Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19
March 12April 14, 2021 , 2021
Pandemic: In Brief
Gene Falk, Coordinator
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
unemployment inlabor market metrics for every state, every state, industryeconomic sector, and major demographic group in , and major demographic group in the United

the United States. This report provides information on States. This report provides information on which groups have experienced the largest
Jameson A. Carter
increases in unemployment rates since the onset of the pandemic in 2020. Young
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workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time workers, and racial
and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020. Many, but
Isaac A. Nicchitta
not al , of these groups had relatively high rates in February 2021 as wel . The report
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also compares the overal unemployment rate during the current recession with the

unemployment rate experienced during the Great Recession (December 2007 to June
Emma C. Nyhof
2009). This report shows the following:
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 The unemployment rate peaked at an unprecedented level, not seen since data
Paul D. Romero
collection started in 1948, in April 2020 (14.8%) before declining to a stil -
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elevated level in February 2021 (6.2%) relative to February 2020 (3.5%).

 In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.

State-level unemployment has since general y declined, although some states’
recoveries have recently showed signs of slowing down or reversing.
 In the early months of the recession, the unemployment rates were highest in industries that
provide in-person services. Notably, the leisure and hospitality industry experienced an
unemployment rate of 39.3% in April 2020, before declining to 13.5% in February 2021. While
rates for service industries remain elevated, other industries with loose attachment to in-person
services are now experiencing high rates. For example, the mining industry exhibited an
unemployment rate of 19.3% in February 2021, the highest observed among al industries.
 Part-time workers experienced an unemployment rate almost twice that of their full-time
counterparts in April 2020 (24.5% vs. 12.9%), but this gap has since effectively closed.
 Workers without a college degree experienced worse unemployment rates in April 2020 (e.g.,
21.2% for workers with no high school degree) than workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher
(8.4%). The gap between educated and less-educated workers remained in February 2021.
 Teenaged women experienced an unemployment rate of 36.6% in April 2020, and teenaged men,
28.6%; compared with 13.7% for women and 12.1% for men ages 25-54. The gap between men
and women has since narrowed overal , but young workers are still experiencing high rates of
unemployment relative to other age categories in February 2021.
 Racial and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020 (16.7% for
Black workers compared to 14.2% for White workers, and 18.9% for Hispanic workers compared
to 13.6% for non-Hispanic workers), and these gaps persisted in February 2021.

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link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 15 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Briefunemployment rates, labor force Paul D. Romero participation rates, and nonfarm payrolls in the United States during the ongoing Research Assistant pandemic. It presents CRS analysis of overal unemployment rate trends during the pandemic. The report first examines these trends national y, and at the state and Jameson A. Carter industrial levels. Next, it examines how unemployment rates varied across demographic Research Assistant groups. The report then repeats this analysis, where appropriate, for the labor force participation rate, which sheds light on the size of the workforce wil ing and available Isaac A. Nicchitta for work. The final portion of the report analyzes the impact the pandemic has had on Research Assistant overal employment and by sector. Emma C. Nyhof Among other findings, this report shows the following: Research Assistant  In April 2020, the unemployment rate reached 14.8%—the highest rate observed since data collection began in 1948. In March 2021, unemployment remained higher (6.0%) than it had been in February 2020 (3.5%).  The labor force participation rate declined to 60.2% in April 2020—a level not seen since the early 1970s—before partial y recovering in March 2021 (61.5%).  Nonfarm payrolls shed 22.1 mil ion jobs between January 2020 and April 2020, with employment declining to 86% of its pre-recession level. In March 2021, aggregate employment remained 8.1 mil ion jobs below its pre-recession level.  The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted economic sectors disparately. The leisure and hospitality sector lost the largest number of jobs since January 2020, and persons last employed in this sector have consistently exhibited some of the highest unemployment rates throughout the pandemic. Additional y, the education and services sector and the government sector have exhibited the second and third-largest losses in jobs since January 2020, despite relatively low unemployment rates among persons last employed in these sectors.  The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted demographic groups disparately. Although al demographic groups were affected, persons identifying as Black or Hispanic and younger workers general y experienced relatively high peaks in unemployment and relatively steep declines in labor force participation over the course of the pandemic. Additional y, persons with lower educational attainment have general y experienced relatively higher unemployment rates and lower labor force participation throughout the pandemic. Congressional Research Service link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 9 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 16 link to page 17 link to page 18 link to page 19 link to page 20 link to page 22 link to page 22 link to page 23 link to page 24 link to page 25 link to page 26 link to page 27 link to page 7 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 16 link to page 17 link to page 18 link to page 19 link to page 20 link to page 21 link to page 21 link to page 22 link to page 23 link to page 24 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends ....................................................................... 12
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession ......................................... 24
COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends..................................................................... 35
Unemployment Rates by State ..................................................................................... 35
Unemployment Rates by Industry Sector ................................................................................. 5.. 6
Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers.................................................... 79
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age .......................................................................... 79
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity ......................................... 8 10
Unemployment Rates by Education ............................................................................ 1012 U.S. Labor Force Participation Rate: Historical Trends ....................................................... 13 COVID-19 Recession: Trends in Labor Force Participation ................................................. 14 Labor Force Participation Rate by Age and Sex ............................................................ 15 Labor Force Participation Rate by Race and Ethnicity ................................................... 16 Labor Force Participation Rate by Educational Attainment ............................................. 18 COVID-19 Recession: Nonfarm Payrolls .......................................................................... 18 Trends in Employment in the Private Sector ................................................................ 19 Trends in Employment by Government Sector ............................................................. 20
Data Limitations and Caveats.......................................................................................... 1021
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues ................................................................... 1122
General Data Caveats ............................................................................................... 1223

Figures
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate ............................................................................ 23
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate.................................................................................... 34
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment RatesRate ..................................................................... 4. 6
Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by IndustrySector ........................................................................... 68
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers ............................... 79
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age ...................................................... 8 10
Figure 7. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Racial Group ................................................................ 911
Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin ................................................. 9 12
Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education ....................................................... 10

