and thermal expansion of ocean water are Continental ice melt and thermal expansion of ocean water are
contributing to rising sea levels.56 From 2006 to 2018, continental ice melt was contributing to rising sea levels.56 From 2006 to 2018, continental ice melt was
the dominant contributor to global sea level rise.57 Continuous data on variations the dominant contributor to global sea level rise.57 Continuous data on variations
in sea level inform scientists on the rate of sea level rise and the regions most in sea level inform scientists on the rate of sea level rise and the regions most
susceptible to coastal flooding. The average global sea level rise from 2006 to susceptible to coastal flooding. The average global sea level rise from 2006 to
2018 was 3.7 millimeters per year.58 2018 was 3.7 millimeters per year.58
  Dissolved Oxygen. Declining oxygen levels in seawater correlate with warming Declining oxygen levels in seawater correlate with warming
ocean waters. Warmer water holds less dissolved gases (e.g., oxygen) than colder ocean waters. Warmer water holds less dissolved gases (e.g., oxygen) than colder
water. Trends published in the physical science report of the 2021 IPCC water. Trends published in the physical science report of the 2021 IPCC Sixth
Assessment Report showed a decline in surface dissolved oxygen levels showed a decline in surface dissolved oxygen levels
(deoxygenation) in all ocean basins. The IPCC attributed this decline, with (deoxygenation) in all ocean basins. The IPCC attributed this decline, with
medium confidence, to surface ocean warming.59 medium confidence, to surface ocean warming.59
  pH. Declining seawater pH levels are attributed to the global ocean’s increased Declining seawater pH levels are attributed to the global ocean’s increased
absorption of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2. absorption of anthropogenic atmospheric CO2. Since the beginning of the Since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution, the pH of global surface ocean has decreased by 0.1 pH Industrial Revolution, the pH of global surface ocean has decreased by 0.1 pH
units (from an average pH of 8.2 to 8.1), equivalent to a 25%-30% increase in units (from an average pH of 8.2 to 8.1), equivalent to a 25%-30% increase in
ocean acidity.60ocean acidity.60
Selected Issues for Congress
Research and analysis of ocean processes, resources, and potential future changes to these Research and analysis of ocean processes, resources, and potential future changes to these
processes and resources have the potential to inform congressional deliberations regarding ocean processes and resources have the potential to inform congressional deliberations regarding ocean
policy and ocean management. Congress also may be interested in these efforts for their potential policy and ocean management. Congress also may be interested in these efforts for their potential
to support public and private sector economic activities that rely on the ocean or facilitate the to support public and private sector economic activities that rely on the ocean or facilitate the
protection sensitive habitats and their wildlife. protection sensitive habitats and their wildlife.
A potential issue facing Congress is to what extent, if any, to support and direct federal ocean A potential issue facing Congress is to what extent, if any, to support and direct federal ocean
science research and development and, if so, which efforts to emphasize and how to guide science research and development and, if so, which efforts to emphasize and how to guide
departments and agencies in this work. Scientific knowledge of the ocean evolves as new departments and agencies in this work. Scientific knowledge of the ocean evolves as new

53 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 53 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere, p. 11. NOAA, “Global Warming and Hurricanes,” , p. 11. NOAA, “Global Warming and Hurricanes,”
August 2021, at https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/#summary-statement. August 2021, at https://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warming-and-hurricanes/#summary-statement.
54 T. J. Ballinger et al., “Surface Air Temperature,” in NOAA, 54 T. J. Ballinger et al., “Surface Air Temperature,” in NOAA, 2020 Arctic Report Card, December 2020, p. 21. , December 2020, p. 21.
55 IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in 55 IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in Changing Climate 2021: The Physical Science Basis, eds. V. Masson-, eds. V. Masson-
Delmotte et al., 2021, pp. SMP-29-SMP-30. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, Delmotte et al., 2021, pp. SMP-29-SMP-30. Hereinafter referred to as IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis.
56 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise. 56 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise.
57 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 57 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-14. , p. SMP-14.
58 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 58 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-6., p. SMP-6.
59 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 59 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SMP-6. , p. SMP-6.
60 NOAA, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-60 NOAA, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/ocean-coasts/ocean-
acidification; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Understanding the Science of Ocean and Coastal acidification; Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Understanding the Science of Ocean and Coastal
Acidification,” at https://www.epa.gov/ocean-acidification/understanding-science-ocean-and-coastal-acidification. Acidification,” at https://www.epa.gov/ocean-acidification/understanding-science-ocean-and-coastal-acidification.
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information and exploration technology becomes available. Thus, some scientists and information and exploration technology becomes available. Thus, some scientists and
environmental and climate advocates call for continuous, systematic ocean research observations environmental and climate advocates call for continuous, systematic ocean research observations
and monitoring by federal government, as well as funding for new endeavors. Supporters of these and monitoring by federal government, as well as funding for new endeavors. Supporters of these
efforts frame the modern challenges of ocean management and the opportunities the ocean efforts frame the modern challenges of ocean management and the opportunities the ocean
presents to address environmental and societal issues. At the same time, funding for ocean presents to address environmental and societal issues. At the same time, funding for ocean
research can be costly; thus, some may question the relative priority of some work, compared to research can be costly; thus, some may question the relative priority of some work, compared to
both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities. both other ocean-based efforts and other federal activities.
Another set of issues Congress may consider is related to what extent existing ocean research Another set of issues Congress may consider is related to what extent existing ocean research
efforts are sufficient to address climate change impacts. This includes to what extent, if any, efforts are sufficient to address climate change impacts. This includes to what extent, if any,
Congress might change any specific ocean research programs or projects to improve data Congress might change any specific ocean research programs or projects to improve data
collection and monitoring for the purpose of understanding the ocean’s role in the climate system. collection and monitoring for the purpose of understanding the ocean’s role in the climate system.
Relatedly, Congress may consider whether additional investments in certain federal programs are Relatedly, Congress may consider whether additional investments in certain federal programs are
necessary, such as improving Argo float technology to expand the program’s coverage of the necessary, such as improving Argo float technology to expand the program’s coverage of the
ocean. Further, another set of issues relates to whether—and if so, how—to incorporate ocean ocean. Further, another set of issues relates to whether—and if so, how—to incorporate ocean
research findings into existing ocean programs or other policies. research findings into existing ocean programs or other policies.
Technological advances in deep-sea infrastructure have led to increased interest in deep-sea Technological advances in deep-sea infrastructure have led to increased interest in deep-sea
exploration and the extraction of deep-sea resources. Thus, the application of deep-sea data for exploration and the extraction of deep-sea resources. Thus, the application of deep-sea data for
geohazard prediction, environmental protection, and natural resource management comprise geohazard prediction, environmental protection, and natural resource management comprise
another set of issues related to ocean research that Congress may consider. Congress may another set of issues related to ocean research that Congress may consider. Congress may
consider issues related to federal coordination, environmental concerns, development of consider issues related to federal coordination, environmental concerns, development of
renewable technologies and energy for anthropogenic CO2 mitigation, and national security renewable technologies and energy for anthropogenic CO2 mitigation, and national security
needs. needs.
Ocean Data and Research Needs Related to Climate Change
Congress may consider a range of issues related to ocean research and climate change. Potential Congress may consider a range of issues related to ocean research and climate change. Potential
issues include whether the current investment is sufficient to provide adequate information on the issues include whether the current investment is sufficient to provide adequate information on the
potential impacts of climate change on the global ocean and its resources and, conversely, the potential impacts of climate change on the global ocean and its resources and, conversely, the
ways in which ocean processes influence global climate. P.L. 117-169, a budget reconciliation ways in which ocean processes influence global climate. P.L. 117-169, a budget reconciliation
measure commonly referred to as the “Inflation Reduction Act of 2022” (IRA), appropriated $150 measure commonly referred to as the “Inflation Reduction Act of 2022” (IRA), appropriated $150
million in FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA, with the goal of accelerating advances million in FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA, with the goal of accelerating advances
and improvements in research of atmospheric and ocean processes that relate to climate and and improvements in research of atmospheric and ocean processes that relate to climate and
weather, among others.61 In addition, Section 40004 of the IRA appropriated $50 million in weather, among others.61 In addition, Section 40004 of the IRA appropriated $50 million in
FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA for climate research competitive grants relating to FY2022 (available through FY2026) to NOAA for climate research competitive grants relating to
ocean and other processes and associated impacts to marine species and coastal habitat. Some ocean and other processes and associated impacts to marine species and coastal habitat. Some
scientists and environmental advocates view the ocean as having a key role in mitigating climate scientists and environmental advocates view the ocean as having a key role in mitigating climate
change,62 and they view federal spending in ocean monitoring and observational technologies as change,62 and they view federal spending in ocean monitoring and observational technologies as
one means to better understand the ocean-climate nexus. Congress also may consider policy one means to better understand the ocean-climate nexus. Congress also may consider policy
implications related to the ocean’s role in mitigating rising atmospheric CO2. implications related to the ocean’s role in mitigating rising atmospheric CO2.
NOAA’s Argo Program has collected over two decades’ worth of oceanographic data that have NOAA’s Argo Program has collected over two decades’ worth of oceanographic data that have
helped scientists understand the ways in which climate change has affected the global ocean. helped scientists understand the ways in which climate change has affected the global ocean.
Technological advancement since the Argo Program’s establishment in 1998 has led scientists to Technological advancement since the Argo Program’s establishment in 1998 has led scientists to
call for additional Argo floats to utilize these technological enhancements.63 Examples include call for additional Argo floats to utilize these technological enhancements.63 Examples include

