Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy In Brief

Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy:
August 26 December 1, 2022 , 2022
Inin Brief
Clayton Thomas
Even by the standards of Afghanistan’s tumultuous history, 2021 marked a major watershed for
Specialist in Middle
the countryThe aftershocks of Afghanistan’s watershed year of 2021 continue to reverberate within Specialist in Middle Afghanistan, throughout its region, and in the United States. In 2021, U.S. and international Eastern Affairs . In 2021, U.S. and international forces departed after nearly two decades of forces departed after nearly two decades of
Eastern Affairs
operations in Afghanistan; the internationally backed operations in Afghanistan; the internationally backed Afghan government and its military forces Afghan government and its military forces

collapsed; and the Taliban, a Sunni Islamist extremist group that formerly ruled the country from collapsed; and the Taliban, a Sunni Islamist extremist group that formerly ruled the country from
1996 to 2001, retook power. The aftershocks of these events continue to reverberate within

Afghanistan, throughout its region, and in the United States as Afghans and U.S. policymakers
alike1996 to 2001, retook power. Afghans and Americans alike, including Members of Congress and other U.S. policymakers, continue to grapple with the grapple with the reality of the Taliban’s renewed rule. The Taliban government is dominated by former officials from the Taliban’s prior rule or longtime loyalists, indicating that the Taliban have prioritized internal cohesion over outreach to other segments of Afghan society or similar gestures advocated by the United States and other countries. Some signs of dissension in the group’s ranks along various lines have emerged, though the Taliban have a history of effectively managing internal disputes. Some Afghans have sought to advocate for their rights and express opposition to the Taliban in nonviolent demonstrations, which the Taliban have monitored and sometimes violently dispersed. Other anti-Taliban Afghans have taken up arms against the Taliban, claiming guerilla-style attacks against Taliban forces and calling for international assistance, and the regional Islamic State affiliate has conducted attacks against both Taliban forces and Afghan civilians. Some Members of Congress have focused on a number of impacts of the Taliban’s renewed rule on U.S. interests:  Counterterrorism. The Taliban takeover has had different impacts on the Islamic State and Al Qaeda, historic Taliban adversaries and partners, respectively. With no U.S. military forces based in Afghanistan or neighboring states, the United States is pursuing an “over-the-horizon” counterterrorism approach.  Women and Girls. Taliban actions have been detrimental for the status of women and girls in Afghanistan, a longtime U.S. policy concern, with girls prohibited from attending school at the secondary level and women’s roles drastically curtailed.  Relocating U.S. Partners. Some Members of Congress have closely followed ongoing U.S. efforts to relocate remaining U.S. citizens, as well as the tens of thousands of Afghans who worked for U.S. efforts and seek to leave the country. Some Members have also expressed concern about dire humanitarian conditions in Afghanistan. Since the Taliban takeover, Afghanistan has faced intersecting and overwhelming humanitarian and economic crises, a result of challenges both preexisting (such as natural disasters and Afghanistan’s weak economic base) and new (such as the cut-off of international development assistance, U.S. sanctions on the Taliban, and the U.S. hold on Afghan central bank assets). In response, the Biden Administration has provided over $1 billion in humanitarian assistance, issued general licenses authorizing various humanitarian and commercial transactions, and established a Switzerland-based “Afghan Fund” to disburse some of Afghanistan’s central bank assets to support the Afghan economy. Congressional oversight of U.S. Afghanistan policy has featured numerous hearings, past and ongoing investigations, and the creation of the Afghanistan War Commission. Congress has also imposed a variety of reporting requirements to monitor dynamics in Afghanistan and their implications for U.S. policy. Going forward, Congress may consider further reporting requirements, resources, or investigative efforts related to various U.S. interests as it evaluates the Biden Administration’s budget request and defense authorization measures. Future reports from the congressionally created Afghanistan War Commission and other bodies may offer lessons for legislators Congressional action is likely to be influenced, and likely constrained, by a lack of reliable information about events in Afghanistan and the historical legacy of U.S. conflict with the Taliban. Perhaps more challengingly, the Biden Administration and many in Congress seek to ameliorate humanitarian and economic conditions in Afghanistan, but without reality of the Taliban’s renewed rule.
The chapter of Afghan history that ended in 2021 arguably began in 2001, when the United States, in response to the terrorist
attacks of September 11, 2001, led a military campaign against Al Qaeda and the Afghan Taliban government that harbored
and supported it. In the subsequent 20 years, the United States suffered over 22,000 military casualties (including about 2,400
fatalities) in Afghanistan, mostly at the hands of the rising Taliban insurgency, and Congress appropriated over $146 billion
for reconstruction and security forces there. During this same period, an elected Afghan government replaced the Taliban
and, with significant U.S. and international support, made modest but uneven improvements in most measures of human
development, though Afghanistan remained one of the world’s poorest and most corrupt countries.
In February 2020, Trump Administration officials signed an agreement with the Taliban in which the United States
committed to the withdrawal of all international military forces by May 2021, in return for which the Taliban committed to
prevent other groups (including Al Qaeda) from using Afghan soil to threaten the United States. Amid increased violence
between the Taliban and Afghan government and continuing Taliban links with Al Qaeda, the Trump Administration drew
down U.S. forces to a low of 2,500 in January 2021. Several months later, President Joseph Biden announced that the United
States would complete the troop withdrawal by September 2021. On August 15, 2021, two weeks before that withdrawal was
to conclude, the Taliban entered Kabul, the culmination of a rapid nationwide military advance that shocked many in the
United States and Afghanistan. In the last two weeks of August, U.S. military forces oversaw the evacuation of over 120,000
individuals, including U.S. and international diplomatic personnel and Afghan partners, from Kabul’s international airport,
before departing on August 30, 2021. No U.S. military or diplomatic personnel are in Afghanistan as of August 2022.
The Taliban announced the formation of a new government dominated by Taliban loyalists on September 7, 2021. The
composition of that government and the Taliban’s suppression of peaceful protests against its rule indicate the group has
prioritized internal cohesion over outreach to other segments of Afghan society or similar gestures advocated by the United
States and other countries. Some anti-Taliban Afghans have sought U.S. support and have claimed guerilla-style attacks
against Taliban forces. However, the regional Islamic State affiliate may pose a more potent threat to the Taliban.
Members of Congress have focused on a number of impacts of the Taliban’s renewed rule, including the status of the Islamic
State, Al Qaeda, and U.S. efforts to counter these groups “over the horizon.” Taliban actions have been detrimental for the
status of women and girls in Afghanistan, a longtime U.S. policy concern, with girls prohibited from attending school at the
secondary level and women’s roles curtailed. The status of ethnic and religious minorities, as well as the tens of thousands of
Afghans who worked for U.S. efforts and seek to leave the country, also remain closely scrutinized by U.S. policymakers.
The Taliban’s return to power also has implications for Afghanistan’s neighbors and regional dynamics more broadly.
Since the Taliban takeover, Afghanistan has faced intersecting and overwhelming humanitarian and economic crises, a result
of challenges both pre-existing (such as natural disasters and Afghanistan’s weak economic base) and new (such as the cut-
off of international development assistance, U.S. sanctions on the Taliban, and the U.S. hold on Afghan central bank assets).
The Biden Administration and many in Congress seek to ameliorate these crises, but without taking any action that boosts the taking any action that boosts the
Taliban’s position or that may be perceived as doing so. Pursuing these policies in tandem may prove complicated given the Taliban’s position or that may be perceived as doing so. Pursuing these policies in tandem may prove complicated given the
Taliban’s evident aversion to make compromises in response to international pressure and its apparent willingness to accept Taliban’s evident aversion to make compromises in response to international pressure and its apparent willingness to accept
considerable humanitarian and economic suffering as the price of that uncompromising considerable humanitarian and economic suffering as the price of that uncompromising stance. stance.
Congressional oversight of U.S. Afghanistan policy has featured numerous hearings, past and ongoing investigations, and the
creation of the Afghanistan War Commission. Congress has also imposed a variety of reporting requirements to monitor
dynamics in Afghanistan and their implications for U.S. policy. Congress may consider further reporting requirements as it
evaluates the Biden Administration’s FY2023 budget request and defense authorization measures.
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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Background: Taliban Takeover ........................................................................................................ 1
Taliban Government ........................................................................................................................ 2
Current and Potential Opposition .............................................................................................. 3
Regional Dynamics: Pakistan and Other Neighbors ....................................................................... 4 U.S. Policy Impacts of the Taliban’s Return to Power .............................................................. 4
Counterterrorism ...... 6 Counterterrorism ....................................................................................................................... 4
Human Rights: Focus on Women and Ethnic and Religious Minorities 6 Afghan Women and Girls .......................................................................................................... 67
Ongoing Relocations of U.S. Citizens and Certain Afghans ..................................................... 8 7
Economic Collapse, and Humanitarian Crisis, and U.S. Policy ................................................................................ 9
Regional Dynamics: Pakistan and Other Neighbors 10 U.S. Policy Responses .............................................................................................................. 10
11 Congressional Action and Outlook ................................................................................................. 11 12

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 14

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Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy: In in Brief

Introduction
The aftershocks of the Taliban’s August 2021 return to power continue to reverberate in The aftershocks of the Taliban’s August 2021 return to power continue to reverberate in
Afghanistan and the United States alike. This report provides background information and Afghanistan and the United States alike. This report provides background information and
analysis on developments in Afghanistan and implications for U.S. policy, including analysis on developments in Afghanistan and implications for U.S. policy, including
 the Taliban’s government and the impact of their rule on terrorist groups, human  the Taliban’s government and the impact of their rule on terrorist groups, human
rights, and the ability of U.S. Afghan partners to leave the country; rights, and the ability of U.S. Afghan partners to leave the country;
 regional dynamics; and  regional dynamics; and
 the intersecting humanitarian and economic crises facing the country.  the intersecting humanitarian and economic crises facing the country.
The report also provides information on legislation and other congressional action related to The report also provides information on legislation and other congressional action related to
Afghanistan. The challenge at the heart of many U.S. policy debates over which Congress has Afghanistan. The challenge at the heart of many U.S. policy debates over which Congress has
influence (including humanitarian assistance, U.S. sanctions, and the status of U.S.-based central influence (including humanitarian assistance, U.S. sanctions, and the status of U.S.-based central
bank assets) is how to prioritize and, if possible, reconcile two U.S. interests: supporting the bank assets) is how to prioritize and, if possible, reconcile two U.S. interests: supporting the
Afghan people and refraining from bolstering the Taliban’s rule. Afghan people and refraining from bolstering the Taliban’s rule.
Background: Taliban Takeover
The chapter of Afghan history that ended in 2021 arguably began in 2001, when the United States, in response to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, led a military campaign against Al Qaeda and the Afghan Taliban government that harbored it. In the subsequent 20 years, the United States suffered thousands of military casualties in Afghanistan, mostly at the hands of the rising Taliban insurgency, and Congress appropriated over $146 billion for reconstruction and security forces there. During this same period, an elected Afghan government replaced the Taliban and, with significant U.S. and international support, made modest but uneven improvements in most measures of human development, though Afghanistan remained one of the world’s poorest and most corrupt countries. At the outset of 2021, the Afghan government was a close U.S. counterterrorism partner, the At the outset of 2021, the Afghan government was a close U.S. counterterrorism partner, the
result of nearly 20 years of substantial U.S. and international support, including the deployment result of nearly 20 years of substantial U.S. and international support, including the deployment
of hundreds of thousands of troops and the provision of tens of billions of dollars in assistance. of hundreds of thousands of troops and the provision of tens of billions of dollars in assistance.
President Donald Trump had withdrawn all but 2,500 U.S. troops, the lowest U.S. force level President Donald Trump had withdrawn all but 2,500 U.S. troops, the lowest U.S. force level
since 2001, in advance of the full military withdrawal to which the United States agreed in the since 2001, in advance of the full military withdrawal to which the United States agreed in the
February 2020 U.S.-Taliban agreement.1 U.S. officials committed to continue to provide financial February 2020 U.S.-Taliban agreement.1 U.S. officials committed to continue to provide financial
support to Afghan forces and expressed confidence about their capabilities vis-a-vis the Taliban, support to Afghan forces and expressed confidence about their capabilities vis-a-vis the Taliban,
while conceding that those forces remained reliant on U.S. support.2 while conceding that those forces remained reliant on U.S. support.2
At the same time, the Taliban were arguably at their strongest since 2001, when they were driven At the same time, the Taliban were arguably at their strongest since 2001, when they were driven
from power by U.S., international, and U.S.-backed Afghan forces, having steadily gained from power by U.S., international, and U.S.-backed Afghan forces, having steadily gained
territory and improved their tactical capabilities over the course of their resilient two-decade territory and improved their tactical capabilities over the course of their resilient two-decade
insurgency. The Afghan government against which the Taliban fought was weakened by deep insurgency. The Afghan government against which the Taliban fought was weakened by deep
internal divisions, factional infighting, and endemic corruption, and Taliban forces enjoyed
certain advantages over their Afghan government counterparts, including greater cohesion and
financial sustainability, according to one January 2021 outside assessment.3
Several weeks after President Joseph Biden confirmed that international forces would depart
Afghanistan by the fall of 2021, Taliban forces began a sweeping advance that captured wide
swaths of the country’s rural areas, cementing the group’s hold on some districts in which it
already had a significant presence. The Taliban’s seizure of other districts was more surprising:

1 After more than a year of negotiations, U.S. and Taliban representatives signed a bilateral agreement on February 29, 1 After more than a year of negotiations, U.S. and Taliban representatives signed a bilateral agreement on February 29,
2020, agreeing to two “interconnected” “guarantees”: the withdrawal of all U.S. and international forces by May 2021, 2020, agreeing to two “interconnected” “guarantees”: the withdrawal of all U.S. and international forces by May 2021,
and unspecified Taliban action to prevent other groups (including Al Qaeda) from using Afghan soil to threaten the and unspecified Taliban action to prevent other groups (including Al Qaeda) from using Afghan soil to threaten the
United States and its allies. The text of the agreement is available at https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/United States and its allies. The text of the agreement is available at https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/
02/Agreement-For-Bringing-Peace-to-Afghanistan-02.29.20.pdf. Nonpublic annexes accompanied the agreement. 02/Agreement-For-Bringing-Peace-to-Afghanistan-02.29.20.pdf. Nonpublic annexes accompanied the agreement.
2 See House Oversight and Reform Subcommittee on National Security Holds Hearing on Pathway for Peace in 2 See House Oversight and Reform Subcommittee on National Security Holds Hearing on Pathway for Peace in
Afghanistan, Afghanistan, CQ Congressional Transcripts,, February 19, 2021. February 19, 2021.
3 Jonathan Schroden, “Afghanistan’s Security Forces Versus the Taliban: A Net Assessment,” CTC Sentinel, January
2021.
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Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy: In Brief

Congressional Research Service 1 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief internal divisions, factional infighting, and endemic corruption, and Taliban forces enjoyed certain advantages over their Afghan government counterparts, including greater cohesion and financial sustainability, according to one January 2021 outside assessment.3 Several weeks after President Joseph Biden confirmed that international forces would depart Afghanistan by the fall of 2021, Taliban forces began a sweeping advance that captured wide swaths of the country’s rural areas, cementing the group’s hold on some districts in which it already had a significant presence. The Taliban’s seizure of other districts was more significant: some northern areas had successfully resisted the Taliban militarily when the group was in power some northern areas had successfully resisted the Taliban militarily when the group was in power
in the 1990s, making their rapid 2021 fall to the Taliban particularly significant.4 The speed of the in the 1990s, making their rapid 2021 fall to the Taliban particularly significant.4 The speed of the
Taliban’s advance reportedly surprised even some within the group, with one commander saying Taliban’s advance reportedly surprised even some within the group, with one commander saying
that his forces were intentionally avoiding capturing provincial capitals before the scheduled that his forces were intentionally avoiding capturing provincial capitals before the scheduled
departure of U.S. forces.5 departure of U.S. forces.5
The Taliban’s advance was secured through both combat and negotiation. While the Taliban faced The Taliban’s advance was secured through both combat and negotiation. While the Taliban faced
stiff, if ultimately unsuccessful, resistance from government forces in some areas, others were stiff, if ultimately unsuccessful, resistance from government forces in some areas, others were
taken with minimal fighting.6 In many of these areas, the Taliban reportedly secured the surrender taken with minimal fighting.6 In many of these areas, the Taliban reportedly secured the surrender
or departure of government forces (and the handover of their weapons) with payments or through or departure of government forces (and the handover of their weapons) with payments or through
the mediation of local elders seeking to avoid bloodshed.7 The Taliban captured their first the mediation of local elders seeking to avoid bloodshed.7 The Taliban captured their first
provincial capital on August 6, after which the collapse of the Afghan government and its security provincial capital on August 6, after which the collapse of the Afghan government and its security
forces accelerated. Afghan President Ashraf Ghani, whose seven-year tenure was characterized by forces accelerated. Afghan President Ashraf Ghani, whose seven-year tenure was characterized by
electoral crises, pervasive corruption, and the gradual deterioration of Afghan forces, fled the electoral crises, pervasive corruption, and the gradual deterioration of Afghan forces, fled the
country on August 15 and reportedly remains, as of country on August 15 and reportedly remains, as of AugustNovember 2022, in the United Arab Emirates.8 2022, in the United Arab Emirates.8
Taliban fighters began entering Kabul that same day, taking effective control of the country. Taliban fighters began entering Kabul that same day, taking effective control of the country.
Taliban Government
On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced a “caretaker government” to rule Afghanistan. The On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced a “caretaker government” to rule Afghanistan. The
Taliban refer to their government, as they have for decades referred to themselves, as the Islamic Taliban refer to their government, as they have for decades referred to themselves, as the Islamic
Emirate of Afghanistan.9 The Taliban, who did not enact a formal constitution during their 1996-Emirate of Afghanistan.9 The Taliban, who did not enact a formal constitution during their 1996-
2001 rule, have said they intend to govern according to Islamic law (2001 rule, have said they intend to govern according to Islamic law (sharia) but have not) but have not
established “a clear and cohesive legal framework, judicial system, or enforcement
mechanisms.”10
Haibatullah Akhundzada, Taliban leader since the 2016 killing of his predecessor in a U.S. drone
strike, holds supreme power as the group’s emir. He has made few reported public appearances
and only one photograph of him is known to be publicly available.11 Nearly all members of the
government are former officials from the Taliban’s prior rule or longtime loyalists. All are male,
the vast majority are ethnic Pashtuns (Afghanistan’s largest ethnic group, which represents a
plurality of the population), and most are from southern Afghanistan. Over half were, and remain,
designated for terrorism-related U.S. and/or U.N. sanctions, including the Acting Interior

, per a 3 Jonathan Schroden, “Afghanistan’s Security Forces Versus the Taliban: A Net Assessment,” CTC Sentinel, January 2021. 4 Kate Clark and Obaid Ali, “A Quarter of Afghanistan’s Districts Fall to the Taleban amid Calls for a ‘Second 4 Kate Clark and Obaid Ali, “A Quarter of Afghanistan’s Districts Fall to the Taleban amid Calls for a ‘Second
Resistance,’” Resistance,’” Afghanistan Analysts Network, July 2, 2021. , July 2, 2021.
5 Dan De Luce, Mushtaq Yusufzai, and Saphora Smith, “Even the Taliban are surprised at how fast they’re advancing 5 Dan De Luce, Mushtaq Yusufzai, and Saphora Smith, “Even the Taliban are surprised at how fast they’re advancing
in Afghanistan,” NBC News, June 25, 2021. in Afghanistan,” NBC News, June 25, 2021.
6 “Afghanistan: Taliban continue attacks on three major cities,” 6 “Afghanistan: Taliban continue attacks on three major cities,” BBC, August 1, 2021. , August 1, 2021.
7 Susannah George, “Afghanistan’s military collapse: Illicit deals and mass desertions,” 7 Susannah George, “Afghanistan’s military collapse: Illicit deals and mass desertions,” Washington Post, August 15, , August 15,
2021; David Zucchino, “Collapse and Conquest: The Taliban Strategy That Seized Afghanistan,” 2021; David Zucchino, “Collapse and Conquest: The Taliban Strategy That Seized Afghanistan,” New York Times, ,
August 18, 2021. August 18, 2021.
8 Charles Davis, “Afghanistan’s last president, Ashraf Ghani, rejects comparison to Ukraine’s Zelenskyy, says he’s 8 Charles Davis, “Afghanistan’s last president, Ashraf Ghani, rejects comparison to Ukraine’s Zelenskyy, says he’s
‘lived an honorable life,’” ‘lived an honorable life,’” Yahoo News, August 23, 2022. , August 23, 2022.
9 It remains unclear as of 9 It remains unclear as of AugustNovember 2022 how or in what sense these “caretaker” positions differ from permanent 2022 how or in what sense these “caretaker” positions differ from permanent
positions. One analyst has described the Taliban’s government during the 1990s as “nominally interim.” “Who Will positions. One analyst has described the Taliban’s government during the 1990s as “nominally interim.” “Who Will
Run the Taliban Government?” International Crisis Group, September 9, 2021. Run the Taliban Government?” International Crisis Group, September 9, 2021.
10 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, June 2, 2022.
11 Fazelminallah Qazizai, “The Mysterious Public Appearances of the Taliban’s Supreme Leader,” Newlines, December
20, 2021; “Haibatullah Akhundzada: Shadowy Taliban supreme leader whose son was suicide bomber,” Reuters,
September 7, 2021.
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Congressional Research Service 2 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief June 2022 U.S. State Department report, established “a clear and cohesive legal framework, judicial system, or enforcement mechanisms.”10 Haibatullah Akhundzada, Taliban leader since the 2016 killing of his predecessor in a U.S. drone strike, holds supreme power as the group’s emir. He has made few reported public appearances and only one photograph of him is known to be publicly available.11 Nearly all members of the government are former officials from the Taliban’s prior rule or longtime loyalists. All are male, the vast majority are ethnic Pashtuns (Afghanistan’s largest ethnic group, which represents a plurality of the population), and most are from southern Afghanistan. Over half were, and remain, designated for terrorism-related U.S. and/or U.N. sanctions, including the Acting Interior Minister, Sirajuddin Haqqani. The U.S. Department of State has for years offered a reward of up Minister, Sirajuddin Haqqani. The U.S. Department of State has for years offered a reward of up
to $10 million for information leading to the arrest of Haqqani, who is the head of the Haqqani to $10 million for information leading to the arrest of Haqqani, who is the head of the Haqqani
Network, a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) that is responsible for Network, a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) that is responsible for
numerous attacks against U.S. and other international targets in Afghanistan. numerous attacks against U.S. and other international targets in Afghanistan.
In the initial days of the transition, some observers had speculated that the Taliban might reach In the initial days of the transition, some observers had speculated that the Taliban might reach
out to former Afghan government officials out to former Afghan government officials (such as former President Hamid Karzai, who held
some meetings with senior Taliban figures after the August 2021 takeover) or to others from or to others from
outside the movement as part of outside the movement as part of theirthe Taliban’s promise to establish an “inclusive government.” The promise to establish an “inclusive government.” The
Taliban have not, however, reached beyond their own ranks to fill government positions and are Taliban have not, however, reached beyond their own ranks to fill government positions and are
reportedly staffing ministries with military and/or religious figures with little relevant experience, reportedly staffing ministries with military and/or religious figures with little relevant experience,
exacerbating the group’s administrative challenges and some internal tensions.12 exacerbating the group’s administrative challenges and some internal tensions.12
Some reports since the Taliban takeover have indicated dissension in the group’s ranks along Some reports since the Taliban takeover have indicated dissension in the group’s ranks along
various lines. While the Taliban have a history of effectively managing internal disputes, various lines. While the Taliban have a history of effectively managing internal disputes,
governing Afghanistan governing Afghanistan in 2022 presents new and unique challenges to the group’s consensus-presents new and unique challenges to the group’s consensus-
based decision-making.13 Points of tension reportedly exist between members of the group’s based decision-making.13 Points of tension reportedly exist between members of the group’s
political wing (such as Baradar) and its military leaders (such as the Haqqanis) over who deserves political wing (such as Baradar) and its military leaders (such as the Haqqanis) over who deserves
the most credit for the group’s victory;14 between a leadership that seeks stability and rank and the most credit for the group’s victory;14 between a leadership that seeks stability and rank and
file fighters who are struggling to adjust to post-conflict life;15 and between those with different file fighters who are struggling to adjust to post-conflict life;15 and between those with different
ideological perspectives and ethnic identities.16 ideological perspectives and ethnic identities.16
Current and Potential Opposition
While the Taliban’s August 2021 takeover was swift, its triumph, according to many analysts, did While the Taliban’s August 2021 takeover was swift, its triumph, according to many analysts, did
not reflect massive popular support for the movement so much as a lack of support for the former not reflect massive popular support for the movement so much as a lack of support for the former
government.17 Many elements of Afghan society, particularly in urban areas, appear to view the government.17 Many elements of Afghan society, particularly in urban areas, appear to view the
Taliban with skepticism, fear, or hostility, and small numbers of Afghans have demonstrated
nonviolently to advocate for their rights and express opposition to the Taliban.18 The Taliban
appear to have monitored most protests, and violently dispersed some.19
The Taliban face organized armed opposition from two very different quarters. The first is the
National Resistance Front (NRF), made up of figures aligned with the former Afghan state. NRF
leaders have appealed for U.S. and international support and have retained Washington, DC-based