Contacts
Author Information13 Figure 10. Historical Labor Force Participation Rate .......................................................... 14 Figure 11. Labor Force Participation Rate During COVID-19 Pandemic................................ 15 Figure 12. Labor Force Participation Rate by Age and Sex .................................................. 16 Figure 13. Labor Force Participation Rate by Race ............................................................. 17 Figure 14. Labor Force Participation Rate by Hispanic Origin ........................................... 12

... 17 Figure 15. Labor Force Participation Rate by Educational Attainment ................................... 18 Figure 16. Change in Employment by Sector ..................................................................... 19 Figure 17. Job Loss During the COVID-19 Recession in the Private Sector............................ 20
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link to page link to page 1525 link to page link to page 14 link to page 5 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief27 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 18. Job Loss During the COVID-19 Recession in the Public Sector............................. 21 Contacts Author Information ....................................................................................................... 23 Congressional Research Service Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Introduction
The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn
in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This
expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely
considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The
unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its
previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This spikerise in unemployment in unemployment
coincided with various was caused by an unprecedented loss of 22.1 mil ion jobs between January 2020 and April 2020. Many individuals left the labor force over this period, and by April 2020 the labor force participation rate3 declined to a level not seen since the early 1970s. This deterioration in the U.S. labor market corresponded with various advisory or mandated stay- mandated stay-at-home orders implemented in response to the at-home orders implemented in response to the
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting
U.S. demand.3 Although unemployment rates have declined since April 2020, the rate in February
2021 (6.2%) remains much higher than the rate observed in February 2020 (3.5%).
This report discusses recent unemployment rate patterns at the national and state levels using
U.S. demand.4 States and localities implemented these orders5 to mitigate the risks of COVID-19 after it was declared a pandemic disease by the World Health Organization on March 11, 2020.6 This report discusses the state of the U.S. labor market using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The . The twothree primary sources are the Current Population primary sources are the Current Population
Survey (CPS)Survey (CPS) and, the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program, and the Current Employment Statistics (CES) program. In addition to the . In addition to the
usual caveats about estimates (see usual caveats about estimates (see the “General Data Caveats” section), there were additional data chal enges ), there were additional data chal enges
caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see the “COVID -19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues”” section). The ). The
pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an
error in their categorization procedures that likelyerror in their categorization procedures that likely underestimated unemployment early in the recession.7 Labor force participation rates were not affected by this categorization error and met BLS standards of accuracy, despite depressed response rates.8 Recently, BLS identified an error in the nonfarm enrollment data 1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions and contractions, see https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessionsfaq.html#:~:text=What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief . 2 T he Great Recession was a particularly long recession, characterized by a steady and large increase in unemployment and unprecedented decreases in labor force participation. T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession, however, never surpassed those of the early 1980s. For more on labor force metrics during the Great Recession see CRS Report R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte. 3 Defined as the percentage of persons in t he overall adult population who either have a job or are looking for a job. 4 See CRS Insight IN11388, COVID-19: U.S. Economic Effects, by Rena S. Miller and Marc Labonte. 5 For a list of state-level stay-at-home orders and estimates of the impact of these orders on risk mitigation, see Amanda Moreland, Christine Herlihy, and Michael A. T ynan et al., Tim ing of State and Territorial COVID-19 Stay-at-Hom e Orders and Changes in Population Movem ent, Centers for Disease Control, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Vol. 69 No. 35, Washington, DC, September 4, 2020, pp. 1198 -1203, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6935a2.htm?s_cid=mm6935a2_w. 6 World Health Organization, Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), Situation Report 51, March 11, 2020, p. 1, https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200311-sitrep-51-covid-19.pdf. 7 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. 8 For BLS impact summaries of COVID-19 on these measures, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/effects-of-covid-19-pandemic-and-response-on-the-employment-situation-news-release.htm. Congressional Research Service 1 link to page 7 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic processing system wherein some businesses were improperly included in estimates, although the impacts of this error are yet to be evaluated.9 This report general y finds the following:  The unemployment rate peaked10 in April 2020, at a level not seen since data collection started in 1948, before declining to a level in March 2021 that stil remained 2.5 percentage points above the rate observed in February 2020.  In April 2020, the labor force participation rate declined to levels not seen since the early 1970s.  Nonfarm payrolls shed 22.1 mil ion jobs between January 2020 and April 2020. In March 2021, aggregate employment remained 8.1 mil ion jobs below its pre-recession level. U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to the economy. The pandemic resulted in rapidly implemented efforts to limit contact among individuals and many shutdown orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those in prior recessions (see Figure 1). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively gradual y over the course of an economic downturn and then peaked. The current recession exhibited an unprecedented sharp increase in the unemployment rate (10.3 underestimated unemployment early in the
recession.4 This report general y finds the following:
 The unemployment rate peaked in April 2020, at a level not seen since data
collection started in 1948, before declining to a stil -high level in February 2021
relative to February 2020.
 In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.
 Unemployment rates during the current recession have been relatively highest
among workers who were last employed in industries that provide in-person
services and among young workers, women, workers with low educational
attainment, part-time workers, and racial and ethnic minorities.
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends
Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current
recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to
the economy. The pandemic resulted in limiting contact among individuals and in many shutdown
orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those
in prior recessions (see Figure 1). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively
gradual y over the course of an economic downturn and then peaked. The current recession

1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of
expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions and contractions, see
https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions_faq.html#:~:text=
What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=
Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief .
2 T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession, however, never surpassed those of the early 1980s.
3 See CRS Insight IN11388, COVID-19: U.S. Economic Effects, by Rena S. Miller and Marc Labont e.
4 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock.
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Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief

exhibited an unprecedented sharp increase in the rate (10.3 percentage points) from February to percentage points) from February to
April 2020.April 2020.511 Following April, the rate declined rapidly (6.4 percentage points from April 2020 to Following April, the rate declined rapidly (6.4 percentage points from April 2020 to
August 2020) as temporarily furloughed workers returned to work. Despite these rapid declines, August 2020) as temporarily furloughed workers returned to work. Despite these rapid declines,
the February 2021 the unemployment rate unemployment rate persisted at a high level (6.2%)remains at an elevated level (6.0%) compared to February 2020. The share of workers on . The share of workers on
furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off
workers has steadily increased.workers has steadily increased.612 Although economic projections have general y improved since Although economic projections have general y improved since
early in the recession, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) has projected that early in the recession, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) has projected that elevated
unemployment rates over 5.0% wil persist over the next unemployment rates over 5.0% wil persist over the next two years.two years.7
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 to February 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
13 9 For a description of this error, see https://www.bls.gov/ces/notices/2021/ces-sample-rotation-issue-caused-by-pandemic-related-challenges-to-enrollment.htm. 10 T hroughout this report, peak refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 and March 2021. It does not account for months outside this range. 11 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the congressional response during the Great Recession in the Unemployment Insurance system, see CRS Report R46472, Com paring the Congressional Response to the Great Recession and the COVID -19-Related Recession: Unem ploym ent Insurance (UI) Provisions, by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker. 12 CRS analysis of BLS data, which can be found at https://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab11.htm. Workers on temporary layoff declined from 18.0 million in April 2020 to 2.0 million in March 2021 as the number of permanent job losers increased from 2.0 million in April 2020 to 3.4 million in March 2021. 13 See https://www.cbo.gov/about/products/budget-economic-data#4 for CBO’s 10-year economic projections of unemployment rates, as of February 2021. Congressional Research Service 2 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research. The unemployment rate’s relatively rapid decline since April 2020 may have been aided by laws passed in response to both the recession and the pandemic. Notably, Congress has passed three rounds of stimulus checks for families,14 expanded nutrition assistance programs,15 and enacted increases in refundable tax credits.16 These provisions increased families’ disposable income and may have increased consumer spending, enabling businesses to better endure the recession; a 2020 study from NBER found that higher replacement rates of lost wages led to higher consumer spending.17 Congress also enacted the Paycheck Protection Program, which provides loans that can be fully forgiven if the majority of funds are used to maintain payrolls.18 Additional y, Congress expanded Unemployment Insurance (UI) program benefits and extended length of coverage.19 This policy could directly increase the unemployment rate because past research has shown UI extensions can increase the duration of unemployment for a relatively 14 For more information, see CRS Insight IN11605, COVID-19 and Direct Payments: Comparison of First and Second Round of “Stim ulus Checks” to the Third Round in the Am erican Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARPA; P.L. 117 -2), by Margot L. Crandall-Hollick. 15 For more information, see CRS Report R46681, USDA Nutrition Assistance Programs: Response to the COVID-19 Pandem ic, by Randy Alison Aussenberg and Kara Clifford Billings. 16 For more information, see CRS Report R46680, The American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (ARPA; P.L. 117 -2): Title IX, Subtitle G—Tax Provisions Related to Prom oting Econom ic Security, by Molly F. Sherlock, Margot L. Crandall-Hollick, and Jane G. Gravelle. 17 Miguel G. Casado, Britta Glennon, and Julia Lane, et al., The Effect of Fiscal Stimulus: Evidence from COVID-19, NBER, Working Paper 27576, Cambridge, MA, August 2020, https://www.nber.org/papers/w27576. For more on this topic and theories of recessionary policy, also see CRS Report R46460, Fiscal Policy and Recovery from the COVID-19 Recession, by Jane G. Gravelle and Donald J. Marples. 18 For more information, see CRS Report R46397, SBA Paycheck Protection Program (PPP) Loan Forgiveness: In Brief, by Robert Jay Dilger and Sean Lowry. 19 For more information, see CRS Report R46687, Current Status of Unemployment Insurance (UI) Benefits: Perm anent-Law Program s and COVID-19 Pandem ic Response, by Julie M. Whittaker and Katelin P. Isaacs. Congressional Research Service 3 link to page 8 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic smal segment of unemployed workers.20 A recent paper examining data from April to July of 2020 found that while UI benefit increases reduced employment by 0.2% to 0.4%, overal spending by recipients increased by 2.0% to 2.6%.21 The authors note that while these expansions directly decreased employment among recipients, that increased spending among recipients may have insulated the labor market from further deterioration. These (and other) policies may have affected unemployment rate trends in several ways; however, the causal impact of policy choices on the unemployment rate is beyond the scope of this report. Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5.0% in December 2007 (the start of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (see Figure 2). The unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% in October 2009, four months after the recession official y concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February 2020, to 4.4% in March 2020, and then peaked at a high of 14.8% in April 2020. Since then, the unemployment rate fel to 6.0% in March Notes: Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research.
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession
During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5.0% in December 2007 (the
start of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (see Figure 2). The
unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% in October 2009, four months after the recession official y
concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February
2020 to 4.4% in March 2020, peaked8 at 14.8% in April 2020, and then fel to 6.2% in February

5 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the
congressional response during the Great Recession in the Unemployment Insurance system, see CRS Report R46472,
Com paring the Congressional Response to the Great Recession and the COVID -19-Related Recession: Unem ploym ent
Insurance (UI) Provisions, by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker.
6 CRS analysis of BLS data, which can be found at https://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab11.htm. Workers on
temporary layoff declined from 18.0 million in April 2020 to 2.2 million in February 2021 as the number of permanent
job losers increased from 2.0 million in April 2020 to 3.5 million in February 2021.
7 For CBO’s 10-year economic projections of unemployment rates as of February 2021, see https://www.cbo.gov/
about/products/budget-economic-data#4.
8 T hroughout this report, peak refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 and February 2021. It
does not account for months outside this range.
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Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief

2021. The peak represents the quickest month-over-month increase in 2021. The peak represents the quickest month-over-month increase in the unemployment unemployment ratesrate and and
the highest overal unemployment rate since the the highest overal unemployment rate since the CPS data started being collected in 1948.CPS data started being collected in 1948.922
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 to Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 to FebruaryMarch 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. 20 T he study cited here showed that UI extensions during Great Recession increased the unemployment rate of 0.4 percentage points. Henry S. Farber and Robert G. Valletta, Do Extended Unem ploym ent Benefits Lengthen Unem ploym ent Spells? Evidence from Recent Cycles in the U.S. Labor Market, NBER, Working Paper 19048, Cambridge, MA, May 2013, https://www.nber.org/papers/w19048. 21 Peter Ganong et al., Spending and Job Search Impacts of Expanded Unemployment Benefits: Evidence from Adm inistrative Micro Data, Becker Friedman Institute, Working Paper No. 2021 -19, Chicago, IL, February 2021, https://bfi.uchicago.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/BFI_WP_2021-19.pdf. 22 T here are many differences in labor force statistics observed during the Great Recession, its aftermath, and the COVID-19 recession. For more on this and for information on labor market patterns since 2007, see CRS Report R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte. Congressional Research Service 4 link to page 10 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, industry, economic sector, and and
major demographic group. In the early stages of the current recession, unemployment rates major demographic group. In the early stages of the current recession, unemployment rates
disproportionately increased disproportionately increased in industriesamong economic sectors delivering in-person services. Some demographic delivering in-person services. Some demographic
groups are overrepresented in such groups are overrepresented in such industriessectors, contributing to higher , contributing to higher unemployment rates for those workers.rates for those workers.1023
Unemployment Rates by State
Figure 3 displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January to December 2020 and
indicates whether the rate increased or decreased from November to December. Further, the
figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.11 The data
for January and February 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. Since
the 2020 to February 2021 (the data for March and April 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report). The figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.24 Since the onset of the current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of onset of the current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of
Columbia surpassed levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage Columbia surpassed levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage
was due to a number of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-was due to a number of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-

9 T here are many differences in labor force statistics observed during the Great Recession, its aftermath, and the
COVID-19 recession. For more on this and for information on labor market patterns since 2007, see CRS Report
R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte.
10essential services to in-person customers,25 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing declines in personal consumption,26 and the implementation of stay-at-home orders and business closure policies.27 23 Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,” Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,”
Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of
Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020. Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020.
1124 Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “Is the Cure Worse than the Problem Itself? Immediate Labor Market Effects of COVID- Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “Is the Cure Worse than the Problem Itself? Immediate Labor Market Effects of COVID-
19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al., 19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al.,
“Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from Vacancy Postings and UI Claims,” NBER Working Paper “Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from Vacancy Postings and UI Claims,” NBER Working Paper
No. 27061, April 2020. No. 27061, April 2020.
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essential services to in-person customers,12 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing
declines in personal consumption,13 and the implementation of stay-at-home orders and business
closure policies.14
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rates
Seasonal y adjusted data, displaying rates from November to December 2020 and change since last month

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment
Statistics program25 Matthew Dey and Mark Loewenstein, “How many workers are employed in sectors directly affected by COVID-19 shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” Monthly Labor Review, April 2020. 26 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432, June 2020. 27 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market Outcomes,” NBER Working Paper No. 2780, May 2020. Congressional Research Service 5 link to page 12 link to page 12 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rate Non-seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to February 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. .
Notes: The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current
recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The
data for data for January and FebruaryMarch and April 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report.
The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In December
2020, the five February 2021, the states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.3%), Nevada (9.22%), New York (8.9%), %),
California (California (9.0%), Colorado (8.4%), and New Mexico (8.28.5%), Connecticut (8.5%), and Nevada and New Mexico (both at 8.3%). The states %). The states with the lowest unemployment rates in February 2021 were South Dakota (2.9%), Utah (3.0%), Nebraska (3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Kansas (3.2%). Unemployment Rates by Sector Figure 4 displays the change in sector unemployment rates from January 2020, before the start of the recession, to March 2021. Sector unemployment rates define the unemployment rate among individuals whose last job was in a particular sector. The figure shows that some sectors were disparately impacted by the recession, although the data are not seasonal y adjusted. Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to determine the extent to which unemployment trends are related to the recession or to seasonal trends. Readers should interpret trends shown in Figure 4 with some caution as this report does not test for statistical significance of these differences. Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality sector experienced a higher peak in unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any other sector; they also had the second highest unemployment rate in March 2021 (13.0%). However, elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to sectors providing in-person Congressional Research Service 6 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic services. Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction sectorwith the lowest

12 Matthew Dey and Mark Loewenst ein, “How many workers are employed in sectors directly affected by COVID-19
shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” Monthly Labor Review, April 2020.
13 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic
decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432, June 2020.
14 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market Outcomes,” NBER Working Paper No.
2780, May 2020.
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unemployment rates in December 2020 were Nebraska (3.0%), South Dakota (3.0%), Iowa
(3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Utah (3.6%).
While the figure shows that in December 2020 most states were substantial y below their peak
unemployment rates, several states’ recoveries have seemingly slowed. Colorado’s
unemployment rate has either plateaued or increased in every month, month-over-month, from
September (6.4%) to December 2020 (8.4%). Nine other states with elevated rates exhibited
wavering recoveries over the same period, as rates either increased or stal ed in at least two of
three months. Ranked by their recent unemployment rates, these states are Rhode Island (10.5%
in September 2020 to 8.1% in December 2020), New Jersey (6.7% to 7.6%), Arizona (6.5% to
7.5%), Michigan (8.6% to 7.5%), North Carolina (7.2% to 6.2%), Tennessee (6.5% to 6.4%),
Kentucky (5.6% to 6.0%), Wisconsin (5.4% to 5.5%), and South Carolina (5.2% to 4.6%). For
most of these states, rates declined from September to October before stal ing or increasing in
November and December.
Unemployment Rates by Industry
Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality industry experienced a higher peak in
unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any
other industry; they also had the second highest unemployment rate in February 2021 (13.5%).
However, elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to industries providing in-person
services. Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction industry have experienced have experienced
steadily increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; in steadily increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; in FebruaryMarch 2021 they 2021 they
exhibited exhibited the the highest rate (15.0%) among al workers across sectors. The lowest Marchhighest rate among al workers across industries (19.3%) and the steepest year-over
year increase (up from 5.4% in February 2020). The lowest February 2021 rates were among 2021 rates were among
workers whose last job was in the government (2.workers whose last job was in the government (2.87%), financial activities (3.%), financial activities (3.74%), or education %), or education
and health services (3.and health services (3.7%) industries. These industries8%) sectors. These sectors have had unemployment rates below 15% have had unemployment rates below 15%
from February 2020 through from February 2020 through FebruaryMarch 2021. 2021.1528 Within Within industriessectors, some workers were more likely , some workers were more likely
to lose to lose their jobs than others early in the recession. For example, their jobs than others early in the recession. For example, recentsome studies from early in the pandemic studies suggest that low-suggest that low-
wage workers in the leisure and hospitality wage workers in the leisure and hospitality industrysector and other services and other services industries sectors experienced experienced
disproportionately large employment losses.16
Figure 4 displays the change in industry unemployment rates from February 2020, at the start of
the recession but before unemployment rates increased, to February 2021. CRS estimated that al
of these year-over-year changes were statistical y significant, except for those exhibited by
agricultural workers.17 Further, CRS chose to compare February 2020 with February 2021
because of a lack of seasonal y adjusted data. Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to
determine whether unemployment trends are related to the recession or to seasonal trends. This
report attempts to minimize seasonal influences (for non-adjusted data) by comparing year-over-
year estimates.
disproportionately large employment losses.29
1528 T hese data are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation in employment within the T hese data are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation in employment within the
education and health services sector. education and health services sector.
1629 Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,” Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,” NBER Working Paper NBER Working Paper
No. 27613No. 27613, July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the
Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020. Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020.
17 BLS publishes a series of formulas used to produce standard errors for unemployment rates, from which they can
calculate confidence intervals to determine whether a year -over-year difference is statistically significant. CRS used
these formulas to calculate significance at the 95% confidence level. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “ Calculating
Approximate Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Current Population Survey Estimates,” Washington, DC,
2018, p. 10, https://www.bls.gov/cps/calculating-standard-errors-and-confidence-intervals.pdf.