61 Section 40004 of P.L. 117-169. 61 Section 40004 of P.L. 117-169.
62 The global ocean absorbs CO2 emissions from human activities (i.e., the combustion of fossil fuels), helping to offset 62 The global ocean absorbs CO2 emissions from human activities (i.e., the combustion of fossil fuels), helping to offset
the buildup of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere. the buildup of anthropogenic CO2 in the atmosphere.
63 Dean Roemmich et al., “On the Future of Argo: A Global, Full-Depth, Multi-Disciplinary Array,” 63 Dean Roemmich et al., “On the Future of Argo: A Global, Full-Depth, Multi-Disciplinary Array,” Frontiers in
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developing and deploying a fleet of floats that extend the typical profiling depth of 2,000 meters developing and deploying a fleet of floats that extend the typical profiling depth of 2,000 meters
to 6,000 meters (Deep Argo) and a fleet that includes additional biogeochemical sensors to study to 6,000 meters (Deep Argo) and a fleet that includes additional biogeochemical sensors to study
carbon and nutrient cycling in the ocean (Biogeochemical Argo).64 carbon and nutrient cycling in the ocean (Biogeochemical Argo).64
Congress funds NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring Program (SOOM) Congress funds NOAA’s Sustained Ocean Observing and Monitoring Program (SOOM)
programs, projects, and activities on a year-to-year basis, from which NOAA determines and programs, projects, and activities on a year-to-year basis, from which NOAA determines and
allocates the amount of funds to the Argo Program allocates the amount of funds to the Argo Program (Table 3). Funding support for the Argo . Funding support for the Argo
Program has remained relatively constant since 2004 (with variations), with funding priority Program has remained relatively constant since 2004 (with variations), with funding priority
directed to sustaining the current fleet of Argo floats.65 Some Members of Congress have directed to sustaining the current fleet of Argo floats.65 Some Members of Congress have
proposed increases for Argo funding; for example, in FY2022, Congress directed NOAA to proposed increases for Argo funding; for example, in FY2022, Congress directed NOAA to
expand coverage of the Biogeochemical Argo fleet.66 expand coverage of the Biogeochemical Argo fleet.66
Table 3. Congressional Appropriations Applied to NOAA Argo Program
FY2020 Enacted
FY2021 Enacted
Appropriations
Appropriations
Program
(Thousands of $)
(Thousands of $)
Description
Argo Program Argo Program
$11,491 $11,491
$11,495 $11,495
Amount directed toward Amount directed toward
Argo Program from total Argo Program from total
SOOM appropriationSOOM appropriationsa
Other Argo Initiatives Other Argo Initiatives
$3,600 $3,600
$3,780 $3,780
Amount appropriated to Amount appropriated to
other programs, projects, other programs, projects,
and activities that was and activities that was
used for Deep Argo and used for Deep Argo and
Biogeochemical Argo Biogeochemical Argo
Total Argo Funding
$15,091
$15,275
— —
Source: Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and Email correspondence with NOAA, Congressional Affairs Specialist, Office of Legislative and
Intergovernmental Affairs, November 18, 2021. Intergovernmental Affairs, November 18, 2021.
Notes: NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; SOOM =NOAA = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; SOOM = Sustained Ocean Observing and Sustained Ocean Observing and
Monitoring Program.Monitoring Program.
a. SOOM enacted appropriations for FY2020 and FY2021 were $45,000,000 and $45,408,000, respectively. a. SOOM enacted appropriations for FY2020 and FY2021 were $45,000,000 and $45,408,000, respectively.
Data collected by Argo floats show a warming trend of average global ocean temperature that can Data collected by Argo floats show a warming trend of average global ocean temperature that can
have policy applications. For instance, many marine species are moving toward the poles to have policy applications. For instance, many marine species are moving toward the poles to
remain in waters within their temperature tolerance.67 These shifts in species’ geographic remain in waters within their temperature tolerance.67 These shifts in species’ geographic
distributions can cause economic disruptions if a fish population becomes less productive in its distributions can cause economic disruptions if a fish population becomes less productive in its
new environment or moves out of range for fishermen. Some Members have introduced new environment or moves out of range for fishermen. Some Members have introduced
legislation that would amend the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act legislation that would amend the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act

Marine Science, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2. , vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2.
64 Successful prototype float deployments of Deep Argo floats took place in 2013-2015. These prototypes were able to 64 Successful prototype float deployments of Deep Argo floats took place in 2013-2015. These prototypes were able to
reach approximately 6,000 meters below sea level. Testing of Biogeochemical Argo floats equipped with sensors for reach approximately 6,000 meters below sea level. Testing of Biogeochemical Argo floats equipped with sensors for
dissolved oxygen, nitrate, pH, chlorophyll fluorescence, and particulate backscatter began in 2012. Scripps Institution dissolved oxygen, nitrate, pH, chlorophyll fluorescence, and particulate backscatter began in 2012. Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Argo Program Office, “Frequently Asked Questions,” at https://argo.ucsd.edu/faq/#who; NOAA of Oceanography Argo Program Office, “Frequently Asked Questions,” at https://argo.ucsd.edu/faq/#who; NOAA
Research News, “NOAA Invests in New Tools to Measure the Ocean,” at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/Research News, “NOAA Invests in New Tools to Measure the Ocean,” at https://research.noaa.gov/article/ArtMID/
587/ArticleID/2561. 587/ArticleID/2561.
65 Scripps Institution of Oceanography Argo Program Office, 65 Scripps Institution of Oceanography Argo Program Office, U.S. Argo National Report to Argo Steering Team-22, ,
March 2021, at https://argo.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/361/2021/03/USA_national_report_AST22v1.pdf. March 2021, at https://argo.ucsd.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/361/2021/03/USA_national_report_AST22v1.pdf.
66 H.Rept. 117-97 referenced by the explanatory statement accompanying the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act 66 H.Rept. 117-97 referenced by the explanatory statement accompanying the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act
(P.L. 117-103). (P.L. 117-103).
67 NOAA Fisheries, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding- 67 NOAA Fisheries, “Understanding Our Changing Climates,” at https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/insight/understanding-
our-changing-climate. our-changing-climate.
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(MSA) to take into account changing environmental conditions.68 The primary objectives of the (MSA) to take into account changing environmental conditions.68 The primary objectives of the
MSA,69 for example, are to prevent overfishing and to rebuild overfished stocks; issues of MSA,69 for example, are to prevent overfishing and to rebuild overfished stocks; issues of
migrating and dwindling fish stocks due to ocean warming were not considered (or foreseen) migrating and dwindling fish stocks due to ocean warming were not considered (or foreseen)
when the bill was originally enacted in 1977. Furthermore, the MSA requires fishing management when the bill was originally enacted in 1977. Furthermore, the MSA requires fishing management
procedures to be based on the best scientific information available to rebuild overfished stocks procedures to be based on the best scientific information available to rebuild overfished stocks
where needed.70 Additional oceanographic data available through a more technologically where needed.70 Additional oceanographic data available through a more technologically
advanced Argo profiling fleet included as part of the best scientific information available would advanced Argo profiling fleet included as part of the best scientific information available would
be one tool with the potential to inform the management of marine fisheries and other resources. be one tool with the potential to inform the management of marine fisheries and other resources.
Applications for Deep-Sea Exploration and Bathymetric Data
Technological advances have allowed for greater and more detailed exploration of the deep sea, Technological advances have allowed for greater and more detailed exploration of the deep sea,
which has raised several related issues for Congress to consider. Improved deep-sea exploration which has raised several related issues for Congress to consider. Improved deep-sea exploration
(including bathymetric and G&G surveys) has provided scientists with the data necessary to (including bathymetric and G&G surveys) has provided scientists with the data necessary to
better characterize the deep-sea environment. Geologic features on the seafloor, deep-sea habitats better characterize the deep-sea environment. Geologic features on the seafloor, deep-sea habitats
and its organisms, and natural resources occurring on or beneath the seafloor can be derived from and its organisms, and natural resources occurring on or beneath the seafloor can be derived from
these data. Decisionmakers may consider ocean policies related to geologic hazards, these data. Decisionmakers may consider ocean policies related to geologic hazards,
environmental protection, and national security issues, such as the establishment of a domestic environmental protection, and national security issues, such as the establishment of a domestic
supply of marine natural resources of economic value. supply of marine natural resources of economic value.
Deep-Sea Geologic Hazards
Motion along seafloor geologic features, such as faults and subduction zones, has produced a Motion along seafloor geologic features, such as faults and subduction zones, has produced a
complex seafloor landscape of volcanic islands, seamounts, trenches, and ridges. The prediction complex seafloor landscape of volcanic islands, seamounts, trenches, and ridges. The prediction
of geohazard events (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, marine landslides) associated with geologic of geohazard events (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis, marine landslides) associated with geologic
features helps safeguard coastal communities and marine infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, undersea features helps safeguard coastal communities and marine infrastructure (e.g., pipelines, undersea
cables). For example, the Cascadia subduction zone off the coast of the northwestern United cables). For example, the Cascadia subduction zone off the coast of the northwestern United
States has the potential for very large earthquakes, which could cause destructive tsunamis that States has the potential for very large earthquakes, which could cause destructive tsunamis that
would strike the coastlines of Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Knowledge of this would strike the coastlines of Washington, Oregon, and Northern California. Knowledge of this
subduction zone allows for the implementation of early warnings and the enforcement of subduction zone allows for the implementation of early warnings and the enforcement of
construction standards for marine infrastructure that can withstand seafloor movement, which construction standards for marine infrastructure that can withstand seafloor movement, which
aims to save lives and mitigate potential damage and the need for costly repairs. aims to save lives and mitigate potential damage and the need for costly repairs.
Seafloor mapping is a primary tool used for seafloor geohazard assessments. Many major active Seafloor mapping is a primary tool used for seafloor geohazard assessments. Many major active
marine fault zones in U.S. waters have been identified—about 40% of the U.S. exclusive marine fault zones in U.S. waters have been identified—about 40% of the U.S. exclusive
economic zone (EEZ) has been mapped.71 The unmapped 60% of the U.S. EEZ (approximately economic zone (EEZ) has been mapped.71 The unmapped 60% of the U.S. EEZ (approximately
2.0 million square nautical miles, or 2.7 million square miles72) likely includes unknown seafloor 2.0 million square nautical miles, or 2.7 million square miles72) likely includes unknown seafloor