10 U.S. Department of State, 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Afghanistan, June 2, 2022. 11 “Taliban supreme leader addresses major gathering in Kabul,” Al Jazeera, July 1, 2022. 12 Zia ur-Rehman and Emily Schmall, “The Taliban have staffing issues. They are looking for help in Pakistan,” 12 Zia ur-Rehman and Emily Schmall, “The Taliban have staffing issues. They are looking for help in Pakistan,” New
York Times, January 13, 2022; , January 13, 2022; Thirteenth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted
pursuant to resolution 2611 (2021) concerning the Taliban and other associated individuals and entities constituting a
threat to the peace stability and security of Afghanistan, S/2022/419, May 26, 2022. , S/2022/419, May 26, 2022.
13 Andrew Watkins, “The Taliban one year on,” 13 Andrew Watkins, “The Taliban one year on,” CTC Sentinel, August 2022. , August 2022.
14 14 Khudai Noor Nasar, “Afghanistan: Taliban leaders in bust-up at presidential palace, sources say,” BBC, September
15, 2021; “Cracks emerge within Taliban as Baradar-led group raises concern over Sirajuddin’s pro-Pashtun stance,” “Cracks emerge within Taliban as Baradar-led group raises concern over Sirajuddin’s pro-Pashtun stance,”
ANI, February 15, 2022. 15 Abdul Basit, “How smoldering discontent affects the Taliban rule in Afghanistan,” TRT World, August 4, 2022. 16 Andrew Watkins, “One year later: Taliban reprise repressive rule, but struggle to build a state,” United States Institute of Peace, August 17, 2022. February 15, 2022.
15 Stephanie Glinski, “Taliban struggle to maintain unity six months into their reign,” Foreign Policy, February 28,
2022.
16 Sudarsan Raghavan, “A popular Uzbek commander fought for the Taliban for more than two decades. He was
arrested anyway,” Washington Post, February 1, 2022.
17 “How the Taliban engineered ‘political collapse’ of Afghanistan,” Reuters, August 17, 2021; Shadi Hamid, 17 “How the Taliban engineered ‘political collapse’ of Afghanistan,” Reuters, August 17, 2021; Shadi Hamid,
“Americans never understood Afghanistan like the Taliban did,” Brookings Institution, August 23, 2021. “Americans never understood Afghanistan like the Taliban did,” Brookings Institution, August 23, 2021.
18 Loveday Morris and Ruby Mellen, “Portraits of fear and loss,” Washington Post, January 12, 2022; “Afghans say
they feel safer but less hopeful under Taliban rule,” Associated Press, February 15, 2022.
19 “Taliban disperses Afghan women’s march for ‘work and freedom,’” Al Jazeera, August 13, 2022.
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Congressional Research Service 3 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief Taliban with skepticism, fear, or hostility, and small numbers of Afghans have demonstrated nonviolently to advocate for their rights and express opposition to the Taliban.18 The Taliban appear to have monitored most protests, and violently dispersed some.19 The Taliban face organized armed opposition from two very different quarters. The first is the National Resistance Front (NRF), made up of figures aligned with the former Afghan state. NRF leaders have appealed for U.S. and international support and have retained Washington, DC-based representation.20 They have not won public backing from any foreign countries, perhaps due to representation.20 They have not won public backing from any foreign countries, perhaps due to
the Taliban’s relatively stronger military position and closer Taliban ties with regional powers, the Taliban’s relatively stronger military position and closer Taliban ties with regional powers,
including some that formerly supported Taliban opponents in the 1990s, such as Russia and Iran. including some that formerly supported Taliban opponents in the 1990s, such as Russia and Iran.
It is difficult to assess the veracity of claimed NRF operations against Taliban fighters, which the
Taliban dismiss as “propaganda,” but NRF operations appear to be increasing in frequency as the
group carries out guerilla-style attacks against Taliban forces, mostly in and around the central
province of Panjshir.The NRF has claimed numerous attacks against Taliban fighters, mostly in and around the central province of Panjshir, but it is difficult to assess the veracity of such claims, which the Taliban dismiss as “propaganda.”21 Still, the NRF does not appear to have either the military capabilities or the 21 Still, the NRF does not appear to have either the military capabilities or the
broad-based public support that would likely be necessary to seriously threaten the Taliban’s broad-based public support that would likely be necessary to seriously threaten the Taliban’s
position.22 position.22
An arguably more potent armed threat to the Taliban is the local Islamic State affiliate (Islamic An arguably more potent armed threat to the Taliban is the local Islamic State affiliate (Islamic
State-Khorasan Province, ISKP, also known as ISIS-K), a longtime Taliban adversary. ISKP has State-Khorasan Province, ISKP, also known as ISIS-K), a longtime Taliban adversary. ISKP has
opposed the Taliban since its 2015 establishment, viewing the Taliban’s Afghanistan-focused opposed the Taliban since its 2015 establishment, viewing the Taliban’s Afghanistan-focused
nationalist political project as counter to the Islamic State’s universalist vision of a global nationalist political project as counter to the Islamic State’s universalist vision of a global
caliphate. Since the Taliban takeover, ISKP’s ranks have swelled to as many as 4,000 fighters caliphate. Since the Taliban takeover, ISKP’s ranks have swelled to as many as 4,000 fighters
despite a concerted Taliban offensive, and despite a concerted Taliban offensive, and a series of major attacks claimed by or attributed to
ISKP in spring ISKP has claimed responsibility for a number of major attacks in 2022 (many targeting Afghanistan’s Shia minority, the Hazaras)2022 (many targeting Afghanistan’s Shia minority, the Hazaras) raises the
prospect of greater violence.23 Experts disagree about the potency of the ISKP threat and the .23 Experts disagree about the potency of the ISKP threat and the
Taliban’s self-asserted ability to counter the group Taliban’s self-asserted ability to counter the group without external assistance.24 Regional Dynamics: Pakistan and Other Neighbors Regional dynamics directly affect developments in Afghanistan, which is landlocked and has throughout its history been the object of intervention by its neighbors and other foreign powers. Events in Afghanistan also have consequences for those neighbors. Pakistan. The neighboring state widely considered most important in this regard is Pakistan, which has played an active, and by many accounts destabilizing, role in Afghan affairs for decades, including by actively supporting the Taliban during its 1990s rule and much of its subsequent insurgency. Many analysts regarded the Taliban takeover at least initially as a triumph 18 Barnett Rubin, “Afghanistan under the Taliban: findings on the current situation,” Stimson Center, October 20, 2022. 19 “Taliban disperses Afghan women’s march for ‘work and freedom,’” Al Jazeera, August 13, 2022. 20 Ali Maisam Nazary, “What the Taliban really fear,” Foreign Affairs, August 19, 2022. 21 Zia Ur Rehman, “Afghanistan’s resistance alliance aims to pry Taliban’s grip loose,” Nikkei Asia, June 13, 2022. 22 “Afghanistan’s security challenges under the Taliban,” International Crisis Group, August 12, 2022. 23 “Afghanistan: ISIS group targets religious minorities,” Human Rights Watch, September 6, 2022. Hazaras comprise 10%-15% of Afghanistan’s population. Since their August 2021 takeover, the Taliban have demonstrated a more accepting official stance toward the Hazaras than was the case during their former rule, particularly in urban areas, despite some reports of killings and forced displacement in the Hazaras’ historic homelands in central Afghanistan in fall 2021. While the Taliban government has not persecuted Hazaras, many Hazaras fault the Taliban for not establishing an inclusive government and not stopping the ISKP attacks that have repeatedly targeted Hazaras. Nilly Kohzad, “‘It doesn’t matter if we get killed,’ Afghanistan’s Hazaras speak out,” Diplomat, May 27, 2022. 24 Fazal Muzhary, “Why the Islamic State in Afghanistan is too weak to overthrow the Taliban,” Baker Institute, September 29, 2022; “Afghanistan’s security challenges,” op. cit. Congressional Research Service 4 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief for Pakistan’s regional policy, pointing to statements of evident support for the takeover from Pakistani leaders.25 Senior Pakistani officials have held numerous meetings with the new Taliban government, both in Kabul and Islamabad, since August 2021. However, there are some indications that the Taliban’s return to power may pose challenges for Pakistan. The Taliban’s victory may provide a morale and perhaps material boost to Pakistan-based Islamist terrorist groups, including the so-called Pakistani Taliban (Tehreek-i Taliban-i Pakistan, or TTP, a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization). TTP attacks against Pakistani security forces increased after August 2021, reportedly prompting the Pakistani government to seek the Afghan Taliban’s mediation of several ceasefires, which appear to have broken down in late 2022.26 Afghanistan-Pakistan relations are further complicated by the presence of over 1 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan, as well as a long-running and ethnically tinged dispute over their shared 1,600-mile border, at which Taliban and Pakistani government forces intermittently clashed in 2022.27 Iran. Iran, with which Afghanistan shares its western border, opposed the Taliban’s 1990s rule but has maintained relations with the group while emphasizing the need for representation for Afghanistan’s ethnic and religious groups with which Iran has close ties (namely Tajiks, who speak a variant of Persian, and Hazaras, who are mostly Shia Muslims). Official Taliban visits to Tehran preceded the group’s August 2021 takeover and have continued since then, including with the visit of the Taliban’s acting foreign minister in January 2022. Disputes in 2022 over water rights and refugees could, however, portend future tensions.28 Central Asia. Afghanistan’s Central Asian neighbors (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan) have responded in varying ways to the Taliban’s takeover. The Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan governments appear to be prioritizing economic ties, including the planned Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) natural gas pipeline, and have had numerous official engagements with the Taliban. Tajikistan, on the other hand, has opposed the Taliban and offered shelter to the anti-Taliban National Resistance Front, a result both of Tajikistan’s own struggles with Islamist militancy as well as ties with Afghan Tajiks (the country’s second largest ethnic group), some of whom oppose the Taliban’s rule.29 China. The prospect of greater Chinese influence and activity in Afghanistan has attracted some congressional attention since the Taliban takeover.30 China, which played a relatively limited role in Afghanistan under the former government, made some economic investments in Afghanistan (particularly in the development of Afghan minerals and other resources) prior to the Taliban takeover, but major projects have not come to fruition due to instability, lack of infrastructure, and other limitations.31 Despite concerns about Afghanistan-based Islamist terrorist groups, China has 25 Ishaan Tharoor, “Pakistan’s hand in the Taliban’s victory,” Washington Post, August 18, 2021; Husain Haqqani, “Pakista’’s Pyrrhic Victory in Afghanistan,” Foreign Affairs, July 22, 2021. 26 Abdul Basit, “The impact of Ayman Zawahiri’s killing on Pakistan-TTP reconciliation talks,” Jamestown Foundation, October 21, 2022. 27 Rubin, op. cit. 28 Christian Hoj Hansen and Halimullah Kousary, “Can Iran get along with the Taliban?” War on the Rocks, June 7, 2022. 29 Abubakar Siddique, “Hostilities grow between Taliban and Tajikistan amid border closure, truck seizures,” Gandhara, May 19, 2022; Rubin, op. cit. 30 See, for example, H.R. 5404, S. 2826, and Section 5404 of H.R. 7900. 31 Jiayi Zhou et al., “Treading lightly: China’s footprint in a Taliban-led Afghanistan,” SIPRI, November 2022. Congressional Research Service 5 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief signaled tacit acceptance of the Taliban’s rule, with its foreign minister emphasizing in a May 2022 visit to Kabul that China “respects the independent choices made by the Afghan people.”32 U.S. Policy Impacts of the Taliban’s Return to Power Renewed Taliban rule in Afghanistan has implications for a number of U.S. policy interests. It has created opportunities and challenges for the various terrorist groups that have a presence in Afghanistan, and has rendered obsolete former U.S. plans to partner with Afghan authorities to counter terrorist threats “over-the-horizon.” Advancing protection of women’s and other human rights has been another major U.S. policy goal in Afghanistan since 2001; the Taliban have taken numerous actions to roll back those rights since retaking power. U.S. policymakers, including many Members of Congress, have also focused on securing the relocation of remaining U.S. citizens and Afghans who previously worked for the U.S. government, a halting effort that remains ongoing as of November 2022. Counterterrorism A number of Islamist extremist terrorist groups have for decades operated in Afghanistan, and the Taliban have related to them in varying ways. ISKP and Al Qaeda (AQ) are two of the most significant of these terrorist groups, and the Taliban’s takeover has affected them differently. Long a significant U.S. counterterrorism concern, ISKP has clashed with the Taliban, as mentioned above. Under the former U.S.-backed Afghan government, the United States launched airstrikes in support of Taliban offensives against ISKP, a rare area of prior U.S.-Taliban cooperation.33 In February 2022, the U.S. State Department announced rewards of up to $10 million each for information related to ISKP leader Sanaullah Ghafari as well as those responsible for the August 26, 2021, ISKP attack at Kabul airport that killed and injured hundreds of people, including over 30 U.S. service members.34 While ISKP is seen as more operationally ambitious and capable in Afghanistan than Al Qaeda, the July 2022 killing of Al Qaeda leader Ayman al Zawahiri in Kabul attracted considerable attention to the issue of AQ-Taliban ties.35 Despite (or perhaps because of) U.S. counterterrorism pressure, those ties have persisted for decades.36 The circumstances of Zawahiri’s residence in Kabul and what they might reveal about internal Taliban dynamics beyond continued AQ ties remain unclear. National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan has suggested that some elements of the Taliban might not have supported or even been aware of Zawahiri’s presence in Kabul, possibly leading to tensions within the movement.37 In any case, per a July 2022 U.N. sanctions monitors report, Al Qaeda “is not viewed as posing an immediate international threat from its safe haven in Afghanistan because it lacks an external operational capability and does not currently wish to cause the Taliban international difficulty or 32 Shannon Tiezzi, “China signals it’s back to business as usual with Taliban government,” Diplomat, March 25, 2022. 33 Wesley Morgan, “Our secret Taliban Air Force,” Washington Post, October 22, 2020. 34 U.S. Department of State, “New Initiatives in the Fight Against ISIS-K,” February 7, 2022. 35 CRS Insight IN11976, Al Qaeda Leader Zawahiri Killed in U.S. Drone Strike in Afghanistan, by Clayton Thomas. 36 Thirtieth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2610 (2021) concerning ISIL (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities, U.N. Document S/2022/547, released July 15, 2022. 37 “The National Security Advisor’s very busy week,” NPR, August 4, 2022. Congressional Research Service 6 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief embarrassment.” 38 The U.S. intelligence community assessed in March 2022 that AQ “will gauge its ability to operate in Afghanistan under Taliban restrictions” as Al Qaeda and the Taliban recalibrate their relationship and activities.39 From the outset of the U.S. withdrawal, U.S. officials said that the United States would maintain the ability to combat terrorist threats in Afghanistan such as ISKP and Al Qaeda without a military presence on the ground there by utilizing assets based outside of Afghanistan, in what U.S. officials describe as an “over-the-horizon” approach.40 With the Taliban in control of Afghanistan, the United States has had to alter any plans that had been predicated on the continued existence of the former Afghan government and its security forces. U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM) Commander General Michael Kurilla described over-the-horizon capabilities as “extremely difficult but not impossible” in February 2022 testimony.41 The Biden Administration has cited the Zawahiri strike as a demonstration of U.S. over-the-horizon capabilities.42 Afghan Women and Girls without external assistance.24
U.S. Policy Impacts of the Taliban’s Return to Power
Renewed Taliban rule in Afghanistan has implications for a number of U.S. policy interests. It has
created opportunities and challenges for the various terrorist groups that have a presence in
Afghanistan, and has rendered obsolete former U.S. plans to partner with Afghan authorities to
counter terrorist threats “over-the-horizon.” Advancing protection of women’s and other human
rights has been another major U.S. policy goal in Afghanistan since 2001; the Taliban have taken
numerous actions to roll back those rights since retaking power. U.S. policymakers, including
many Members of Congress, have also focused on securing the relocation of remaining U.S.
citizens and Afghans who previously worked for the U.S. government, a halting effort that
remains ongoing as of August 2022.
Counterterrorism
A number of Islamist extremist terrorist groups have for decades operated in Afghanistan, and the
Taliban have related to them in varying ways. ISKP and Al Qaeda (AQ) are two of the most
significant of these terrorist groups, and the Taliban’s takeover has affected them differently.
ISKP, which has clashed with the Taliban as mentioned above, has long been a significant U.S.
counterterrorism concern. Under the former U.S.-backed Afghan government, the United States
launched airstrikes in support of Taliban offensives against ISKP, a rare area of prior U.S.-Taliban
cooperation.25 In February 2022, the U.S. State Department announced rewards of up to $10