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Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by IndustrySector
Non-seasonal y adjusted Non-seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Statistical significance is not calculated for these trends and it is unclear how dependent these trends are on regular seasonal variation. Sectors data, displaying dif erences between February 2020 and February 2021

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the different
industries are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Industry sectors are defined by the are defined by the
North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/
iag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemploymentiag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemployment rates for wage and salary workers. rates for wage and salary workers.
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Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief

Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers
As shown iAs shown in Figure 5, part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5% part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5%
in April 2020) than full-time workers (12. in April 2020) than full-time workers (12.98% in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the % in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the
recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers in recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers in FebruaryMarch 2021 2021
(6.0(5.8%) %) is less than the unemployment rate for full-time workers (6.is less than the unemployment rate for full-time workers (6.31%). %).
There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparent economic recovery There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparent economic recovery since April may not reflect the may not reflect the
realities they face. First, some workers realities they face. First, some workers withwho last worked part-time jobs may have left the labor force, and part-time jobs may have left the labor force, and
hence are not counted in the official hence are not counted in the official unemployment statistics used in this report. It is unclear whether that is the statistics used in this report. It is unclear whether that is the
case. Additional y, more workers who would have been working full-time before the pandemic
have been working part-time for economic reasons.18 This could reduce thecase. Additional y, there was a considerable increase in the number of part-time workers who reported that they would have preferred to work full-time but work part-time because their hours were reduced or they could only find part-time jobs.30 This could be reflected as a reduced unemployment rate unemployment rate
among part-time workers. Further, BLS has observed that labor underutilization has remained among part-time workers. Further, BLS has observed that labor underutilization has remained
elevated for workers, including those who have elevated for workers, including those who have been working part-time for economic reasons.been working part-time for economic reasons.1931
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers
Seasonal y adjusted Seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to data, January 2020 to FebruaryMarch 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Both groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020. Both groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020.
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
As seen inAs seen in Figure 6, unemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workersunemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workers and were and were
higher for women early in the recession.higher for women early in the recession. Between February and April 2020, the rate for women Between February and April 2020, the rate for women
ages 16-19 increased by 25.ages 16-19 increased by 25.63 percentage points to 36. percentage points to 36.63%; in contrast, the rates for men of the %; in contrast, the rates for men of the
same age increased by same age increased by 15.816.2 percentage points to percentage points to 27.628.2%. Since then, the gap between younger %. Since then, the gap between younger
men and women has reversed. The unemployment rate for teenaged men (16.6%) was higher than
the rate for teenaged women (11.2%) in February 2021. Although unemployment rates for
younger workers remain relatively high compared to older workers, the February 2021 rates for

1830 T he number of workers working part T he number of workers working part -time for economic reasons -time for economic reasons has increased from 4.4 million in Februaryincreased from 4.4 million in February 2020 to 2020 to
6.1 5.8 million in million in FebruaryMarch 2021 on a seasonally adjusted basis. See https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea07.htm. 2021 on a seasonally adjusted basis. See https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea07.htm.
1931 See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t15.htm for U-6 unemployment rates See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t15.htm for U-6 unemployment rates,. U-6 is a measure of the total a measure of the total
unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic
reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on
this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, Introduction to U.S. Econom y: Unem ployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
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men and women men and women has reversed. The unemployment rate for teenaged men (15.4%) was higher than the rate for teenaged women (10.7%) in March 2021. Although unemployment rates for younger workers remain relatively high compared to older workers, the March 2021 rates for men and women across the remaining age groups have declined to similar levels. The rate for across the remaining age groups have declined to similar levels. The rate for
men ages 20-24 (10.men ages 20-24 (10.19%) was slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.%) was slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.15%). The %). The
large disparities observed in April 2020 between younger men and women were not observed in large disparities observed in April 2020 between younger men and women were not observed in
older older age groups, although women ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage points age groups, although women ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage points
higher than their male counterparts. This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate in higher than their male counterparts. This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate in
FebruaryMarch 2021 for women ages 25 to 54 (5. 2021 for women ages 25 to 54 (5.7%) was similar to that of men (5.65%) was the same as the rate for men (5.5%), and the rate for %), and the rate for
women women ages 55 and over (ages 55 and over (5.14.6%) was %) was lower thannearly the same as that of men ages 55 and over ( that of men ages 55 and over (5.64.5%). %).
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
Seasonal y adjusted Seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to data, January 2020 to FebruaryMarch 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old
men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020. men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020.
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity
As seen inAs seen in Figure 7, the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, and the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, and White20White32 workers increased workers increased
sharply in early 2020. But whereas the unemployment rate for White workers peaked in April sharply in early 2020. But whereas the unemployment rate for White workers peaked in April
2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. The 2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. The February
March 2021 rates for Black (9.2021 rates for Black (9.96%), Asian (%), Asian (5.16.0%), and White (5.%), and White (5.64%) workers were al higher than their 32%) workers were al higher than their
respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined 6.9 percentage points
since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of 9.9 percentage points for Asian workers and
6.8 percentage points for White workers across the same period.