68 H.R. 4690, Sustaining America’s Fisheries for the Future Act of 2021, would amend the MSA to include “changing 68 H.R. 4690, Sustaining America’s Fisheries for the Future Act of 2021, would amend the MSA to include “changing
environmental conditions, including those associated with climate change” as one of the causes for declining fish environmental conditions, including those associated with climate change” as one of the causes for declining fish
stocks for certain species. stocks for certain species.
69 16 U.S.C. §§1801 et seq. For more information on the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management, 69 16 U.S.C. §§1801 et seq. For more information on the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management,
see CRS Report R43565, see CRS Report R43565, Reauthorization Issues for the Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management
Act. .
70 For an overview of “best available science,” see CRS Report RL32992, 70 For an overview of “best available science,” see CRS Report RL32992, The Endangered Species Act and “Sound
Science”, by Pervaze A. Sheikh. , by Pervaze A. Sheikh.
71 The exclusive economic zone is the zone where the U.S. and other coastal nations have jurisdiction over natural 71 The exclusive economic zone is the zone where the U.S. and other coastal nations have jurisdiction over natural
resources. It extends no more than 200 nautical miles from the shore (territorial sea baseline). Executive Office of the resources. It extends no more than 200 nautical miles from the shore (territorial sea baseline). Executive Office of the
President, “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the Shoreline and Nearshore of President, “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the Shoreline and Nearshore of
Alaska,” 84 Alaska,” 84 Federal Register 64699, November 22, 2019. 64699, November 22, 2019.
72 Rounded to the nearest 100,000. NOAA, “The United States Is an Ocean Nation,” at https://www.gc.noaa.gov/72 Rounded to the nearest 100,000. NOAA, “The United States Is an Ocean Nation,” at https://www.gc.noaa.gov/
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features that may present geohazard risks. In 2009, Congress established the Interagency features that may present geohazard risks. In 2009, Congress established the Interagency
Committee on Ocean and Coastal Mapping (IWG-OCM), a working group of the National Committee on Ocean and Coastal Mapping (IWG-OCM), a working group of the National
Science and Technology Council Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology, to coordinate Science and Technology Council Subcommittee on Ocean Science and Technology, to coordinate
ocean and coastal mapping activities across federal agencies (including BOEM, NASA, NOAA, ocean and coastal mapping activities across federal agencies (including BOEM, NASA, NOAA,
NSF, USGS, and others) as well as with state, industry, academic, and nongovernmental mapping NSF, USGS, and others) as well as with state, industry, academic, and nongovernmental mapping
interests.73 While the IWG-OCM continues to operate and assist in achieving national mapping interests.73 While the IWG-OCM continues to operate and assist in achieving national mapping
priorities,74 funding for the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act of 2009 was authorized priorities,74 funding for the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act of 2009 was authorized
through 2015.75 In 2021, NOAA announced a matching fund program to encourage nonfederal through 2015.75 In 2021, NOAA announced a matching fund program to encourage nonfederal
entities to partner with NOAA to acquire more ocean and coastal survey data.76 The entities to partner with NOAA to acquire more ocean and coastal survey data.76 The
reauthorization of the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act by Congress would be one reauthorization of the Ocean and Coastal Mapping Integration Act by Congress would be one
means of ensuring continued authorization of funds to this program, which provide the data and means of ensuring continued authorization of funds to this program, which provide the data and
information necessary for safe navigation, climate preparedness, geohazard prediction, and information necessary for safe navigation, climate preparedness, geohazard prediction, and
coastal zone management.77 coastal zone management.77
Environmental Protection of the Deep Sea
An estimated 80% of the ocean remains unexplored,78 presenting the opportunity to study and An estimated 80% of the ocean remains unexplored,78 presenting the opportunity to study and
document deep-sea life and habitats. In 2017, NOAA’s document deep-sea life and habitats. In 2017, NOAA’s Okeanos Explorer concluded a three-year concluded a three-year
field campaign mapping approximately 600,000 square kilometers of the Pacific seafloor (about field campaign mapping approximately 600,000 square kilometers of the Pacific seafloor (about
61% within U.S. waters) and documenting its biodiversity.79 The documentation of these Pacific 61% within U.S. waters) and documenting its biodiversity.79 The documentation of these Pacific
deep-sea habitats provided baselines for understanding whether and how vulnerable and resilient deep-sea habitats provided baselines for understanding whether and how vulnerable and resilient
they might be to disturbance or change. Such information may allow the United States to take a they might be to disturbance or change. Such information may allow the United States to take a
more holistic approach in the conservation of deep-sea habitats and biodiversity and the more holistic approach in the conservation of deep-sea habitats and biodiversity and the
management and extraction of marine resources. management and extraction of marine resources.
Deep-sea biodiversity is potentially threatened by resource exploitation activities (e.g., drilling, Deep-sea biodiversity is potentially threatened by resource exploitation activities (e.g., drilling,
dredging, mining) that can disturb the seafloor environment by removing habitats and dredging, mining) that can disturb the seafloor environment by removing habitats and
fragmenting populations.80 In addition, habitat disruptions could impact services derived from fragmenting populations.80 In addition, habitat disruptions could impact services derived from
marine species—some marine invertebrates (e.g., deep-sea sponges) have been shown to produce marine species—some marine invertebrates (e.g., deep-sea sponges) have been shown to produce