20 Ali Maisam Nazary, “What the Taliban really fear,” Foreign Affairs, August 19, 2022.
21 Zia Ur Rehman, “Afghanistan’s resistance alliance aims to pry Taliban’s grip loose,” Nikkei Asia, June 13, 2022.
22 “Afghanistan’s security challenges under the Taliban,” International Crisis Group, August 12, 2022.
23 Claire Parker, “How strong is the Islamic State in Taliban-ruled Afghanistan?” Washington Post, August 19, 2022.
24 Abdul Sayed, “Why Islamic State Khurasan poses an indigenous threat to the Afghan Taliban,” Nexus, May 9, 2022;
Parker, op. cit.
25 Wesley Morgan, “Our secret Taliban Air Force,” Washington Post, October 22, 2020.
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million each for information related to ISKP leader Sanaullah Ghafari as well as those responsible
for the August 26, 2021, ISKP attack at Kabul airport that killed and injured hundreds of people,
including over 30 U.S. service members.26
While ISKP is seen as more operationally ambitious and capable in Afghanistan than Al Qaeda,
the July 2022 killing of Al Qaeda leader Ayman al Zawahiri in Kabul attracted considerable
attention to the issue of AQ-Taliban ties.27 Despite (or perhaps because of) U.S. counterterrorism
pressure, those ties have persisted for decades.28 In October 2020, Afghan government troops
killed a high-ranking AQ operative who reportedly was living and working with Taliban forces,
underscoring the close and interrelated connections between the groups.29 The circumstances of
Zawahiri’s residence in Kabul and what they might reveal about internal Taliban dynamics
beyond continued AQ ties are not yet clear. National Security Advisor Jake Sullivan has
suggested that some elements of the Taliban might not have supported or even been aware of
Zawahiri’s presence in Kabul, possibly leading to tensions within the ground.30 Observers
speculate about the impact (if any) of Zawahiri’s killing on AQ capabilities and AQ-Taliban ties.31
In any case, per U.N. sanctions monitors, Al Qaeda “is not viewed as posing an immediate
international threat from its safe haven in Afghanistan because it lacks an external operational
capability and does not currently wish to cause the Taliban international difficulty or
embarrassment.” 32 The U.S. intelligence community assessed in March 2022 that AQ “will gauge
its ability to operate in Afghanistan under Taliban restrictions” as Al Qaeda and the Taliban
recalibrate their relationship and activities.33
From the outset of the 2021 U.S. withdrawal, U.S. officials said that the United States would
maintain the ability to combat terrorist threats in Afghanistan such as ISKP and Al Qaeda without
a military presence on the ground there by utilizing assets based outside of Afghanistan, in what
U.S. officials describe as an “over-the-horizon” approach.34 With the Taliban in control of
Afghanistan, the United States has had to alter any plans that had been predicated on the
continued existence of the former Afghan government and its security forces. U.S. Central
Command (CENTCOM) Commander General Michael Kurilla described over-the-horizon
capabilities as “extremely difficult but not impossible” in February 2022 testimony.35 President
Biden has asserted that the Zawahiri strike vindicated his decision to complete the removal of
U.S. ground forces from Afghanistan and pursue an over-the-horizon approach. With no U.S.
military or diplomatic presence in Afghanistan, and the nearest U.S. military bases hundreds of