20 Asian, Black, and White are the three racial categories used in BLS, T able A2: Employment status of the civilian Asian, Black, and White are the three racial categories used in BLS, T able A2: Employment status of the civilian
population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm. population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm.
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Figure 7. Monthly respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined 7.1 percentage points since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of 8.9 percentage points for Asian workers and 8.7 percentage points for White workers across the same period. Figure 7. Unemployment Rates by Racial Group
Seasonal y adjusted Seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to data, January 2020 to FebruaryMarch 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak
rate occurred in April 2020. rate occurred in April 2020.
People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in
Figure 8, Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated
unemployment rates. In unemployment rates. In February 2021,March 2021, non-seasonal y adjusted unemployment rates experienced by Hispanic ( unemployment rates experienced by Hispanic (9.08.2%) and %) and
non-Hispanic (non-Hispanic (6.0%) workers were almost twice as high as those experienced in the previous
February, early in 5.7%) workers were higher than those experienced prior to the recession. While unemployment remains elevated compared to the recession. While unemployment remains elevated compared to February
January 2020, these rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in April 2020. The unemployment rate 2020, these rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in April 2020. The unemployment rate
for Hispanic workers for Hispanic workers rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.5% from February to rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.5% from February to
April 2020. For non-April 2020. For non- Hispanic workers the unemployment rate increased by 10 points to 13.6%.Hispanic workers the unemployment rate increased by 10 points to 13.6%.
Congressional Research Service 11 link to page 17 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin
Non-seasonal y adjusted Non-seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to March data, February 2020 to February 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the Hispanic
and non-Hispanic groups are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Statistical significance Statistical significance
is not calculated because BLS does not provide formula parameters for non-Hispanic workers.
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Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
is not calculated for these trends and it is unclear how dependent these trends are on regular seasonal variation.
Unemployment Rates by Education
In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of
unemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen iunemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen in Figure 9. .
The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020 The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020
(21.(21.20%), which was higher than the peak for %), which was higher than the peak for those at al other education levels. The al other education levels. The FebruaryMarch 2021 rate 2021 rate
for workers with less than a high school diploma (for workers with less than a high school diploma (10.18.2%) was also higher than the rate for al %) was also higher than the rate for al
other education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level other education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level
classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest
FebruaryMarch 2021 rate (3. 2021 rate (3.87%) among al education levels. %) among al education levels.
Congressional Research Service 12 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to FebruaryMarch 2021 2021

Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020.
Data Limitations and Caveats
National level data presented in this report are from the CPS and state level data are from the
LAUS program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the
Census Bureau for BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates
using multiple data sources, including the CPS.21