documents/2011/012711_gcil_maritime_eez_map.pdf. documents/2011/012711_gcil_maritime_eez_map.pdf.
73 33 U.S.C. §§3507 defines 73 33 U.S.C. §§3507 defines ocean and coastal mapping as “the acquisition, processing, and management of physical, as “the acquisition, processing, and management of physical,
biological, geological, chemical, and archaeological characteristics and boundaries of ocean and coastal areas, biological, geological, chemical, and archaeological characteristics and boundaries of ocean and coastal areas,
resources, and sea beds through the use of acoustics, satellites, aerial photogrammetry, light and imaging, direct resources, and sea beds through the use of acoustics, satellites, aerial photogrammetry, light and imaging, direct
sampling, and other mapping technologies.” NOAA, “IWG-OCM,” at https://iocm.noaa.gov/about/iwg-ocm.html. sampling, and other mapping technologies.” NOAA, “IWG-OCM,” at https://iocm.noaa.gov/about/iwg-ocm.html.
74 As outlined in Presidential Memorandum on “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the 74 As outlined in Presidential Memorandum on “Ocean Mapping of the United States Exclusive Economic Zone and the
Shoreline and Nearshore of Alaska,” IWG-OCM, along with other councils and interagency working groups, will Shoreline and Nearshore of Alaska,” IWG-OCM, along with other councils and interagency working groups, will
review and update the Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Ocean Mapping, Exploring, and review and update the Implementation Plan for the National Strategy for Ocean Mapping, Exploring, and
Characterizing the United States Exclusive Economic Zone as well as facilitate the management of data for the Alaska Characterizing the United States Exclusive Economic Zone as well as facilitate the management of data for the Alaska
Coastal Mapping Strategy. Coastal Mapping Strategy.
75 P.L. 111-11. 75 P.L. 111-11.
76 NOAA, “Notice of Matching Fund Opportunity for Ocean and Coastal Mapping and Request for Partnership 76 NOAA, “Notice of Matching Fund Opportunity for Ocean and Coastal Mapping and Request for Partnership
Proposals,” 86 Proposals,” 86 Federal Register 40197, July 27, 2021. 40197, July 27, 2021.
77 The National Ocean Exploration Act (S. 381) would authorize $60 million annually from FY2021 through FY2026 77 The National Ocean Exploration Act (S. 381) would authorize $60 million annually from FY2021 through FY2026
for NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Program as well as $45 million annually for cooperative agreements and $15 million for NOAA’s Ocean Exploration Program as well as $45 million annually for cooperative agreements and $15 million
annually for grants as part of NOAA’s Ocean and Coastal Mapping Program, over the same period. annually for grants as part of NOAA’s Ocean and Coastal Mapping Program, over the same period.
78 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ 78 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/
exploration.html. exploration.html.
79 Brian R.C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA 79 Brian R.C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA
CAPSTONE Expeditions,” in CAPSTONE Expeditions,” in Frontiers in Marine Sciences, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2. , vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 2.
80 Travis Washburn et al., “Ecological Risk Assessment of Deep-Sea Mining,” 80 Travis Washburn et al., “Ecological Risk Assessment of Deep-Sea Mining,” Ocean & Coastal Management, vol. 176 , vol. 176
(June 2019). (June 2019).
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antibiotic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory substances.81 Both environmental advocates and antibiotic, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammatory substances.81 Both environmental advocates and
international fora have called for environmental safeguards to be put in place before deep-sea international fora have called for environmental safeguards to be put in place before deep-sea
activities are permitted.82 Article 145 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea calls activities are permitted.82 Article 145 of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea calls
on parties to take necessary measures to protect of the marine environment and organisms from on parties to take necessary measures to protect of the marine environment and organisms from
waste effects of activities, such as drilling, dredging, and excavation, among other activities.83 waste effects of activities, such as drilling, dredging, and excavation, among other activities.83
Knowledge and understanding of the U.S. deep sea through exploration and scientific research Knowledge and understanding of the U.S. deep sea through exploration and scientific research
may allow for protection of sensitive habitats and their wildlife and establishment of a domestic may allow for protection of sensitive habitats and their wildlife and establishment of a domestic
supply of marine natural resources, such as minerals, located in the U.S. EEZ. In 2015, NOAA supply of marine natural resources, such as minerals, located in the U.S. EEZ. In 2015, NOAA
launched a three-year field campaign of the launched a three-year field campaign of the Okeanos Explorer to map and explore the Pacific to map and explore the Pacific
U.S. EEZ, the first modern-era exploration of the deep sea of this scope. Scientists found that this U.S. EEZ, the first modern-era exploration of the deep sea of this scope. Scientists found that this
field campaign (partially funded by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and Research) field campaign (partially funded by NOAA’s Office of Ocean Exploration and Research)
“represented a model of systematic exploration that is critical to understanding one of the earth’s “represented a model of systematic exploration that is critical to understanding one of the earth’s
largest ecosystems.”84 Congress may consider the level of funding to support NOAA’s Office of largest ecosystems.”84 Congress may consider the level of funding to support NOAA’s Office of
Marine and Aviation Operations and Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Deep-Sea, Marine and Aviation Operations and Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Deep-Sea,
which houses the Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, to allow for additional deep-sea which houses the Office of Ocean Exploration and Research, to allow for additional deep-sea
exploration campaigns designed to better document and characterize other areas of the U.S. EEZ. exploration campaigns designed to better document and characterize other areas of the U.S. EEZ.
Deep-Sea Natural Resources
Knowledge of seafloor features and environments can be used to locate potential offshore oil and Knowledge of seafloor features and environments can be used to locate potential offshore oil and
gas reserves, sand and gravel deposits, and minerals of economic value. For example, bathymetric gas reserves, sand and gravel deposits, and minerals of economic value. For example, bathymetric
and G&G survey data can help identify hard surfaces on the seafloor, such as exposed rock. These and G&G survey data can help identify hard surfaces on the seafloor, such as exposed rock. These
sites can be conducive sites for locating ferromanganese crusts. Ferromanganese crusts typically sites can be conducive sites for locating ferromanganese crusts. Ferromanganese crusts typically
are enriched in cobalt, manganese, and rare earth elements that are used in renewable energy are enriched in cobalt, manganese, and rare earth elements that are used in renewable energy
technologies (including electric vehicles).85 technologies (including electric vehicles).85
The The ~~United Nations~~ International Seabed Authority (ISA) International Seabed Authority (ISA), an autonomous organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, regulates and controls all mineral- regulates and controls all mineral-
related activities in international waters.86 related activities in international waters.86 ~~National governments regulate~~ Coastal nations regulate seabed mining activities occurring in their national waters. their national waters.
Environmental advocacy organizations argue that the ISA and national governments lack the Environmental advocacy organizations argue that the ISA and national governments lack the
regulatory frameworks and decisionmaking tools to weigh the potential impacts regulatory frameworks and decisionmaking tools to weigh the potential impacts ~~deep-sea~~seabed mining mining
might have on deep-sea ecosystems, given that much of the deep sea might have on deep-sea ecosystems, given that much of the deep sea ~~remains unexplored and~~

81 NOAA, “Do Medicines Come from the Sea,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/medicinesfromsea.html. 81 NOAA, “Do Medicines Come from the Sea,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/medicinesfromsea.html.
82 International Union for Conservation of Nature, “Deep-Sea Mining,” July 2018, at https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/82 International Union for Conservation of Nature, “Deep-Sea Mining,” July 2018, at https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/
files/deep-sea_mining_issues_brief.pdf. files/deep-sea_mining_issues_brief.pdf.
83 Although the United States is not a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), it 83 Although the United States is not a party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), it
abides by its principles. United Nations, “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, abides by its principles. United Nations, “United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982,
Overview and full text,” updated February 11, 2020, at https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/Overview and full text,” updated February 11, 2020, at https://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/
convention_overview_convention.htm. convention_overview_convention.htm.
84 Brian R. C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA 84 Brian R. C. Kennedy et al., “The Unknown and the Unexplored: Insights into the Pacific Deep-Sea Following NOAA
CAPSTONE Expeditions,” CAPSTONE Expeditions,” Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 18. vol. 6 (August 2019), p. 18.
85 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-85 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-
resources?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. resources?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.
86 86 ~~The U.N. International Seabed Authority (ISA) is mandated by the UNCLOS. Because the United States is not a~~
~~party to the UNCLOS, it cannot sponsor any private party’s application to the ISA for exploration and development of~~
~~mining in international water~~For more information on seabed mining in areas beyond national jurisdiction, see CRS Report R47324, Seabed Mining in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Issues for Congress, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti. International Seabed Authority, “About ISA,” at https://www.isa.org.jm/about-isa. . International Seabed Authority, “About ISA,” at https://www.isa.org.jm/about-isa.
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remains unexplored and unknown.87 By contrast, mining industry proponents argue that unknown.87 By contrast, mining industry proponents argue that ~~deep-sea~~ seabed mining is more mining is more
environmentally friendly than environmentally friendly than ~~land~~terrestrial-based mining.88 -based mining.88
Congress has shown interest in securing and enhancing the domestic supply of critical minerals Congress has shown interest in securing and enhancing the domestic supply of critical minerals
through proposed legislation.89 Multiple departments and agencies estimate the occurrence of and through proposed legislation.89 Multiple departments and agencies estimate the occurrence of and
environmental impact of extracting deep-sea minerals within the U.S. EEZ. The Global Marine environmental impact of extracting deep-sea minerals within the U.S. EEZ. The Global Marine
Mineral Resources Project, based out of the USGS Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center, Mineral Resources Project, based out of the USGS Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center,
“provide[s] stakeholders with the best available science regarding potential resources and “provide[s] stakeholders with the best available science regarding potential resources and
environmental impacts associated with accessing [marine mineral deposits].”90 BOEM also environmental impacts associated with accessing [marine mineral deposits].”90 BOEM also
considers the environmental impact of marine mineral extractionconsiders the environmental impact of marine mineral extraction from the U.S. outer continental shelf. BOEM scientists use the results . BOEM scientists use the results
of environmental studies to characterize the effects of proposed mineral extraction and design of environmental studies to characterize the effects of proposed mineral extraction and design
mitigation measure to minimize or avoid adverse effects.91 The Deep Seabed Hard Mineral mitigation measure to minimize or avoid adverse effects.91 The Deep Seabed Hard Mineral
Resources Act,92 which became law in 1980, governs Resources Act,92 which became law in 1980, governs ~~deep-sea~~seabed mining activities mining activities ~~within U.S.~~
~~waters~~in areas beyond national jurisdiction and is implemented by NOAA. The Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2021, and is implemented by NOAA. The Ocean-Based Climate Solutions Act of 2021,
introduced in the 117th Congress, would call on the NOAA Administrator to seek “an agreement introduced in the 117th Congress, would call on the NOAA Administrator to seek “an agreement
with the National Academies to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the environmental with the National Academies to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the environmental
impacts of deep-sea mining.”93 Congress may be interested in interagency coordination of impacts of deep-sea mining.”93 Congress may be interested in interagency coordination of ~~deep-~~
~~sea~~seabed mining research activities by NOAA, USGS, and BOEM, among others, to better document mining research activities by NOAA, USGS, and BOEM, among others, to better document
the distribution and location of deep-sea natural resources of economic value and to understand the distribution and location of deep-sea natural resources of economic value and to understand
the potential economic and environmental impacts of extraction activities. the potential economic and environmental impacts of extraction activities.