26 U.S. Department of State, “New Initiatives in the Fight Against ISIS-K,” February 7, 2022.
27 CRS Insight IN11976, Al Qaeda Leader Zawahiri Killed in U.S. Drone Strike in Afghanistan, by Clayton Thomas.
28 Thirtieth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team submitted pursuant to resolution 2610
(2021) concerning ISIL (Da’esh), Al-Qaida and associated individuals and entities, U.N. Document S/2022/547,
released July 15, 2022.
29 Jeff Seldin, “US Calls Death of al-Qaida Official a Major Setback for Terror Group,” Voice of America, October 26,
2020.
30 “The National Security Advisor’s very busy week,” NPR, August 4, 2022.
31 CRS Insight IN11976, Al Qaeda Leader Zawahiri Killed in U.S. Drone Strike in Afghanistan, by Clayton Thomas.
32 Thirtieth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, op cit.
33 Office of the Director for National Intelligence, Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community,
March 2022.
34 See, for example, Remarks by President Biden on the Way Forward in Afghanistan, White House, April 14, 2021.
35 See transcript at http://www.cq.com/doc/congressionaltranscripts-6450846?3&search=8TnqSQnx.
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miles away, the United States is reportedly working to increase its intelligence-gathering
capabilities elsewhere in the region.36
Human Rights: Focus on Women and Ethnic and Religious Minorities
The Afghanistan in which the Taliban came to power in August 2021 was in many ways a The Afghanistan in which the Taliban came to power in August 2021 was in many ways a
different country than the one they last ruled in 2001. After 2001, women became active different country than the one they last ruled in 2001. After 2001, women became active
participants in many parts of Afghan society; protections for them, and ethnic and religious participants in many parts of Afghan society; protections for them, and ethnic and religious
minorities, were enshrined in the country’s 2004 constitution. While some early Taliban actions minorities, were enshrined in the country’s 2004 constitution. While some early Taliban actions
suggested a possible measure of moderation from their highly oppressive 1996-2001 rule, UN suggested a possible measure of moderation from their highly oppressive 1996-2001 rule, UN
RapporteurHigh Commission for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet said in June 2022 that “what we are witnessing in Afghanistan today is the Bachelet said in June 2022 that “what we are witnessing in Afghanistan today is the
institutionalized, systematic oppression of women” and that “Afghan women are rapidly facing institutionalized, systematic oppression of women” and that “Afghan women are rapidly facing
the worst-case scenario many-feared.”the worst-case scenario many-feared.”3743
The Taliban takeover appears to have reduced high levels of violence that characterized the The Taliban takeover appears to have reduced high levels of violence that characterized the
conflict, a development particularly welcomed by those in rural areas,conflict, a development particularly welcomed by those in rural areas,3844 but it has increased fears but it has increased fears
of many Afghans about repression and women’s rights.of many Afghans about repression and women’s rights.3945 Systems formerly in place to support survivors of gender-based violence have been dismantled.46 The Taliban have closed the Ministry of The Taliban have closed the Ministry of
Women’s Affairs, which had been a part of the former Afghan government, and have reinstated Women’s Affairs, which had been a part of the former Afghan government, and have reinstated
the Ministry of Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, which enforced the Taliban’s the Ministry of Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice, which enforced the Taliban’s
interpretation of Islam in the 1990s. The ministry has issued guidance that seeks to impose new interpretation of Islam in the 1990s. The ministry has issued guidance that seeks to impose new
restrictions on Afghan women, including by directing that women should not be allowed to travel restrictions on Afghan women, including by directing that women should not be allowed to travel
long distances without a male guardian and that male relatives of women who do not wear a hijab
that fully covers their bodies should be punished.40 Amnesty International reported in July 2022
that increasing numbers of women and girls have been arrested for violating these policies.41
Those restrictions, together with the overall economic collapse, have led to a decline in women’s
participation in the workforce.42
Of particular concern to many U.S. policymakers are Taliban policies toward education for
Afghan girls. Taliban spokespersons said in early 2022 that girls’ secondary schools, effectively
shuttered in most of the country since the August 2021 takeover, would reopen with the start of
the new school year in late March 2022.43 However, on March 23, with some girls already present
in schools, the Taliban abruptly reversed course and announced that secondary schools for girls
would remain closed, shocking many observers.44 One analysis attributes the change to the
advocacy of hardline clerics within the group and Akhundzada.45 Other Taliban figures, including

36 Karoun Demirjian, “U.S. works to scale up intelligence networks in Central Asia,” Washington Post, June 21, 2022.
37 38 Thirtieth report of the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team, op cit. 39 Office of the Director for National Intelligence, Annual Threat Assessment of the U.S. Intelligence Community, March 2022. 40 See, for example, Remarks by President Biden on the Way Forward in Afghanistan, White House, April 14, 2021. 41 See transcript at http://www.cq.com/doc/congressionaltranscripts-6450846?3&search=8TnqSQnx. 42 The White House, National Security Strategy, October 2022. 43 United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “High Commissioner updates the Human United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “High Commissioner updates the Human
Rights Council on Afghanistan,” June 15, 2022. Rights Council on Afghanistan,” June 15, 2022.
3844 Anand Gopal, “The Other Afghan Women,” Anand Gopal, “The Other Afghan Women,” The New Yorker, September 6, 2021; Susannah George, “A year of September 6, 2021; Susannah George, “A year of
peace in one of Afghanistan’s deadliest provinces,” peace in one of Afghanistan’s deadliest provinces,” Washington Post, August 12, 2022. , August 12, 2022.
3945 Margherita Stancati, “After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers,” New York Times, December 15, 2021. 46 Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls under Taliban Rule, Amnesty International, July 2022. Congressional Research Service 7 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief long distances without a male guardian and that male relatives of women who do not wear a hijab that fully covers their bodies should be punished.47 Of particular concern to many U.S. policymakers are Taliban policies toward education for Afghan girls. Taliban spokespersons said in early 2022 that girls’ secondary schools, effectively shuttered in most of the country since the August 2021 takeover, would reopen with the start of the new school year in late March 2022.48 However, on March 23, with some girls already present in schools, the Taliban abruptly reversed course and announced that secondary schools for girls would remain closed, shocking many observers.49 The United States and many other countries condemned the decision, and in October 2022, the State Department announced visa restrictions on several Taliban figures responsible for the repression of women and girls in Afghanistan.50 One analysis attributes the change to the advocacy of hardline clerics within the group and Akhundzada.51 Other Taliban figures, including both Baradar and the Haqqanis, reportedly support secondary education for girls (and some educate their own daughters abroad).52 The evidently greater influence of the group’s traditionally conservative leaders, and the unwillingness or inability of more pragmatic figures to assert themselves, suggests that external actors may have limited leverage over Taliban decisions. Ongoing Relocations of U.S. Citizens and Certain Afghans Margherita Stancati, “After Taliban Return, Afghan Women Face Old Pressures From Fathers, Brothers,” New York
Times, December 15, 2021.
40 “No long-distance travel for women without male relative: Taliban,” Al Jazeera, December 26, 2021; David
Zucchino and Safiullah Padshah, “Taliban impose head-to-toe coverings for women,” New York Times, May 7, 2022.
41 Death in Slow Motion: Women and Girls under Taliban Rule, Amnesty International, July 2022.
42 International Labor Organization, “Employment prospects in Afghanistan; A rapid impact assessment,” January
2022; Ruchi Kumar and Hikmat Noori, “‘We are worse off’: Afghanistan further impoverished as women vanish from
workforce,” Guardian, May 16, 2022.
43 Kathy Gannon, “The AP interview: Taliban pledge all girls in schools soon,” Associated Press, January 15, 2022.
44 Kathy Gannon, “Many baffled by Taliban reneging pledge on girls’ education,” Associated Press, March 24, 2022.
45 Ashley Jackson, “The ban on older girls’ education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray,”
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both Baradar and the Haqqanis, reportedly support secondary education for girls (and some
educate their own daughters abroad).46 The evidently greater influence of the group’s traditionally
conservative leaders (over that of pragmatists who urge greater engagement with the outside
world) suggests that external actors may have limited leverage over Taliban decisions.
Taliban rhetoric and action with regard to ethnic and religious minorities have also received
scrutiny from U.S. policymakers. Many Hazaras (Shia Muslims who comprise 10-15% of
Afghanistan’s population and represent one of the country’s largest ethnoreligious minorities)
previously expressed fear about the Taliban’s possible return.47 Since their August 2021 takeover,
the Taliban have demonstrated a more accepting official stance toward the Hazaras, particularly in
urban areas, despite some reports of killings and forced displacement in the Hazaras’ historic
homelands in central Afghanistan in fall 2021.48 While the Taliban government has not persecuted
Hazaras, many Hazaras fault the Taliban for not establishing an inclusive government and not
stopping the ISKP attacks that have repeatedly targeted Hazaras in 2021 and 2022.49
Ongoing Relocations of U.S. Citizens and Certain Afghans
The Taliban’s entry into Kabul on August 15, 2021 triggered the mass evacuation of tens of The Taliban’s entry into Kabul on August 15, 2021 triggered the mass evacuation of tens of
thousands of U.S. citizens (including all diplomatic personnel), partner country citizens, and thousands of U.S. citizens (including all diplomatic personnel), partner country citizens, and
Afghans who worked for international efforts and/or the former Afghan government. U.S. Afghans who worked for international efforts and/or the former Afghan government. U.S.
officials say that U.S. military forces facilitated the evacuation of 124,000 individuals, including officials say that U.S. military forces facilitated the evacuation of 124,000 individuals, including
5,300 U.S. citizens, as part of Operation Allies Refuge, “the largest air evacuation in US 5,300 U.S. citizens, as part of Operation Allies Refuge, “the largest air evacuation in US
history.”history.”5053 Since that operation ended on August 30, 2021, the State Department has said that it Since that operation ended on August 30, 2021, the State Department has said that it
has assisted in the departure of 13,000 Afghans from the country, in addition to 800 U.S. citizens has assisted in the departure of 13,000 Afghans from the country, in addition to 800 U.S. citizens
and 600 lawful permanent residents as of August 2022.and 600 lawful permanent residents as of August 2022.5154
U.S. officials have U.S. officials have said thatcharacterized their efforts to secure the relocation of remaining U.S. citizens and their efforts to secure the relocation of remaining U.S. citizens and
eligible Afghan partners who seek to leave the country eligible Afghan partners who seek to leave the country have “no deadline.”52as an “enduring mission.”55 According to the According to the
State Department, the number of U.S. citizens it has identified in Afghanistan has fluctuated in State Department, the number of U.S. citizens it has identified in Afghanistan has fluctuated in
the midst of continued relocations and because of cases in which additional U.S. the midst of continued relocations and because of cases in which additional U.S. citizens come
forward to ask for assistance to leave.53 On April 28, 2022, Secretary Antony Blinken said, “There
are at present 126, as of a few days ago, American citizens remaining of whom 37 seek to leave
and that we are assisting.”54