21 In addition to the CPS, LAUS uses the Current Employment Statistics survey, state Unemployment Insurance claims
counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’s American
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Both the CPS and LAUS estimates are subject to sampling and non-sampling error.22 Sampling
error Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020. U.S. Labor Force Participation Rate: Historical Trends While the unemployment rate measures the prevalence of unemployment in the labor force, it does not consider the state of the labor force itself. When persons stop looking for work, they exit the labor force, decreasing the number of persons who are either working or actively looking for work. Such persons are not counted in the unemployment rate, by definition, but are an important group to examine when evaluating unemployment. CRS therefore uses the labor force participation rate to further contextualize unemployment rates observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. The labor force participation rate measures the percentage of noninstitutionalized people ages 16 and older who are either looking for work, or working.33 Over much of the past two decades, the labor force participation rate has general y declined. Following several years of modest growth through the early and mid-90s, labor force participation rates started to plateau, hit a historical peak in April 2000 (67.3%), and then declined. Labor force participation declined further following the Great Recession, before 33 For definitions of the labor force, labor force participation rate, unemployment rate, and other relevant terms, see https://www.bls.gov/cps/definitions.htm#lfpr. Congressional Research Service 13 link to page 19 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic stabilizing and steadily increasing starting in October 2015. This decline can be attributed to several factors, although one prominent reason is the ongoing retirement of the baby boomer generation.34 Despite the increase exhibited following the Great Recession, the labor force participation rate in January 2020 (63.4%) prior to both the COVID-19 pandemic and economic recession remained below its historical peak. Between February 2020 and April 2020, the labor force participation rate exhibited an unprecedented decline of 3.1 percentage points as 8.3 mil ion people left the labor force. The participation rate partial y recovered between May 2020 and August of 2020 before stagnating. It remains below the pre-recession rate (63.4%) in March 2021 (61.5%). Figure 10. Historical Labor Force Participation Rate Seasonal y adjusted monthly data for January 1948 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research. COVID-19 Recession: Trends in Labor Force Participation The COVID-19 pandemic affected the labor force participation rates in every major demographic group. The analysis in this section compares the pre-recession (January 2020) labor force participation rate to the current labor force participation rate, calculating the difference between the two for each month between January 2020 and March 2021. Figure 11 shows the sharp decline in the labor force participation rate for individuals ages 16 years and older between February 2020 and April 2020. During this period, 8.3 mil ion individuals left the labor force. The overal rate recovered between May 2020 and August 2020 before stagnating. The labor force participation rate in March 2021 remains 1.9 percentage points below its pre-recession level. 34 See Michael Dotsey, Shigeru Fujita, and Leena Rudanko, Where is Everybody? The Shrinking Labor Force Participation Rate, Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia, Economic Insights Vol 2. Issue 4, Philadelphia, PA, 2017, pp. 17-24, https://www.philadelphiafed.org/-/media/frbp/assets/economy/articles/economic-insights/2017/q4/eiq417.pdf. Congressional Research Service 14 link to page 20 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 11. Labor Force Participation Rate During COVID-19 Pandemic Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: LFPR: Labor Force Participation Rate; ppt: percentage points. Changes in LFPR since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Labor Force Participation Rate by Age and Sex Figure 12 displays the change in the labor force participation rate since January 2020 by age and sex. Between January 2020 and April 2020, every group experienced a decline in their labor force participation rate. Women aged 16 to 19 (-7.0 percentage points) and men aged 20 to 24 (-9.2 percentage points) experienced the largest declines in labor force participation between January 2020 and April 2020. Men and women in the 25-54 and 55-and-older age groups experienced smal er declines in labor force participation but have seen their recovery stagnate. Al groups except for men aged 16 to 19 remained below their January 2020 participation rates in March 2021. Congressional Research Service 15 link to page 21 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 12. Labor Force Participation Rate by Age and Sex Seasonal y adjusted monthly data for January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: LFPR: Labor Force Participation Rate; ppt: percentage points. Changes in LFPR since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Labor Force Participation Rate by Race and Ethnicity Figure 13 displays the change in the labor force participation rate for the Black, Asian, and White racial groups since January 2020. Between January 2020 and April 2020, each group experienced a sharp decline in their labor force participation rate. In March 2021, the participation rate for each group remained below its January 2020 value. In particular, participation rates for Black individuals (-2 percentage points) and White individuals (-1.9 percentage points) remained wel below their January 2020 values in March 2021. Congressional Research Service 16 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 13. Labor Force Participation Rate by Race Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: LFPR: Labor Force Participation Rate; ppt: percentage points. Changes in LFPR since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Individuals of any race can identify as Hispanic or non-Hispanic. The data on labor force participation rate for these two ethnic groups are not seasonal y adjusted. Therefore, this report is constrained to a comparison across values for January 2020 and the most recent month for which the data are available. This comparison shows that Hispanic individuals had higher participation rates in both January 2020 and March 2021 than non-Hispanic individuals, but the decline in labor force participation over this period was greater for Hispanic persons. The labor force participation rate for Non-Hispanic individuals in March 2021 was 1.5 percentage points below its value for January 2020. For Hispanic individuals, the participation rate in March 2021 was 2.1 percentage points below its January 2020 value. Figure 14. Labor Force Participation Rate by Hispanic Origin Non-seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Congressional Research Service 17 link to page 22 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Notes: LFPR: Labor Force Participation Rate; ppt: percentage points. Statistical significance is not calculated for these trends and it is unclear how dependent these trends are on regular seasonal variation. Changes in LFPR since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Labor Force Participation Rate by Educational Attainment Figure 15 displays the difference in the labor force participation rate from its January 2020 level for groups with different levels of educational attainment. Labor force participation fel for al groups between January 2020 and April 2020. The largest decline was experienced by those with a high school diploma (-4.3 percentage points). In March 2021, every group remained below their labor force participation rate in January 2020. Specifical y, those with a high school diploma (-3.8 percentage points) and a bachelor’s degree or higher (-1.8 percentage points) had participation rates that remained close to those in April 2020. Figure 15. Labor Force Participation Rate by Educational Attainment Seasonal y adjusted monthly data for January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: LFPR: Labor Force Participation Rate; ppt: percentage points. These data reflect the civilian population that is 25 years and older. Changes in LFPR since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. COVID-19 Recession: Nonfarm Payrolls The number of nonfarm workers on payroll further contextualizes the relatively high unemployment rates observed during the COVID-19 pandemic. Unemployment rates and labor force participation rates do not measure the extent of job disruption occurring during the pandemic. By comparing the number of jobs before the recession to recent data, CRS can evaluate the extent of job loss and put unemployment rates into a broader economic context. Congressional Research Service 18 link to page 23 link to page 24 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Figure 16 displays the gap between the January 2020 and March 2021 employment levels for al supersector industries in the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS).35 In March 2021, there were 8.1 mil ion fewer jobs than there were in January 2020. The largest portions of this gap were made up by the leisure and hospitality (3.0 mil ion), education and health services (1.1 mil ion), and government (1.1 mil ion) sectors. While losses were concentrated in a handful of major sectors, employment gaps existed for al sectors in March 2021. Figure 16. Change in Employment by Sector Seasonal y adjusted data for March 2021; relative to January 2020 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: A single purple box reflects 10,000 jobs. Data for March 2021 are preliminary. “Other services” is a BLS aggregation of three subsectors: repair and maintenance, personal and laundry services, and membership associations and organizations. Trends in Employment in the Private Sector Figure 17 displays the monthly change in seasonal y adjusted nonfarm jobs from January 2020 to March 2021 for six major sectors of the private sector.36 Job loss peaked in April 2020 for al sectors presented in the figure. The leisure and hospitality sector experienced a higher peak in job losses (-8.3 mil ion) than any other sector. Additional y, the leisure and hospitality sector had the largest employment gap in March 2021 (-3.0 mil ion) than any other sector in that month. The 35 Sectors are defined by the NAICS and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag_index_naics.htm. 36 For the purpose of this visualization, CRS selected the six private sectors with the largest (i.e., most negative) average losses in seasonally adjusted nonfarm jobs from January 2020 to March 2021. Congressional Research Service 19 link to page 25 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic trade, transportation, and utilities sector had the second largest peak in job losses (-3.4 mil ion), followed by education and health services (-2.7 mil ion), professional and business services (-2.3 mil ion), other services37 (-1.4 mil ion), and manufacturing (-1.4 mil ion). In March 2021, al six of these sectors had fewer jobs compared to their respective employment levels in January 2020. Figure 17. Job Loss During the COVID-19 Recession in the Private Sector Seasonal y adjusted monthly data for January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: M: mil ion. Data for February and March 2021 are preliminary. Changes in employment since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Trends in Employment by Government Sector Figure 18 displays the monthly change in seasonal y adjusted nonfarm jobs from January 2020 to March 2021 for three levels of government employment: federal, state, and local. While the number of federal government jobs increased during 2020 (peaking at +309,000 jobs in August),38 state and local governments both experienced significant job losses. Local governments experienced the largest job losses of any government level, peaking at 1.2 mil ion jobs lost in May. There were 949,000 fewer local government jobs in March 2021 than in January 2020. State government jobs fel throughout 2020 and peaked in October (-340,000 jobs). In 37 “Other services” is a BLS aggregation of three subsectors: repair and maintenance, personal and laundry services, and membership associations and organizations. Sectors are defined by the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/iag_index_naics.htm. 38 T his peak could be due to temporary employment for those conducting activities related to the 2020 Decennial Census. Congressional Research Service 20 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic March 2021, state government employment was 188,000 jobs below its January 2020 employment level. Figure 18. Job Loss During the COVID-19 Recession in the Public Sector Seasonal y adjusted monthly data for January 2020 to March 2021 Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Extracted using the Labor Force Statistics data series on https://www.bls.gov/data/. Notes: M: mil ion. Data for February and March 2021 are preliminary. Changes in employment since January 2020 have not been tested for statistical significance. Data Limitations and Caveats National level data presented in this report are from the Current Population Survey (CPS) or Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey and state level data are from the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the Census Bureau for BLS. The CES is a sample survey of about 144,000 business and government agencies conducted by BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates using multiple data sources, including the CPS and CES.39 Estimates from al three sources are subject to sampling and non-sampling error.40 Sampling error occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while
non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.2341 Sampling error is a Sampling error is a
result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS
sample isand CES samples are selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does not not
accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.2442 Non-sampling error refers to al sources of 39 In addition to the CPS, LAUS uses the Current Employment Statistics survey, state Unemployment Insurance claims counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’ s American Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. 40 For further discussion of error, see the “Reliability of the Estimates” section of the Employment Situation report’s T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures, see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. 41 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/error-measurements.htm. 42 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/sampling.htm. Congressional Research Service 21 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic Non-sampling error refers to al sources of
error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and
processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly
records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question. records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question.
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues
The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS and CES due to a number of factors. due to a number of factors.
For example, BLS reported that For example, BLS reported that the surveyboth surveys experienced lower experienced lower household response rates.response rates.25 (The
bureau has 43 BLS additional y noted that business closures initial y interfered with the ability for businesses to respond to CES inquiries. (The bureau has since made statements affirming the robustness of its made statements affirming the robustness of its CPS and CES estimates despite these lower response estimates despite these lower response
rates.rates.2644) Furthermore, BLS detected an error in its ) Furthermore, BLS detected an error in its CPS categorization procedures that likely categorization procedures that likely
underestimated unemployment early in the recession.underestimated unemployment early in the recession.2745 Specifical y, large numbers of workers Specifical y, large numbers of workers
were classified as were classified as employed but not at work when they should have been recorded as when they should have been recorded as unemployed
on temporary layoff. .
Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the
unemployment rate. unemployment rate. This report does not use these adjusted estimates as they are not official BLS estimates. BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y
adjusted adjusted unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1 unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1
in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November, in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November,
0.6 in December, and 0.6 in January 2021. In February 2021, the error underestimated seasonal y 0.6 in December, and 0.6 in January 2021. In February 2021, the error underestimated seasonal y
adjusted unemployment by an estimated 0.5 percentage points. These estimates evaluate what the adjusted unemployment by an estimated 0.5 percentage points. These estimates evaluate what the
impact would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a impact would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a
statement regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size statement regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size
of the misclassification error.”of the misclassification error.”2846 In later months, BLS made efforts to correct this classification In later months, BLS made efforts to correct this classification
error during data collection and processing. error during data collection and processing.29
LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its
connection with the CPS. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources

Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
22 For further discussion of error, see the “Reliability of the Estimates” section of the Employment Situation report’s
T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures,
see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
23 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/error-measurements.htm.
24 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/sampling.htm.
25 See the FAQ BLS produced on this topic for more on the impact of COVID-19 on data collection by month at
https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm.
26 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-april-2020.htm.
27 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock.
28 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-january-2021.htm#ques3.
2947 Additional y, BLS recently identified a data processing error in the CES, which began in July 2020 but remained undetected. The error unintentional y caused some businesses to be inappropriately included in the sample and used for estimates. BLS is resolving the issue and has not yet released guidance on the impact of the issue on employment estimates.48 LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its connection with the CPS and CES. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS estimates is unknown.49 43 See the FAQ BLS produced on this topic for more on the impact o f COVID-19 on data collection by month at https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm. 44 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-april-2020.htm. 45 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. 46 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-january-2021.htm#ques3. 47 Among other protocols, the Census Bureau monitored survey responses in August and marked those they felt could Among other protocols, the Census Bureau monitored survey responses in August and marked those they felt could
be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the
misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9. misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9.
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that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS
estimates is unknown.3048 For the BLS notice on this error, see https://www.bls.gov/ces/notices/2021/ces-sample-rotation-issue-caused-by-pandemic-related-challenges-to-enrollment.htm. 49 For more on the impacts of COVID-19 on LAUS and its inputs, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/effects-of-covid-19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm. Congressional Research Service 22 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic
General Data Caveats
Other data considerations include the following: Other data considerations include the following:
  Lack of seasonally adjusted data: Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS : Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS
for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends. for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends.3150
Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related
to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this
report report compares year-over-year estimates to minimize seasonal influences.
presents unadjusted data that do not account for underlying seasonal variation.   Reference week: In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week
containing the 12th of the month containing the 12th of the month. CES data are collected for the pay period including the 12th of the month. This could lead to incongruity between actual . This could lead to incongruity between actual
labor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observedlabor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observed, as wel as inconsistencies between CES-reported data and CPS-reported data.  CPS and LAUS unemployment rate .
 CPS and LAUS comparability: While the LAUS program : While the LAUS program uses the same uses the same
unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS
estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data). estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data).
Consequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparableConsequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparable.
 Statistical significance: CRS used BLS formulas to calculate year-over-year
statistical significance in changes in monthly data. As a tool, statistical
significance does not guarantee that year-over-year changes were meaningful. .

Author Information

Gene Falk, Coordinator Gene Falk, Coordinator
Emma C. NyhofIsaac A. Nicchitta
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
Research Assistant Research Assistant


Jameson A. Carter
Paul D. RomeroPaul D. Romero Emma C. Nyhof
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Research Assistant Research Assistant


Isaac A. NicchittaJameson A. Carter

Research Assistant Research Assistant


Acknowledgments
The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis
and writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist inand writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist in Social Policy. Questions from Social Policy. Questions from
congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.

30 For more on the impacts of COVID-19 on LAUS and its inputs, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/effects-of-covid-
19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm.
3150 See CPS and LAUS documentation for more on seasonal See CPS and LAUS documentation for more on seasonal adjustmen tadjustment at https://www.bls.gov/cps/seasonal- at https://www.bls.gov/cps/seasonal-
adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm. adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm.
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Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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