87 Earthworks, Deep Sea Mining Campaign et al., “World’s First Deep Sea Mining Proposal Ignores Consequences of 87 Earthworks, Deep Sea Mining Campaign et al., “World’s First Deep Sea Mining Proposal Ignores Consequences of
Its Impacts on Oceans,” media release, September 2015 at https://earthworks.org/media-releases/Its Impacts on Oceans,” media release, September 2015 at https://earthworks.org/media-releases/
worlds_first_deep_sea_mining_proposal_ignores_consequences_of_its_impacts_o/#.Vvw4tz_UTaY. worlds_first_deep_sea_mining_proposal_ignores_consequences_of_its_impacts_o/#.Vvw4tz_UTaY.
88 The Metals Company, “A Battery in a Rock. Polymetallic Nodules are the Cleanest Path toward Electric Vehicles,” 88 The Metals Company, “A Battery in a Rock. Polymetallic Nodules are the Cleanest Path toward Electric Vehicles,”
at https://metals.co/nodules/. at https://metals.co/nodules/.
89 For more information, see CRS Report R46618, 89 For more information, see CRS Report R46618, An Overview of Rare Earth Elements and Related Issues for
Congress, by Brandon S. Tracy. , by Brandon S. Tracy.
90 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral- 90 USGS, “Global Marine Mineral Resources,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/pcmsc/science/global-marine-mineral-
resources?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. resources?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.
91 BOEM, “Research and Studies,” at https://www.boem.gov/marine-minerals/research-and-studies. 91 BOEM, “Research and Studies,” at https://www.boem.gov/marine-minerals/research-and-studies.
92 P.L. 96-283; 30 U.S.C. §§1401-1473. 92 P.L. 96-283; 30 U.S.C. §§1401-1473.
93 H.R. 3764. 93 H.R. 3764.
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Appendix A. Background on Selected Physical
Oceanographic Variables
Ocean Temperature
Ocean temperature varies predictably—colder water occurs at higher latitudes and at greater Ocean temperature varies predictably—colder water occurs at higher latitudes and at greater
depths, as well as in regions where wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction, depths, as well as in regions where wind energy pushes sea surface water in a specific direction,
allowing for deep water to move to the surface (allowing for deep water to move to the surface (ocean upwelling; see text box entitled “Ocean see text box entitled “Ocean
Upwelling”). Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and temperatures for water depths up to 2,000 Upwelling”). Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) and temperatures for water depths up to 2,000
meters are primarily collected by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meters are primarily collected by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Argo Profiling Floats.94 As Argo floats drift in the ocean and submerge to new pressure levels at Argo Profiling Floats.94 As Argo floats drift in the ocean and submerge to new pressure levels at
different water depths, they collect data on the water’s temperature profile different water depths, they collect data on the water’s temperature profile (Figure 1). When Argo . When Argo
floats return to the surface, they transmit temperature data via satellites to scientists for floats return to the surface, they transmit temperature data via satellites to scientists for
processing and analysis. processing and analysis.
Various instruments other than Argo floats also collect and transmit ocean temperature data. Various instruments other than Argo floats also collect and transmit ocean temperature data.
Research vessels can collect ocean temperature and other data using deployable vehicles or Research vessels can collect ocean temperature and other data using deployable vehicles or
devices. For example, unmanned wave gliders are remotely operated vehicles that collect SST devices. For example, unmanned wave gliders are remotely operated vehicles that collect SST
data. Research vessels can also deploy Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors that data. Research vessels can also deploy Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors that
collect water temperatures at various water depths. Wave gliders and CTD sensors, however, are collect water temperatures at various water depths. Wave gliders and CTD sensors, however, are
limited to the path taken by the ship; gliders and CTD sensors provide detailed data for specific limited to the path taken by the ship; gliders and CTD sensors provide detailed data for specific
sites. sites.
The satellites Aqua, Terra, Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP), and NOAA-20 are The satellites Aqua, Terra, Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Partnership (NPP), and NOAA-20 are
equipped with instruments that collect near-global SST data from space. Unlike sensors deployed equipped with instruments that collect near-global SST data from space. Unlike sensors deployed
in the ocean, they collect data from the top 1 millimeter of the ocean. in the ocean, they collect data from the top 1 millimeter of the ocean.
Over the 20th century and continuing today, global SSTs have increased as the ocean absorbs Over the 20th century and continuing today, global SSTs have increased as the ocean absorbs
more heat.95 Ocean temperature impacts global climate. For example, warm waters increase the more heat.95 Ocean temperature impacts global climate. For example, warm waters increase the
amount of water vapor over the ocean that can influence weather systems (e.g., precipitation amount of water vapor over the ocean that can influence weather systems (e.g., precipitation
patterns, storm events).96 Warming SSTs also have the potential to affect marine ecosystems by patterns, storm events).96 Warming SSTs also have the potential to affect marine ecosystems by
altering where species can live and when species migrate and reproduce, and causing loss of life altering where species can live and when species migrate and reproduce, and causing loss of life
for species that cannot migrate to new waters.97 Additionally, ocean temperature influences other for species that cannot migrate to new waters.97 Additionally, ocean temperature influences other
ocean variables, such as ice, sea level (because of thermal expansion of ocean water),98 ocean variables, such as ice, sea level (because of thermal expansion of ocean water),98
chlorophyll, dissolved oxygen, and pH.chlorophyll, dissolved oxygen, and pH.

94 Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are considered as depths up to 5 meters below the surface ocean. National Oceanic 94 Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are considered as depths up to 5 meters below the surface ocean. National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/. and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “Argo Center,” at https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/argo/.
95 EPA, “Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-95 EPA, “Climate Change Indicators: Sea Surface Temperature,” at https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-
change-indicators-sea-surface-temperature. change-indicators-sea-surface-temperature.
96 NASA, “Sea Surface Temperature & Water Vapor,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/global-maps/MYD28M/ 96 NASA, “Sea Surface Temperature & Water Vapor,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/global-maps/MYD28M/
MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV. MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.
97 “Chapter 5. Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities,” in IPCC, 97 “Chapter 5. Changing Ocean, Marine Ecosystems, and Dependent Communities,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere. .
98 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise. 98 Because water expands as it warms (thermal expansion), warming ocean water will cause sea level rise.
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Ocean Upwelling
There are two types of ocean upwelling. There are two types of ocean upwelling.
 
Coastal upwelling is the most common type of upwelling and generally occurs along the western coast of is the most common type of upwelling and generally occurs along the western coast of
North America in the winter and year-round along the western coasts of South America and Africa. In the North America in the winter and year-round along the western coasts of South America and Africa. In the
winter, strong winds typically blow north to south along the west coast of the United States. Due to Earth’s winter, strong winds typically blow north to south along the west coast of the United States. Due to Earth’s
rotation, these strong winds cause surface waters along the western U.S. coast to be pushed offshore, rotation, these strong winds cause surface waters along the western U.S. coast to be pushed offshore,
allowing for deep, colder ocean waters to replace them. This path of air deflection is called the allowing for deep, colder ocean waters to replace them. This path of air deflection is called the Coriolis Effect. .
Because of the Because of the Coriolis Effect, surface ocean water is also deflected, moving at about 90-degrees to the right of , surface ocean water is also deflected, moving at about 90-degrees to the right of
the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and about 90-degrees to the left of the wind direction in the the wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere and about 90-degrees to the left of the wind direction in the
Southern Hemisphere. This movement of water is called Southern Hemisphere. This movement of water is called Ekman Transport (or (or Ekman Spiral). ).
 