Afghanistan Analysts Network, March 29, 2022.
46 Stephanie Glinski and Ruchi Kumar, “Taliban u-turn over Afghan girls’ education reveals deep leadership
divisions,” Guardian, March 25, 2022; Sabawoon Samim, “Who gets to go to school? (3): Are Taleban attitudes
starting to change from within?” Afghanistan Analysts Network, February 7, 2022.
47 David Zucchino and Fatima Faizi, “They Are Thriving After Years of Persecution but Fear a Taliban Deal,” New
York Times, March 27, 2019.
48 Shirin Jaafari, “‘Why don’t you have mercy?’: Afghanistan’s Hazara people increasingly face eviction, violence
under Taliban rule,” PRI, October 5, 2021.
49 Nilly Kohzad, “‘It doesn’t matter if we get killed,’ Afghanistan’s Hazaras speak out,” Diplomat, May 27, 2022.
50 47 Belquis Ahmadi, “Taliban escalate new abuses against Afghan women, girls,” USIP, October 27, 2022. 48 Kathy Gannon, “The AP interview: Taliban pledge all girls in schools soon,” Associated Press, January 15, 2022. 49 Kathy Gannon, “Many baffled by Taliban reneging pledge on girls’ education,” Associated Press, March 24, 2022. 50 Announcement of Visa Restriction in Response to the Repression of Women and Girls in Afghanistan, U.S. Department of State, October 11, 2022. 51 Ashley Jackson, “The ban on older girls’ education: Taleban conservatives ascendant and a leadership in disarray,” Afghanistan Analysts Network, March 29, 2022. 52 Stephanie Glinski and Ruchi Kumar, “Taliban u-turn over Afghan girls’ education reveals deep leadership divisions,” Guardian, March 25, 2022; Sabawoon Samim, “Who gets to go to school? (3): Are Taleban attitudes starting to change from within?” Afghanistan Analysts Network, February 7, 2022. 53 Statement available at https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/ Statement available at https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/
Printed%2028%20Sep%20SASC%20CJCS%20Written%20Statement.pdf. Printed%2028%20Sep%20SASC%20CJCS%20Written%20Statement.pdf.
5154 Some of those evacuated U.S. citizens reportedly traveled to Afghanistan after August 2021. Department Press Some of those evacuated U.S. citizens reportedly traveled to Afghanistan after August 2021. Department Press
Briefing – August 15, 2022, U.S. Department of State; Andrew Desiderio et al., “800 Americans evacuated from Briefing – August 15, 2022, U.S. Department of State; Andrew Desiderio et al., “800 Americans evacuated from
Afghanistan since Taliban takeover,” Afghanistan since Taliban takeover,” Politico, August 14, 2022. , August 14, 2022.
52 U.S. Department of State, “Afghanistan Relocation and Resettlement Update,” December 13, 2021.
53 Department Press Briefing – April 12, 2022, U.S. Department of State.
54 Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, The State
55 Secretary Antony J. Blinken Remarks to the Press, U.S. Department of State, November 11, 2022. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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One December 2021 press report, citing a State Department official, stated that around 62,000
Afghan Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) applicants remain in Afghanistan.55 This figure excludes
the tens of thousands of Afghans who may be at risk and eligible for other forms of relief but
have not applied or are not eligible for an SIV in Brief citizens come forward to ask for assistance to leave.56 On April 28, 2022, Secretary Antony Blinken said, “There are at present 126, as of a few days ago, American citizens remaining of whom 37 seek to leave and that we are assisting.”57 The number of Special Immigrant Visa (SIV) applicants, or those potentially eligible for an SIV or other forms of relief, who remain in Afghanistan is unclear. In a February 2022 report, an advocacy group for . In a February 2022 report, an advocacy group for
SIV-eligible persons stated that 78,000 of the estimated 81,000 SIV applicants in Afghanistan SIV-eligible persons stated that 78,000 of the estimated 81,000 SIV applicants in Afghanistan
with visa applications pending as of August 15, 2021 remain in Afghanistan.with visa applications pending as of August 15, 2021 remain in Afghanistan.5658 The State The State
Department has disputed the accuracy of this report.Department has disputed the accuracy of this report.5759 In May 2022, the State Department In May 2022, the State Department
reportedly estimated that between 70,000 and 160,000 Afghans were eligible for SIVs.reportedly estimated that between 70,000 and 160,000 Afghans were eligible for SIVs.5860
Some Afghans who seek to relocate reportedly remain in hiding, fearing Taliban retribution. The Some Afghans who seek to relocate reportedly remain in hiding, fearing Taliban retribution. The
Taliban issued a general amnesty after coming to power, but, according to Taliban issued a general amnesty after coming to power, but, according to a press account, a
report from U.N. Secretary-General Antonio Guterres to the Security Council in January 2022
stated that the United Nations has received “credible allegations” of Taliban reprisals against
those individuals, including dozens of killings.59various accounts, the Taliban have carried out reprisals against figures aligned with the former government, including hundreds of killings.61 In April 2022, Secretary Blinken noted attacks In April 2022, Secretary Blinken noted attacks
by the Taliban against “those who are part of the former government,” adding that most appeared by the Taliban against “those who are part of the former government,” adding that most appeared
to be happening “at a local level” and were not “centrally directed.”to be happening “at a local level” and were not “centrally directed.”6062
The Taliban have reportedly interfered with The Taliban have reportedly interfered with flights at timesdeparture flights, including by demanding seats for , including by demanding seats for
Taliban-selected individuals to work abroad and remit money.Taliban-selected individuals to work abroad and remit money.6163 Secretary Blinken said in late Secretary Blinken said in late
April 2022 that the Taliban had allowed freedom of movement to some degree but cautioned that April 2022 that the Taliban had allowed freedom of movement to some degree but cautioned that
there were still limited means of transportation to enable individuals to leave Afghanistan.there were still limited means of transportation to enable individuals to leave Afghanistan.6264 The The
United States has reportedly paid, through Qatar, for tickets on some Afghan airlines that fly to United States has reportedly paid, through Qatar, for tickets on some Afghan airlines that fly to
Qatar for individuals to leave Afghanistan.Qatar for individuals to leave Afghanistan.6365 Other impediments to relocations from Afghanistan Other impediments to relocations from Afghanistan
includes logistical issues at Kabul’s international airport (see textbox) and issues with Afghans includes logistical issues at Kabul’s international airport (see textbox) and issues with Afghans
obtaining travel documentation.obtaining travel documentation.6466
Status of Kabul Airport
Relocation efforts have been complicated by the status of Kabul’s international airport. After the final departure of Relocation efforts have been complicated by the status of Kabul’s international airport. After the final departure of
U.S. forces, Qatar and Turkey worked to make the airport—which sustained damage to its runways, radar system, U.S. forces, Qatar and Turkey worked to make the airport—which sustained damage to its runways, radar system,

Department's Foreign Policy Priorities and the FY23 Budget Request, op. cit.
55 Jessica Donati, “More Than 60,000 Interpreters, Visa Applicants Remain in Afghanistan,” Wall Street Journal,
December 16, 2021.
56and other components during the U.S. evacuation effort and withdrawal—operational. As of November 2022, 56 Department Press Briefing – April 12, 2022, U.S. Department of State. 57 Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs, Fiscal Year 2023 Budget Request for the Department of State, hearings, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., April 28, 2022. 58 Association of Wartime Allies, “On The Ground Report - Feb 2022.” Association of Wartime Allies, “On The Ground Report - Feb 2022.”
5759 Dan De Luce, “U.S. ‘left behind’ 78,000 Afghan allies in chaotic withdrawal: NGO report,” Dan De Luce, “U.S. ‘left behind’ 78,000 Afghan allies in chaotic withdrawal: NGO report,” NBC News, March 1, , March 1,
2022. 2022.
5860 Alex Thompson and Allie Bice, “Biden’s broken promise to SIV holders,” Alex Thompson and Allie Bice, “Biden’s broken promise to SIV holders,” Politico, May 16, 2022. , May 16, 2022.
59 “UN chief accuses Taliban of scores of revenge killings since seizing control in Afghanistan,” RFE/RL, January 30,
2022.
60 Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, The State
Department's Foreign Policy Priorities and the FY23 Budget Request, op. cit.
6161 Barbara Marcolini et al., “The Taliban promised them amnesty. Then they executed them,” New York Times, April 12, 2022; Abubakar Siddique, “‘Afghanistan is hell’: Supporters of late Afghan general claim Taliban killings, persecution,” Gandhara, November 2, 2022. 62 Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, op. cit. 63 Courtney Kube, Dan De Luce and Josh Lederman, “The Taliban have halted all evacuee flights out of Afghanistan Courtney Kube, Dan De Luce and Josh Lederman, “The Taliban have halted all evacuee flights out of Afghanistan
for the past two weeks,” for the past two weeks,” NBC News, December 23, 2021. , December 23, 2021.
6264 Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Testimony of Secretary of State Antony Blinken, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations
Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs, Fiscal Year 2023 Budget Request for the
Department of State, hearings, 117th Cong., 2nd sess., April 28, 2022.
63op. cit. 65 Dan De Luce and Cortney Kube, “Biden admin relies on Taliban-controlled airline to help Afghans flee Dan De Luce and Cortney Kube, “Biden admin relies on Taliban-controlled airline to help Afghans flee
Afghanistan,” Afghanistan,” NBC News, June 8, 2022. , June 8, 2022.
6466 Amy Cheng and Haq Nawaz Khan, “Hundreds of Afghans gather outside passport office as Taliban resumes issuing Amy Cheng and Haq Nawaz Khan, “Hundreds of Afghans gather outside passport office as Taliban resumes issuing
travel documents,” travel documents,” Washington Post, October 6, 2021;, October 6, 2021; “Painful Passport Problems in Afghanistan,” “Painful Passport Problems in Afghanistan,” RFE/RL, January , January
16, 2022. 16, 2022.
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and other components during the U.S. evacuation effort and withdrawal—operational. As of August 2022, in Brief some some
domestic and regional airlines are domestic and regional airlines are reportedly carrying out flights from Kabul airport, but major foreign carriers carrying out flights from Kabul airport, but major foreign carriers
have yet to resume operations.have yet to resume operations.65 Despite a preliminary December 2021 deal with Qatar and Turkey to operate Despite a preliminary December 2021 deal with Qatar and Turkey to operate
five several airports in Afghanistan, the Taliban in airports in Afghanistan, the Taliban in MaySeptember 2022 announced that they had reached a seemingly similar deal with 2022 announced that they had reached a seemingly similar deal with
the United Arab Emiratesthe United Arab Emirates; the terms of that agreement remain unclear.66 to operate three airports, including Kabul’s.67
Economic Collapse, and Humanitarian Crisis, and U.S.
Policy
The Taliban’s return to power has exacerbated one of the worst humanitarian crises in the world The Taliban’s return to power has exacerbated one of the worst humanitarian crises in the world
in Afghanistan, long one of the world’s poorest and most aid-dependent countries. A number of in Afghanistan, long one of the world’s poorest and most aid-dependent countries. A number of
U.S. policy actions, including the cut-off of international development assistance, U.S. and U.S. policy actions, including the cut-off of international development assistance, U.S. and
international sanctions on the Taliban, and the U.S. hold on Afghanistan’s central bank assets, international sanctions on the Taliban, and the U.S. hold on Afghanistan’s central bank assets,
appear relevant to the economic breakdown that underlies the humanitarian crisis. appear relevant to the economic breakdown that underlies the humanitarian crisis.
The United States and other international donors provided billions of dollars a year to support the The United States and other international donors provided billions of dollars a year to support the
former Afghan government, financing over half of its $6 billion annual budget and as much as former Afghan government, financing over half of its $6 billion annual budget and as much as
80% of total public expenditures.80% of total public expenditures.6768 Much of that development assistance halted with the Taliban’s Much of that development assistance halted with the Taliban’s
August 2021 takeover, August 2021 takeover, plunging the country into what U.N. officials describe as economic “free
fall” as the country’s economy contracted by as much as a third in the last four months of 2021.68
Humanitarian aid, including cash transfers, has “supported some economic stabilization,”
according to the World Bank, but Afghanistan’s economic outlook remains “stark.”69leading the country’s economy to contract by over 20% in 2021.69 International assistance is “expected to mitigate some negative impacts of the contraction,” according to the World Bank, but even that assistance “will not be sufficient to bring the economy back on a sustainable recovery path,” given the ongoing financial crisis, persistently high inflation, and Taliban policies.70
The economic collapse has exacerbated what was already a severe humanitarian crisis in The economic collapse has exacerbated what was already a severe humanitarian crisis in
Afghanistan prior to August 2021, due primarily to conflict, drought, and the COVID-19 Afghanistan prior to August 2021, due primarily to conflict, drought, and the COVID-19
pandemic. Indicators suggest that conditions have worsened pandemic. Indicators suggest that conditions have worsened significantlyfurther since August 2021: the since August 2021: the
World Food World Food ProgramProgramme asserted in asserted in August 2022 that 92% of Afghans reported not having enough to
eat, an increase from the 80% of Afghans that had insufficient food before the Taliban takeover.70
WFP also reported in June that global food price increases and supply chain delays caused by the
war in Ukraine are “having a direct impact on WFP’s Afghanistan operations.”November 2022 that “Afghanistan continues to face the highest prevalence of insufficient food consumption globally,” with 90% of Afghans reporting not having enough to eat.71 The U.N. Special The U.N. Special
Representative for Afghanistan said in March 2022 that due to emergency assistance from Representative for Afghanistan said in March 2022 that due to emergency assistance from
international donors, “we have perhaps averted our worst fears of famine and widespread international donors, “we have perhaps averted our worst fears of famine and widespread
starvation,” though the situation remains dire.71 In Auguststarvation” for the winter of 2021-2022.72 The winter of 2022-2023 may be more difficult yet, given increased food prices.73 In November 2022, the U.N. Children’s Fund 2022, the U.N. Children’s Fund
(UNICEF) estimated that 1.1 million Afghan children are expected to need treatment for severe (UNICEF) estimated that 1.1 million Afghan children are expected to need treatment for severe
acute malnutrition.acute malnutrition.72
In terms of U.S. policy, the United States has provided over $900 million in humanitarian
assistance in Afghanistan since the Taliban takeover.73 While such assistance plays a crucial role

65 Tamim Shahir, “Major airlines still not making flights to Kabul,” TOLONews, August 8, 2022.
66 Rahim Faiez, “Taliban say deal signed with UAE firm to manage airports,” Diplomat, May 25, 2022.
6774 67Charlotte Seet, “UAE civil aviation authority to operate Afghanistan air traffic control,” Simple Flying, September 8, 2022. 68 Roxanna Shapour, “Realpolitik and the 2021 National Budget: The toxic struggle for money and power that Roxanna Shapour, “Realpolitik and the 2021 National Budget: The toxic struggle for money and power that
undermined Afghanistan’s republic,” undermined Afghanistan’s republic,” Afghanistan Analysts Network, December 21, 2021. , December 21, 2021.
6869 “Afghanistan: Overview,” World Bank, “Afghanistan: Overview,” World Bank, April 13October 7, 2022. , 2022.
6970 Ibid. Ibid.
7071 “Afghanistan Situation Report, “Afghanistan Situation Report, October 31, 2022” World Food Program, ” World Food Program, August 15,November 2022. 2022.
7172 “Briefing by Special Representative Deborah Lyons to the Security Council,” United Nations Assistance Mission in “Briefing by Special Representative Deborah Lyons to the Security Council,” United Nations Assistance Mission in
Afghanistan, March 2, 2022. Afghanistan, March 2, 2022.
72 “Afghanistan: Humanitarian Situation Report #8, 1-31 July 2022,” UNICEF, August 2022.
73 USAID press releases, August 12,73 Areou Rezvani, “Afghans are bracing for a winter many fear will be even worse than the last,” NPR, November 25, 2022. 74 “Afghanistan: Humanitarian Situation Report #11, 1-31 October 2022,” UNICEF, November 2022. 2022.
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Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy: In in Brief U.S. Policy Responses The United States has provided over $1.1 billion million in humanitarian assistance in Afghanistan and neighboring countries since the Taliban takeover.75 While such assistance plays a crucial role Brief

in averting further humanitarian suffering, it is different in many ways from former U.S. security, in averting further humanitarian suffering, it is different in many ways from former U.S. security,
development, and stabilization assistance, which averaged over $5 billion annually between development, and stabilization assistance, which averaged over $5 billion annually between
FY2019 and FY2021. In addition to providing some humanitarian assistance, those funds paid the FY2019 and FY2021. In addition to providing some humanitarian assistance, those funds paid the
salaries of Afghan soldiers and civil servants, supported key government services, and ultimately salaries of Afghan soldiers and civil servants, supported key government services, and ultimately
made up a large portion of Afghanistan’s economy. The Biden Administration’s FY2023 budget made up a large portion of Afghanistan’s economy. The Biden Administration’s FY2023 budget
request proposes $345 million for health, education, and other forms of assistance in Afghanistan; request proposes $345 million for health, education, and other forms of assistance in Afghanistan;
the lack of a U.S. diplomatic presence in Afghanistan may complicate or constrain the the lack of a U.S. diplomatic presence in Afghanistan may complicate or constrain the
implementation and/or oversight of U.S. funding. implementation and/or oversight of U.S. funding.
Beyond assistance, the two U.S. policy areas that appear to have the greatest relevance to the Beyond assistance, the two U.S. policy areas that appear to have the greatest relevance to the
economic and humanitarian situation are sanctions and the ongoing U.S. hold on Afghanistan’s economic and humanitarian situation are sanctions and the ongoing U.S. hold on Afghanistan’s
central bank reserves. U.S. sanctions on the Taliban (in place in various forms since 1999) central bank reserves. U.S. sanctions on the Taliban (in place in various forms since 1999)
remain, but it is unclear to what extent they are affecting humanitarian conditions in remain, but it is unclear to what extent they are affecting humanitarian conditions in Afghanistan;
the head of the Norwegian Refugee Council said in January 2022 that sanctions have “held back”
their operations.74Afghanistan.76 Since the Taliban’s takeover, the U.S. Department of the Treasury has issued Since the Taliban’s takeover, the U.S. Department of the Treasury has issued
several general licenses stating that U.S. sanctions several general licenses stating that U.S. sanctions on the Taliban do not prohibit the provision of assistance to do not prohibit the provision of assistance to
Afghanistan and authorizing various humanitarian and commercial transactions.Afghanistan and authorizing various humanitarian and commercial transactions.75 77 Still, the Still, the
continued existence of sanctions might lead financial institutions or other actors to “de-risk” continued existence of sanctions might lead financial institutions or other actors to “de-risk”
Afghanistan by refusing to engage in the country rather than risk violation of U.S. sanctions. For Afghanistan by refusing to engage in the country rather than risk violation of U.S. sanctions. For
more on U.S. sanctions on the Taliban, see CRS In Focus IF12039, more on U.S. sanctions on the Taliban, see CRS In Focus IF12039, Afghanistan: Humanitarian
Crisis, Economic Collapse, and U.S. Sanctions. .
The Biden Administration’s hold on U.S.-based Afghan central bank assets has also drawn The Biden Administration’s hold on U.S.-based Afghan central bank assets has also drawn
scrutiny. Imposed days after the Taliban entered Kabul to prevent the Taliban from accessing the scrutiny. Imposed days after the Taliban entered Kabul to prevent the Taliban from accessing the
funds, the Taliban and some foreign leaders have urged the United States to release the hold on funds, the Taliban and some foreign leaders have urged the United States to release the hold on
those assets, which total around $7 billion.those assets, which total around $7 billion.78 On February 11, 2022, the Biden Administration On February 11, 2022, the Biden Administration
announced that it would “seek to facilitate access of $3.5 billion [of the assets] ... for the benefit announced that it would “seek to facilitate access of $3.5 billion [of the assets] ... for the benefit
of the Afghan people,” pending ongoing litigation related to the September 11, 2001, attacks.of the Afghan people,” pending ongoing litigation related to the September 11, 2001, attacks.76
The Administration has reportedly engaged with the Taliban on the issue, including a potential
Switzerland-based trust fund.77 For more, see CRS In Focus IF12052, Afghanistan Central Bank
Reserves.
Regional Dynamics: Pakistan and Other Neighbors
Regional dynamics directly affect developments in Afghanistan, which is landlocked and has
throughout its history been the object of intervention by its neighbors and other foreign powers.
Events in Afghanistan also have consequences for those neighbors.
Pakistan. The neighboring state widely considered most important in this regard is Pakistan,
which has played an active, and by many accounts destabilizing, role in Afghan affairs for
decades, including by actively supporting the Taliban during its 1990s rule and much of its
subsequent insurgency. Many analysts regarded the Taliban takeover at least initially as a triumph

74 See interview at https://twitter.com/nrc_norway/status/1486778209387565058.
7579 In September 2022, the Administration announced the establishment of an “Afghan Fund” (based in Switzerland) to “make targeted disbursements of that $3.5 billion to help provide greater stability to the Afghan economy.”80 The Fund’s board met for the first time in November 2022.81 Congressional Action and Outlook The Taliban’s takeover attracted intense congressional and public scrutiny. U.S. public attention appears to have decreased in the subsequent months, but Afghanistan remains the subject of 75 United States Announces Humanitarian Assistance for Afghanistan, U.S. Department of State, September 23, 2022. 76 “Economic causes of Afghanistan’s humanitarian crisis,” Human Rights Watch, August 4, 2022. 77 See Treasury Department Fact Sheet, December 22, 2021, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/ See Treasury Department Fact Sheet, December 22, 2021, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/
afg_factsheet_20211222_nu.pdf. afg_factsheet_20211222_nu.pdf.
7678 CRS In Focus IF12052, Afghanistan Central Bank Reserves. 79 See Executive Order at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/afghanistan_bank_eo.pdf. 80 The United States and Partners Announce Establishment of Fund for the People of Afghanistan, U.S. Department of State, September 14, 2022. See also SIGAR Quarterly Report, October 30, 2022, pp. 112-115. 81 Readout of Fund for the Afghan People Board Meeting, U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 21, 2022. Congressional Research Service 11 Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy in Brief congressional engagement as some Members seek to account for the evident failure of U.S. efforts and grapple with the reality of the Taliban’s renewed rule.82 Congressional oversight of Afghanistan has been robust. Congressional committees held at least ten hearings specifically on Afghanistan in the weeks after the Taliban’s takeover.83 Senate Foreign Relations minority staff released an assessment of the August 2021 evacuation in February 2022, and the House Foreign Affairs Committee ranking member produced an interim report on the withdrawal in August 2022.84 See Executive Order at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/126/afghanistan_bank_eo.pdf and briefing at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/02/11/background-press-call-on-u-s-support-for-
the-people-of-afghanistan/.
77 Jonathan Landay, “Exclusive: U.S. commits to Afghan asset talks despite frustration with Taliban,” Reuters, August
22, 2022.
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for Pakistan’s regional policy, pointing to statements of evident support for the takeover from
Pakistani leaders.78 Senior Pakistani officials have held numerous meetings with the new Taliban
government, both in Kabul and Islamabad, since August 2021.
However, there are some indications that the Taliban’s return to power may pose challenges for
Pakistan. The Taliban’s victory may provide a morale and perhaps material boost to Pakistan-
based Islamist terrorist groups, including the so-called Pakistani Taliban (Tehreek-i Taliban-i
Pakistan, or TTP, a U.S.-designated Foreign Terrorist Organization). TTP attacks against Pakistani
security forces increased after August 2021, reportedly prompting the Pakistani government to
seek the Afghan Taliban’s mediation of several ceasefires, most recently in June 2022.79
Afghanistan-Pakistan relations are further complicated by the presence of over one million
Afghan refugees in Pakistan, as well as a long-running and ethnically tinged dispute over their
shared 1,600-mile border, at which Taliban and Pakistani government forces have intermittently
clashed in 2022.80
Iran. Iran, with which Afghanistan shares its western border, opposed the Taliban’s 1990s rule
but has maintained relations with the group while emphasizing the need for representation for
Afghanistan’s ethnic and religious groups with which Iran has close ties (namely Tajiks, who
speak a variant of Persian, and Hazaras, who are mostly Shia Muslims). Official Taliban visits to
Tehran preceded the group’s August 2021 takeover, and have continued since then, including with
the visit of the Taliban’s acting foreign minister in January 2022. Disputes in 2022 over water
rights and refugees could portend future tensions.81
Central Asia. Afghanistan’s Central Asian neighbors (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan)
have responded in varying ways to the Taliban’s takeover. The Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan
governments appear to be prioritizing economic ties, including the planned Turkmenistan-
Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) natural gas pipeline, and have had numerous official
engagements with the Taliban. Tajikistan, on the other hand, has opposed the Taliban, a result
both of Tajikistan’s own struggles with Islamist militancy as well as ties with Afghan Tajiks (the
country’s second largest ethnic group), some of whom oppose the Taliban’s rule.82
China. The prospect of greater Chinese influence and activity in Afghanistan has attracted some
congressional attention since the Taliban takeover.83 China, which played a relatively limited role
in Afghanistan under the former government, made some economic investments in Afghanistan
(particularly in the development of Afghan minerals and other resources) prior to the Taliban
takeover, but major projects have not come to fruition due to instability, lack of infrastructure, and
other limitations.84 Despite concerns about Afghanistan-based Islamist terrorist groups, China has