Equatorial upwelling occurs along the equator. Surface water in the Northern Hemisphere diverges occurs along the equator. Surface water in the Northern Hemisphere diverges
northward along the equator (to the right) and southward in the Southern Hemisphere (to the left) due to northward along the equator (to the right) and southward in the Southern Hemisphere (to the left) due to
the the Coriolis Effect. Where these two surface water masses diverge away from each other along the equator, . Where these two surface water masses diverge away from each other along the equator,
deep, colder waters rise to the surface. Trade winds in the Indian Ocean make equatorial upwelling less deep, colder waters rise to the surface. Trade winds in the Indian Ocean make equatorial upwelling less
prevalent in this ocean basin compared to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. prevalent in this ocean basin compared to the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
Sources: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Coriolis Effect,” at National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), “The Coriolis Effect,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents1.html; NOAA, “The Ekman Spiral,” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents1.html; NOAA, “The Ekman Spiral,” at
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents4.html.https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/tutorial_currents/04currents4.html.
Ice
Continental ice and sea ice cover vast swaths of the Antarctic and Arctic regions, including Continental ice and sea ice cover vast swaths of the Antarctic and Arctic regions, including
Greenland. Extreme weather, ice-covered terrain, and thick sea ice can pose challenges to Greenland. Extreme weather, ice-covered terrain, and thick sea ice can pose challenges to
research vessel polar scientific expeditions. Satellite and aircraft remote sensing allow for more research vessel polar scientific expeditions. Satellite and aircraft remote sensing allow for more
continuous and broad monitoring of these regions, including aspects such as ice thickness and continuous and broad monitoring of these regions, including aspects such as ice thickness and
areal extent. Sea-ice concentration data are derived from the Advanced Topographic Laser areal extent. Sea-ice concentration data are derived from the Advanced Topographic Laser
Altimeter System on the IceSat-2 and the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager and Special Sensor Altimeter System on the IceSat-2 and the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager and Special Sensor
Microwave Imager/Sounder on Defense Meteorological Satellite Programs satellites.99 The VIIRS Microwave Imager/Sounder on Defense Meteorological Satellite Programs satellites.99 The VIIRS
instrument onboard both the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 also collects data used to monitor the instrument onboard both the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 also collects data used to monitor the
amount of ice at the poles. The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational amount of ice at the poles. The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational
pull, which reflect changes in Earth’s distribution of mass (including water and ice).100 As ice pull, which reflect changes in Earth’s distribution of mass (including water and ice).100 As ice
melts and redistributes water across the planet, it alters Earth’s gravitational pull allowing melts and redistributes water across the planet, it alters Earth’s gravitational pull allowing
scientists to use the satellite data to measure these water mass and ice mass changes. scientists to use the satellite data to measure these water mass and ice mass changes.
Continental and sea-ice melt add freshwater to the surface ocean. Freshwater is less dense than Continental and sea-ice melt add freshwater to the surface ocean. Freshwater is less dense than
seawater and consequently tends to layer with the underlying seawater, leading to the seawater and consequently tends to layer with the underlying seawater, leading to the
stratification of ocean water in regions with increased ice melt. Cold, salty polar surface waters stratification of ocean water in regions with increased ice melt. Cold, salty polar surface waters
are dense enough to sink to depth in the ocean and fuel global deep-sea circulation. Because cold are dense enough to sink to depth in the ocean and fuel global deep-sea circulation. Because cold
water also holds more dissolved gasses than warm water, polar regions play an important role in water also holds more dissolved gasses than warm water, polar regions play an important role in
absorbing atmospheric CO2 and then sinking this carbon into the deep ocean. absorbing atmospheric CO2 and then sinking this carbon into the deep ocean.

99 Initiated by the Department of Defense in the mid-1960s, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program is composed 99 Initiated by the Department of Defense in the mid-1960s, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program is composed
of low, Earth-orbiting satellites that provide the military with environmental information. These satellites provide of low, Earth-orbiting satellites that provide the military with environmental information. These satellites provide
global coverage twice per day. Meteorologists interpret the data (e.g., cloud type, land and water temperatures, water global coverage twice per day. Meteorologists interpret the data (e.g., cloud type, land and water temperatures, water
currents) for U.S. military operations worldwide. currents) for U.S. military operations worldwide.
100 NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, at 100 NASA, “GRACE, GRACE-FO Satellite Data Track Ice Loss at the Poles,” March 18, 2020, at
https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satellite-data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2959/grace-grace-fo-satellite-data-track-ice-loss-at-the-poles/.
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Sea Level
The surface height (elevation) of the ocean can naturally vary in places due to gravitational pull The surface height (elevation) of the ocean can naturally vary in places due to gravitational pull
from the moon and sun, Earth’s rotation, atmospheric pressure, and gravitational forces from from the moon and sun, Earth’s rotation, atmospheric pressure, and gravitational forces from
continental land mass.101 At the same time, the global average sea level is slowly rising because continental land mass.101 At the same time, the global average sea level is slowly rising because
of melting continental ice and thermal expansion of ocean water due to its warming. of melting continental ice and thermal expansion of ocean water due to its warming.
Satellite-based radar altimeters measure variations in the surface height of the ocean by sending Satellite-based radar altimeters measure variations in the surface height of the ocean by sending
pulses of microwaves toward the ocean that bounce off its surface and return to the satellite. pulses of microwaves toward the ocean that bounce off its surface and return to the satellite.
Similar to sonar sensor systems, the amount of time it takes for the signal to return to the satellite Similar to sonar sensor systems, the amount of time it takes for the signal to return to the satellite
corresponds to the height of the sea surface. Both Jason-3 and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich are corresponds to the height of the sea surface. Both Jason-3 and Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich are
altimetry satellites. The Jason-3 satellite is a shared partnership between NASA, NOAA, France’s altimetry satellites. The Jason-3 satellite is a shared partnership between NASA, NOAA, France’s
Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, the European Organisation for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites, and the European Space Agency.102 The Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Meteorological Satellites, and the European Space Agency.102 The Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich
satellite is a collaborative partnership between the European Space Agency, European satellite is a collaborative partnership between the European Space Agency, European
Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, SpaceX, Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites, SpaceX,
NASA, and NOAA.103 The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational pull, NASA, and NOAA.103 The GRACE-FO satellite measures changes to Earth’s gravitational pull,
which can provide information about the amount of sea level rise as the distribution of water and which can provide information about the amount of sea level rise as the distribution of water and
ice changes across Earth’s surface.104 ice changes across Earth’s surface.104
Prior to altimetry satellites, tide gauges were used to continuously collect tidal wave heights. This Prior to altimetry satellites, tide gauges were used to continuously collect tidal wave heights. This
recorded the height of the surrounding water relative to a reference point, taking into account land recorded the height of the surrounding water relative to a reference point, taking into account land
elevation changes. Modern gauges use a microprocessor-based technology to collect sea level elevation changes. Modern gauges use a microprocessor-based technology to collect sea level
data every six minutes and are synchronized with Geostationary Operational Environmental data every six minutes and are synchronized with Geostationary Operational Environmental
Satellites.105 Satellites.105
Heating of Earth’s climate system has led to both continental ice melt and thermal expansion of Heating of Earth’s climate system has led to both continental ice melt and thermal expansion of
the ocean, leading to global mean sea level rise.106 Due to sea level rise, low-lying areas are the ocean, leading to global mean sea level rise.106 Due to sea level rise, low-lying areas are
susceptible to more frequent and severe coastal flooding events and sandy coastlines more susceptible to more frequent and severe coastal flooding events and sandy coastlines more
susceptible to coastal erosion. The 2021 IPCC susceptible to coastal erosion. The 2021 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report also projects that with also projects that with
high confidence that extreme sea level events that previously occurred once per century at least high confidence that extreme sea level events that previously occurred once per century at least
annually at more than half of all tide gauge locations by 2100.107 annually at more than half of all tide gauge locations by 2100.107