78 Ishaan Tharoor, “Pakistan’s hand in the Taliban’s victory,” Washington Post, August 18, 2021; Husain Haqqani,
“Pakista’’s Pyrrhic Victory in Afghanistan,” Foreign Affairs, July 22, 2021.
79 Rhea Sinha, “TTP-Pakistan peace talks: the pitfalls and their implications,” ORF, August 18, 2022.
80 Pakistan, the United Nations, and others recognize the 1893 Durand Line as an international boundary, but
successive Afghan governments, including the Taliban, have not. See Vinay Kaura, “Pushed over the edge: political
and military dynamics at the Afghanistan-Pakistan border,” Middle East Institute, May 9, 2022.
81 Christian Hoj Hansen and Halimullah Kousary, “Can Iran get along with the Taliban?” War on the Rocks, June 7,
2022.
82 Abubakar Siddique, “Hostilities grow between Taliban and Tajikistan amid border closure, truck seizures,”
Gandhara, May 19, 2022.
83 See, for example, H.R. 5404, S. 2826, and Sec 5404 of H.R. 7900.
84 Matthew Funaiole and Brian Hart, “Afghanistan Is No Treasure Trove for China,” Foreign Policy, September 28,
2021.
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signaled acceptance of the Taliban’s rule, with its foreign minister emphasizing in a May 2022
visit to Kabul that China “respects the independent choices made by the Afghan people.”85
Congressional Action and Outlook
The Taliban’s takeover attracted intense congressional and public attention. U.S. public attention
appears to have decreased in the subsequent months, but Afghanistan remains the subject of
significant congressional interest as some Members seek to account for the evident failure of U.S.
efforts and grapple with the reality of the Taliban’s renewed rule.86
Congressional oversight of Afghanistan appears robust. Congressional committees held at least
ten hearings specifically on Afghanistan in the weeks after the Taliban’s takeover.87 Senate
Foreign Relations minority staff released an assessment of the August 2021 evacuation in
February 2022, and the House Foreign Affairs Committee ranking member said he would produce
his own investigative report in August 2022. In addition, Congress established the Afghanistan In addition, Congress established the Afghanistan
War Commission (AWC, Section 1094 of the FY2022 National Defense Authorization Act, War Commission (AWC, Section 1094 of the FY2022 National Defense Authorization Act,
NDAA, P.L. 117-81) charged with examining the war and developing “a series of lessons learned NDAA, P.L. 117-81) charged with examining the war and developing “a series of lessons learned
and recommendations for the way forward” in a final report to be issued within three years. and recommendations for the way forward” in a final report to be issued within three years.
Congress has also increased reporting requirements related to Afghanistan. In the FY2022 Congress has also increased reporting requirements related to Afghanistan. In the FY2022
NDAA, Congress directed the Administration to submit reports covering a number of topics, NDAA, Congress directed the Administration to submit reports covering a number of topics,
including U.S. over-the horizon counterterrorism capabilities; the status of U.S.-supplied military including U.S. over-the horizon counterterrorism capabilities; the status of U.S.-supplied military
materiel in Afghanistan; and the lessons of Afghanistan for other U.S. security cooperation materiel in Afghanistan; and the lessons of Afghanistan for other U.S. security cooperation
programs. Reports required in the House-passed FY2023 NDAA (H.R. 7900) include a strategy programs. Reports required in the House-passed FY2023 NDAA (H.R. 7900) include a strategy
for reimbursing U.S. personnel who expended personal funds in support of evacuation efforts and for reimbursing U.S. personnel who expended personal funds in support of evacuation efforts and
an assessment of China’s activities in Afghanistan. The bill would also mandate an interagency an assessment of China’s activities in Afghanistan. The bill would also mandate an interagency
inspector general review of efforts to support and process evacuees from Afghanistan, including inspector general review of efforts to support and process evacuees from Afghanistan, including
screening procedures, and a full accounting of the number of individuals evacuated in 2021 screening procedures, and a full accounting of the number of individuals evacuated in 2021
disaggregated by age, SIV eligibility, and other categories.disaggregated by age, SIV eligibility, and other categories. An amendment to add an additional
reporting requirement on the humanitarian impact of U.S. sanctions and the hold on central bank
assets was made in order but did not come up for a vote. Members may consider directing the
Administration to provide additional reports on other topics of interest, such as the impact of the
U.S. diplomatic withdrawal and conditions for its reinstatement.
Going forward, U.S. policy, including congressional action, will be influenced and likely
constrained by a number of factors, including
 a dearth of information about dynamics in Afghanistan, given the lack of U.S.
diplomats and other on the ground observers and Taliban-imposed limitations on
journalists; and

85 Shannon Tiezzi, “China signals it’s back to business as usual with Taliban government,” Diplomat, March 25, 2022.
86 Google Trends, “Afghanistan,” “Past 12 months,” accessed August 26, 2022.
87 In shaping U.S. policy toward Afghanistan, Congress may consider a number of policy options, including  Congress may examine how U.S. assistance, and conditions thereon, may affect Taliban actions, including with regard to women’s rights more broadly and the ability of Afghan girls to attend secondary schools in particular, to inform congressional consideration of the Administration’s budget request and action on FY2023 appropriations;  Congress may request or mandate additional information from the Administration about the number and status of U.S. citizens and Afghan partners who remain in Afghanistan and about the status of U.S. efforts to secure their relocation, including resources devoted to those efforts, obstacles to further relocations, and Administration plans to overcome those obstacles; 82 Google Trends, “Afghanistan,” “8/31/2021 – 11/22/2022,” accessed November 22, 2022. 83 Hearings on Afghanistan include those held by: House Foreign Affairs Committee (September 13, 2021, with Hearings on Afghanistan include those held by: House Foreign Affairs Committee (September 13, 2021, with
Secretary Blinken); Senate Foreign Relations Committee (September 14, 2021, with Secretary Blinken); Senate Armed Secretary Blinken); Senate Foreign Relations Committee (September 14, 2021, with Secretary Blinken); Senate Armed
Services Committee (September 28, 2021, with Secretary Austin, General Milley, and General McKenzie); House Services Committee (September 28, 2021, with Secretary Austin, General Milley, and General McKenzie); House
Armed Services Committee (September 29, 2021, with Secretary Austin, General Milley, and General McKenzie); Armed Services Committee (September 29, 2021, with Secretary Austin, General Milley, and General McKenzie);
Senate Armed Services Committee (September 30, 2021, with outside witnesses); House Foreign Affairs Committee Senate Armed Services Committee (September 30, 2021, with outside witnesses); House Foreign Affairs Committee
(October 5, 2021, with former U.S. officials); Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee (October 5, (October 5, 2021, with former U.S. officials); Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Committee (October 5,
2021, with outside witnesses); House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Development, International 2021, with outside witnesses); House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on International Development, International
Organizations, and Global Corporate Impact (October 6, 2021, with SIGAR); Senate Armed Service Committee Organizations, and Global Corporate Impact (October 6, 2021, with SIGAR); Senate Armed Service Committee
(October 26, 2021, with DOD witnesses); and Senate Foreign Relations Committee (November 17, 2021, with former (October 26, 2021, with DOD witnesses); and Senate Foreign Relations Committee (November 17, 2021, with former
U.S. officials). U.S. officials).
84 Left Behind: A Brief Assessment of the Biden Administration’s Strategic Failures during the Afghanistan Evacuation, United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Minority Report, February 2022; House Republican Interim Report: A “Strategic Failure:” Assessing the Administration’s Afghanistan Withdrawal, Congressman Michael McCaul, August 14, 2022. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy: In Brief

 in Brief  Congress may examine the impact of U.S. sanctions on the targeted individuals, the Afghan economy, and Afghan society more broadly, including by requiring reporting thereon from the Administration and/or the Government Accountability Office, to assess whether they are achieving their intended objectives; and  Congress may examine the impact and efficacy of oversight of previous U.S. efforts in Afghanistan to shape future U.S. policy efforts (e.g., H.R. 8560, 117th Congress), congressional authorizing and appropriations measures, and oversight mechanisms (including those intended to oversee U.S. assistance to other foreign partners, such as Ukraine). Relevant reports from the AWC and the Department of Defense (and the federally funded research and development center with whom the Department contracts, as directed by Section 1323 of P.L. 117-81) are due to be submitted within approximately one and two years, respectively. Going forward, U.S. policy, including congressional action, will be influenced and likely constrained by a number of factors, including  a dearth of information about dynamics in Afghanistan, given the lack of U.S. diplomats and other on the ground observers and Taliban-imposed limitations on journalists; and  the historical legacy of U.S. conflict with the Taliban, which may make the historical legacy of U.S. conflict with the Taliban, which may make
cooperation with the group, even to advance U.S. policy priorities, politically cooperation with the group, even to advance U.S. policy priorities, politically
difficult. difficult.
Perhaps more fundamental is the challenge of how to pursue U.S. policy priorities that may be Perhaps more fundamental is the challenge of how to pursue U.S. policy priorities that may be
difficult to reconcile: stabilizing Afghanistan and providing support to Afghans while avoiding difficult to reconcile: stabilizing Afghanistan and providing support to Afghans while avoiding
actions that might benefit the Taliban. While providing humanitarian aid may be sufficient to actions that might benefit the Taliban. While providing humanitarian aid may be sufficient to
stave off mass casualties, it is unlikely to sustainably improve economic conditions. Financial stave off mass casualties, it is unlikely to sustainably improve economic conditions. Financial
assistance could improve the Afghan economy, ameliorating the humanitarian situation, but assistance could improve the Afghan economy, ameliorating the humanitarian situation, but
comes with the risk of diversion of some funds or broader benefits to the Taliban. In considering comes with the risk of diversion of some funds or broader benefits to the Taliban. In considering
the Administration’s FY2023 budget requestAdministration budget requests, Members of Congress may weigh these and other , Members of Congress may weigh these and other
options, including conditions on U.S. assistance. options, including conditions on U.S. assistance.
The Taliban have called for international recognition, assistance, and sanctions relief, but since The Taliban have called for international recognition, assistance, and sanctions relief, but since
returning to power they have not shownreturning to power they have not shown a willingness to make compromises on important issues to willingness to make compromises on important issues to
obtain them. Nearly every country, U.S. partners and adversaries alike, has urged the Taliban to obtain them. Nearly every country, U.S. partners and adversaries alike, has urged the Taliban to
form a more inclusive government, and many countries have joined the United States in calling form a more inclusive government, and many countries have joined the United States in calling
for the group to lift restrictions on women and girls and break ties with terrorist groups. In for the group to lift restrictions on women and girls and break ties with terrorist groups. In
response, the Taliban have stalled, equivocated, and ultimately either ignored or rejected outright response, the Taliban have stalled, equivocated, and ultimately either ignored or rejected outright
these calls. Foreign policy tools that the United States has traditionally used as leverage may not these calls. Foreign policy tools that the United States has traditionally used as leverage may not
be as effective in Afghanistan as in be as effective in Afghanistan as in some other contexts.85 85other contexts.88
In shaping U.S. policy toward Afghanistan, Congress may consider a number of policy options,
including:
 Congress may examine how U.S. assistance, and conditions thereon, may impact
Taliban actions, including with regard to women’s rights more broadly and the
ability of Afghan girls to attend secondary schools in particular, to inform
congressional consideration of the Administration’s budget request and action on
FY2023 appropriations;
 Congress may request or mandate additional information from the Administration
about the number and status of U.S. citizens and Afghan partners who remain in
Afghanistan and about the status of U.S. efforts to secure their relocation,
including resources devoted to those efforts, obstacles to further relocations, and
Administration plans to overcome those obstacles;
 Congress may examine the impact of U.S. sanctions on the targeted individuals,
the Afghan economy, and Afghan society more broadly, including by requiring
reporting thereon from the Administration and/or the Government Accountability
Office, to assess whether they are achieving their intended objectives; and
 Congress may examine the impact and efficacy of oversight of previous U.S.
efforts in Afghanistan to shape future U.S. policy efforts (e.g., H.R. 8560, 117th
Congress), congressional authorizing and appropriations measures, and oversight
mechanisms, (including those intended to oversee U.S. assistance to other foreign
partners, such as Ukraine). Relevant reports from the AWC and the Department
of Defense (and the federally funded research and development center with
whom the Department contracts, as directed by Section 1323 of P.L. 117-81) are
due to be submitted within approximately one and two years, respectively.

88 See, for example, Marvin Weinbaum, “America can’t change the Taliban,” See, for example, Marvin Weinbaum, “America can’t change the Taliban,” National Interest, August 15, 2022; Kate , August 15, 2022; Kate
Bateman, “A year after the Taliban takeover: what’s next for the U.S. in Afghanistan?” U.S. Institute of Peace, August Bateman, “A year after the Taliban takeover: what’s next for the U.S. in Afghanistan?” U.S. Institute of Peace, August
1111, 2022; “Has U.S. policy toward Taliban-ruled Afghanistan failed Afghans?” Brookings, September 29, 2022. , 2022.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

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Afghanistan: Background and U.S. Policy: In in Brief


Author Information

Clayton Thomas Clayton Thomas

Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs



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