101 NASA, “Sea Level 101: What Determines the Level of the Sea?,” June 3, 2020, at https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-101 NASA, “Sea Level 101: What Determines the Level of the Sea?,” June 3, 2020, at https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-
climate/2990/sea-level-101-what-determines-the-level-of-the-sea/. climate/2990/sea-level-101-what-determines-the-level-of-the-sea/.
102 NOAA Earth Observatory, “Taking a Measure of Sea Level Rise: Ocean Altimetry,” at 102 NOAA Earth Observatory, “Taking a Measure of Sea Level Rise: Ocean Altimetry,” at
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147435/taking-a-measure-of-sea level-rise-ocean-altimetry. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/147435/taking-a-measure-of-sea level-rise-ocean-altimetry.
103 Linda Herridge, “Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Satellite in Earth Orbit, Mission Begins to Map Sea Levels,” 103 Linda Herridge, “Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich Satellite in Earth Orbit, Mission Begins to Map Sea Levels,” NASA
Blogs, November 21, 2020, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/. , November 21, 2020, at https://blogs.nasa.gov/sentinel-6/.
104 NASA, “Sea Level,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/science/sea-level/. 104 NASA, “Sea Level,” at https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/science/sea-level/.
105 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) track the same position on Earth’s surface as the planet 105 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES) track the same position on Earth’s surface as the planet
rotates, thereby providing constant surveillance over the specified area. These satellites can provide information on rotates, thereby providing constant surveillance over the specified area. These satellites can provide information on
weather conditions (e.g., tornados, floods, hurricanes). NASA, “GOES Satellite Network,” at https://www.nasa.gov/weather conditions (e.g., tornados, floods, hurricanes). NASA, “GOES Satellite Network,” at https://www.nasa.gov/
content/goes; and NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html. For more content/goes; and NOAA, “What Is a Tide Gauge?” at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/tide-gauge.html. For more
information, see CRS Report R44632, information, see CRS Report R44632, Sea-Level Rise and U.S. Coasts: Science and Policy Considerations, by Peter , by Peter
Folger and Nicole T. Carter. Folger and Nicole T. Carter.
106 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 106 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SPM-14. , p. SPM-14.
107 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 107 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SPM-33. , p. SPM-33.
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Chlorophyll (Ocean Color)
The chlorophyll concentration of the surface ocean provides an estimate for living phytoplankton The chlorophyll concentration of the surface ocean provides an estimate for living phytoplankton
in the near-surface water and is inversely correlated with temperature (i.e., dense populations of in the near-surface water and is inversely correlated with temperature (i.e., dense populations of
phytoplankton occur in cold surface waters where ocean upwelling has occurred).108 phytoplankton occur in cold surface waters where ocean upwelling has occurred).108
Phytoplankton use photosynthetic green pigments (chlorophyll) to convert the solar energy they Phytoplankton use photosynthetic green pigments (chlorophyll) to convert the solar energy they
capture into organic matter. When phytoplankton occur in dense populations, the color of the capture into organic matter. When phytoplankton occur in dense populations, the color of the
ocean appears greenerocean appears greener (Figure A-1). The MODIS instrument on the Aqua and Terra satellites and . The MODIS instrument on the Aqua and Terra satellites and
the VIIRS instrument on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites collect chlorophyll data. the VIIRS instrument on the Suomi NPP and NOAA-20 satellites collect chlorophyll data.
Chlorophyll concentrations provide information about ocean health and primary productivity in Chlorophyll concentrations provide information about ocean health and primary productivity in
surface waters. Deep, cold waters tend be nutrient-rich; when these waters are exposed to surface waters. Deep, cold waters tend be nutrient-rich; when these waters are exposed to
sunlight, marine phytoplankton absorb solar energy and atmospheric CO2 to form organic matter, sunlight, marine phytoplankton absorb solar energy and atmospheric CO2 to form organic matter,
forming the base of the marine food chain for larger organisms to feed on them. Phytoplankton forming the base of the marine food chain for larger organisms to feed on them. Phytoplankton
are composed of organic (flesh) and inorganic (shell) carbon; thus, when phytoplankton die, the are composed of organic (flesh) and inorganic (shell) carbon; thus, when phytoplankton die, the
inorganic shell of the organism sinks to depth in the ocean, removing carbon from the surface inorganic shell of the organism sinks to depth in the ocean, removing carbon from the surface
waters. This process provides a natural atmospheric CO2 sink. waters. This process provides a natural atmospheric CO2 sink.

108 NASA Earth Observations, “Chlorophyll Concentration (1 Month—Aqua/Modis),” at https://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/108 NASA Earth Observations, “Chlorophyll Concentration (1 Month—Aqua/Modis),” at https://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/
view.php?datasetId=MY1DMM_CHLORA. view.php?datasetId=MY1DMM_CHLORA.
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Figure A-1. Phytoplankton Bloom off the Washington Coast

Source: NASA Earth Observatory, at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84095/phytoplankton-bloom-off-NASA Earth Observatory, at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84095/phytoplankton-bloom-off-
the-pacific-northwest. the-pacific-northwest.
Notes: NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this image of coastal upwelling on July 26, 2014. Upwelling currents and NASA’s Aqua satellite captured this image of coastal upwelling on July 26, 2014. Upwelling currents and
summer weather promoted this large phytoplankton bloom off the Pacific Northwest making the coastal ocean summer weather promoted this large phytoplankton bloom off the Pacific Northwest making the coastal ocean
waters appear green. waters appear green.
Seafloor Bathymetry
Approximately 80% of the global ocean floor is unmapped,109 and less than 10% has been Approximately 80% of the global ocean floor is unmapped,109 and less than 10% has been
mapped in detail using modern sonar technology.110 The primary instrument used for mapping the mapped in detail using modern sonar technology.110 The primary instrument used for mapping the

109 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?,” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/109 NOAA, “How Much of the Ocean Have We Explored?,” February 26, 2021, at https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/
exploration.html. exploration.html.
110 NOAA, “Chapter Two: How Much of the Seafloor Is Left to Explore?,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/world- 110 NOAA, “Chapter Two: How Much of the Seafloor Is Left to Explore?,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/world-
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seafloor is a multibeam sonar sensor, which attaches directly to a ship’s hull. A multibeam sonar seafloor is a multibeam sonar sensor, which attaches directly to a ship’s hull. A multibeam sonar
sensor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect sensor sends out simultaneous sonar beams (sound waves) in a fan-shaped pattern to collect
seafloor information surrounding the ship.111 The amount of time it takes for the sonar sound seafloor information surrounding the ship.111 The amount of time it takes for the sonar sound
wave to return back to the sensor corresponds to the depth of the seafloor. Multibeam sonar wave to return back to the sensor corresponds to the depth of the seafloor. Multibeam sonar
sensors also can collect backscatter measurements, which correspond to the return beam’s sensors also can collect backscatter measurements, which correspond to the return beam’s
intensity. The return signal’s intensity provides information about the seafloor’s composition; for intensity. The return signal’s intensity provides information about the seafloor’s composition; for
example, a mud surface will absorb most of the sound pulse, returning a weak signal to the example, a mud surface will absorb most of the sound pulse, returning a weak signal to the
receiver, whereas a rocky surface will absorb little of the sound pulse, returning a strong signal.112 receiver, whereas a rocky surface will absorb little of the sound pulse, returning a strong signal.112
A sidescan sonar also provides information on the composition of the seafloor sediment. This A sidescan sonar also provides information on the composition of the seafloor sediment. This
equipment, which is towed off of vessels on long cables, sends and receives sound signals across equipment, which is towed off of vessels on long cables, sends and receives sound signals across
the seafloor, recording the return signal’s intensity. the seafloor, recording the return signal’s intensity.
Satellite-based remote sensing technology can also be used for shallow seafloor mapping, Satellite-based remote sensing technology can also be used for shallow seafloor mapping,
especially in areas inaccessible to research vessels. The Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellites provide especially in areas inaccessible to research vessels. The Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 satellites provide
near-shore bathymetric data, but the satellite primarily collects land-based observations for a near-shore bathymetric data, but the satellite primarily collects land-based observations for a
variety of governmental and nongovernmental applications.113 The ICESat-2 satellite is equipped variety of governmental and nongovernmental applications.113 The ICESat-2 satellite is equipped
with lidar technology that can be used to map coastal waters.114 with lidar technology that can be used to map coastal waters.114
Knowledge of seafloor bathymetry serves several navigation, economic (natural resource), and Knowledge of seafloor bathymetry serves several navigation, economic (natural resource), and
ocean science purposes. Nautical charts are based on bathymetric data. Characteristics of the ocean science purposes. Nautical charts are based on bathymetric data. Characteristics of the
seafloor partially derived from bathymetric data can help identify and locate natural resources of seafloor partially derived from bathymetric data can help identify and locate natural resources of
economic value (e.g., sand and gravel, critical minerals, oil and gas reserves). In addition, economic value (e.g., sand and gravel, critical minerals, oil and gas reserves). In addition,
seafloor characteristics can help study changing coastlines (e.g., erosion, land sinking), geologic seafloor characteristics can help study changing coastlines (e.g., erosion, land sinking), geologic
hazards (e.g., earthquake faults), and the habitats of benthic organisms (i.e., organisms living on hazards (e.g., earthquake faults), and the habitats of benthic organisms (i.e., organisms living on
or in seafloor sediments). or in seafloor sediments).

oceans-day-2015/how-much-of-the-seafloor-is-left-to-explore.html. oceans-day-2015/how-much-of-the-seafloor-is-left-to-explore.html.
111 A single-beam sonar uses only one sonar beam aimed directly beneath the ship to collect bathymetric data. 111 A single-beam sonar uses only one sonar beam aimed directly beneath the ship to collect bathymetric data.
112 NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/112 NOAA, “Sea Floor Mapping,” at https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/lewis_clark01/background/
seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html. seafloormapping/seafloormapping.html.
113 U.S. Geological Survey, “Satellite-Derived Bathymetry,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/coastal-national- 113 U.S. Geological Survey, “Satellite-Derived Bathymetry,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/coastal-national-
elevation-database-%28coned%29-applications-project/science/satellite#overview; NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission elevation-database-%28coned%29-applications-project/science/satellite#overview; NASA, “Landsat 8 Mission
Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. For more information, see CRS Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/landsat-8/landsat-8-mission-details/. For more information, see CRS
Report R46560, Report R46560, Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, by Anna E. Normand. , by Anna E. Normand.
114 NASA, “Sounding the Seafloor with Light,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148246/sounding-the- 114 NASA, “Sounding the Seafloor with Light,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148246/sounding-the-
seafloor-with-light. seafloor-with-light.
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Appendix B. Background on Selected
Biogeochemical Oceanographic Variables
Salinity
Salinity (saltiness) is a measure of the dissolved salt ions in seawater. The two most common ions Salinity (saltiness) is a measure of the dissolved salt ions in seawater. The two most common ions
in seawater are chloride and sodium. They make up over 90% of all dissolved ions in seawater. in seawater are chloride and sodium. They make up over 90% of all dissolved ions in seawater.
Dissolved ions can be washed from land into the ocean via rivers or can be mixed into seawater Dissolved ions can be washed from land into the ocean via rivers or can be mixed into seawater
by submarine hydrothermal vents or undersea volcanoes.115 Salinity can be measured using Argo by submarine hydrothermal vents or undersea volcanoes.115 Salinity can be measured using Argo
floats, unmanned wave gliders, Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors, and water floats, unmanned wave gliders, Conductivity, Temperature, and Depth (CTD) sensors, and water
quality gauges. quality gauges.
Salinity and sea surface temperature determine the density of surface ocean water. Density Salinity and sea surface temperature determine the density of surface ocean water. Density
differences between water masses (e.g., surface water versus deep-sea water) drive ocean differences between water masses (e.g., surface water versus deep-sea water) drive ocean
circulation, which is the primary mechanism for transporting heat across and within the global circulation, which is the primary mechanism for transporting heat across and within the global
ocean. Scientists use the salinity of ocean water to trace ocean circulation patterns and to monitor ocean. Scientists use the salinity of ocean water to trace ocean circulation patterns and to monitor
freshwater input from land or melting ice. Both increased precipitation over land and continental freshwater input from land or melting ice. Both increased precipitation over land and continental
and sea-ice melt are freshening near-surface ocean waters,116 which may contribute to weaker and sea-ice melt are freshening near-surface ocean waters,116 which may contribute to weaker
ocean circulation. ocean circulation.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is present in water.117 The amount of dissolved Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen that is present in water.117 The amount of dissolved
oxygen is affected by seawater temperature, patterns of ocean circulation, ocean mixing (driven oxygen is affected by seawater temperature, patterns of ocean circulation, ocean mixing (driven
by wind energy and ocean stratification), aerobic biological activity (i.e., respiration), and by wind energy and ocean stratification), aerobic biological activity (i.e., respiration), and
distance from oxygen source (e.g., depth from the interface between the surface water and the distance from oxygen source (e.g., depth from the interface between the surface water and the
atmospheric). Continental runoff with increased nutrient loads (e.g., fertilizer) or pollution (e.g., atmospheric). Continental runoff with increased nutrient loads (e.g., fertilizer) or pollution (e.g.,
wastewater) can lead to excessive richness of nutrients in the water. This may stimulate marine wastewater) can lead to excessive richness of nutrients in the water. This may stimulate marine
algal blooms that lower the amount of dissolved oxygen.118 Dissolved oxygen concentrations can algal blooms that lower the amount of dissolved oxygen.118 Dissolved oxygen concentrations can
be measured using Argo floats, unmanned wave gliders, and water quality gauges. be measured using Argo floats, unmanned wave gliders, and water quality gauges.
Because warm water holds less dissolved gas compared to cold water, the ocean is holding less Because warm water holds less dissolved gas compared to cold water, the ocean is holding less
dissolved oxygen as a result of global ocean warming.119 Many marine species have undergone dissolved oxygen as a result of global ocean warming.119 Many marine species have undergone
shifts in geographic range and seasonal changes in response to oxygen loss, in addition to other shifts in geographic range and seasonal changes in response to oxygen loss, in addition to other
oceanographic changes, which may affect the aquaculture sector.120 oceanographic changes, which may affect the aquaculture sector.120

115 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Why Is the Ocean Salty?” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-115 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Why Is the Ocean Salty?” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-
school/science/why-ocean-salty?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects. school/science/why-ocean-salty?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects.
116 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 116 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, AR6 Physical Science Basis, p. SPM-6. , p. SPM-6.
117 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Indicators: Dissolved Oxygen,” at https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-117 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Indicators: Dissolved Oxygen,” at https://www.epa.gov/national-aquatic-
resource-surveys/indicators-dissolved-oxygen#:~:text=resource-surveys/indicators-dissolved-oxygen#:~:text=
Dissolved%20oxygen%20(DO)%20is%20the,of%20a%20pond%20or%20lake. Dissolved%20oxygen%20(DO)%20is%20the,of%20a%20pond%20or%20lake.
118 For more information on harmful algal blooms, see CRS Report R46921, 118 For more information on harmful algal blooms, see CRS Report R46921, Marine Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs):
Background, Statutory Authorities, and Issues for Congress, by Eva Lipiec. , by Eva Lipiec.
119 T.L. Frölicher et al., “Contrasting Upper and Deep Ocean Oxygen Responses to Protracted Global Warming,” 119 T.L. Frölicher et al., “Contrasting Upper and Deep Ocean Oxygen Responses to Protracted Global Warming,”
Global Biogeochemical Cycles, vol. 34 (August 2020), p. 1. , vol. 34 (August 2020), p. 1.
120 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, 120 “Summary for Policymakers,” in IPCC, Ocean and Cryosphere, p. SPM-12. , p. SPM-12.
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pH
The ocean’s surface is in chemical equilibrium with Earth’s atmosphere—as atmospheric CO2 The ocean’s surface is in chemical equilibrium with Earth’s atmosphere—as atmospheric CO2
concentrations increase, surface ocean water absorbs more CO2. When atmospheric CO2 dissolves concentrations increase, surface ocean water absorbs more CO2. When atmospheric CO2 dissolves
into the ocean, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Some of the carbonic acid dissociates in ocean into the ocean, it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). Some of the carbonic acid dissociates in ocean
waters, producing hydrogen ions (H+). As the number of hydrogen ions increases, the pH of waters, producing hydrogen ions (H+). As the number of hydrogen ions increases, the pH of
seawater decreases and the seawater becomes more acidic, a process known as seawater decreases and the seawater becomes more acidic, a process known as ocean
acidification.121 The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program uses two types of floating devices—.121 The NOAA Ocean Acidification Program uses two types of floating devices—
moored (stationary) buoys and wave gliders—that measure the concentration of dissolved CO2 moored (stationary) buoys and wave gliders—that measure the concentration of dissolved CO2
every three hours.122 Scientists use the data collected by these devices to study the rate of carbon every three hours.122 Scientists use the data collected by these devices to study the rate of carbon
uptake by the ocean. uptake by the ocean.
More acidic waters can physiologically stress some marine invertebrate organisms (e.g., clams, More acidic waters can physiologically stress some marine invertebrate organisms (e.g., clams,
snails, crabs) that use carbonate ions to create their shells, which result in a less robust carbonate snails, crabs) that use carbonate ions to create their shells, which result in a less robust carbonate
shell and might make the organisms more susceptible to predation and death.123 shell and might make the organisms more susceptible to predation and death.123

Author Information

Caitlin Keating-Bitonti Caitlin Keating-Bitonti

Analyst in Natural Resources Policy Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
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121 For more information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, 121 For more information on ocean acidification, see CRS Report R47300, Ocean Acidification: Frequently Asked
Questions, by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec. , by Caitlin Keating-Bitonti and Eva Lipiec.
122 NOAA, Ocean Acidification Program, “Monitoring,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/ 122 NOAA, Ocean Acidification Program, “Monitoring,” at https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/WhatWeDo/
Monitoring.aspx Monitoring.aspx
123 Smithsonian, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification. 123 Smithsonian, “Ocean Acidification,” at https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/ocean-acidification.
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