Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Changes from February 15, 2021 to March 12, 2021
This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with red strikethrough and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19
JanuaryMarch 12, 2021 12, 2021
Pandemic: In Brief
Gene Falk, Coordinator
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
unemployment in every state, industry, and major demographic group in the United unemployment in every state, industry, and major demographic group in the United
States. This report provides information on which groups have experienced the largest States. This report provides information on which groups have experienced the largest
Jameson A. Carter
increases in unemployment rates since the onset of the pandemic in 2020. Young increases in unemployment rates since the onset of the pandemic in 2020. Young
Research Assistant Research Assistant
workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time workers, and racial workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time workers, and racial
and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020. Many, but and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020. Many, but
Isaac A. Nicchitta
not al , of these groups had relatively high rates in not al , of these groups had relatively high rates inJanuaryFebruary 2021 as wel . The report 2021 as wel . The report also
Research Assistant Research Assistant
also compares the overal unemployment rate during the current recession with the compares the overal unemployment rate during the current recession with the
unemployment rate experienced during the Great Recession unemployment rate experienced during the Great Recession. This report shows the (December 2007 to June
Emma C. Nyhof
2009). This report shows the following: following:
Research Assistant Research Assistant
The unemployment rate peaked at an unprecedented level, not seen since data The unemployment rate peaked at an unprecedented level, not seen since data
Paul D. Romero
collection started in 1948, in April 2020 (14.8%) before declining to a stil - collection started in 1948, in April 2020 (14.8%) before declining to a stil -
Research Assistant Research Assistant
elevated level in elevated level inJanuaryFebruary 2021 (6. 2021 (6.32%) relative to February 2020 (3.5%). %).
In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession. rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.
State-level unemployment has since general y declined, although some states’ State-level unemployment has since general y declined, although some states’
recoveries have recently showed signs of slowing down or reversing. recoveries have recently showed signs of slowing down or reversing.
In the early months of the recession, In the early months of the recession,unemployment was concentratedthe unemployment rates were highest in industries that in industries that provide
provide in-person services. Notably, the leisure and hospitality industry experienced an in-person services. Notably, the leisure and hospitality industry experienced an unemployment
unemployment rate of 39.3% in April 2020, before declining to rate of 39.3% in April 2020, before declining to 15.9% in January13.5% in February 2021. While rates for service 2021. While rates for service
industries remain elevated, other industries with loose attachment to in-person services are now industries remain elevated, other industries with loose attachment to in-person services are now
experiencing high rates. For example, the mining industry exhibited an unemployment rate of experiencing high rates. For example, the mining industry exhibited an unemployment rate of
14.2% in January19.3% in February 2021, the 2021, the second highest observed among al industries. highest observed among al industries.
Part-time workers experienced an unemployment rate almost twice that of their full-time Part-time workers experienced an unemployment rate almost twice that of their full-time
counterparts in April 2020 (24.5% vs. 12.9%), but this gap has since effectively closed. counterparts in April 2020 (24.5% vs. 12.9%), but this gap has since effectively closed.
Workers without a college degree experienced worse unemployment rates in April 2020 (e.g., Workers without a college degree experienced worse unemployment rates in April 2020 (e.g.,
21.2% for workers with no high school degree) than workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher 21.2% for workers with no high school degree) than workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher
(8.4%). The gap between educated and less-educated workers remained in (8.4%). The gap between educated and less-educated workers remained inJanuaryFebruary 2021. 2021.
Teenaged women experienced an unemployment rate of 36.6% in April 2020, and teenaged men, Teenaged women experienced an unemployment rate of 36.6% in April 2020, and teenaged men,
28.6%; compared with 13.7% for women and 12.1% for men ages 25-54. The gap between men 28.6%; compared with 13.7% for women and 12.1% for men ages 25-54. The gap between men
and women has since narrowed overal , but young workers are and women has since narrowed overal , but young workers arestil experiencing relatively still experiencing high high
rates of rates ofunemploymentunemployment relative to other age categories in February 2021. .
Racial and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020 (16.7% for Racial and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020 (16.7% for
Black workers compared to 14.2% for White workers, and 18.9% for Hispanic workers compared Black workers compared to 14.2% for White workers, and 18.9% for Hispanic workers compared
to 13.6% for non-Hispanic workers), and these gaps persisted in to 13.6% for non-Hispanic workers), and these gaps persisted inJanuaryFebruary 2021. 2021.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 15 link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 15 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends ....................................................................... 1
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession ......................................... 2
COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends..................................................................... 3
Unemployment Rates by State ..................................................................................... 3
Unemployment Rates by Industry ................................................................................ 5
Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers.................................................... 7
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age .......................................................................... 7
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity ......................................... 8
Unemployment Rates by Education ............................................................................ 10
Data Limitations and Caveats.......................................................................................... 10
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues ................................................................... 11
General Data Caveats ............................................................................................... 12
Figures
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate ............................................................................ 2
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate.................................................................................... 3
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rates ..................................................................... 4
Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by Industry......................................................................... 6
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers ............................... 7
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age ...................................................... 8
Figure 7. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Racial Group ..................................................... 9
Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin ................................................. 9
Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education ....................................................... 10
Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 12
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
link to page 15 link to page 14 link to page 5 link to page 15 link to page 14 link to page 5 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Introduction
The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn
in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This
expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely
considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The
unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its
previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This spike in unemployment previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This spike in unemployment
coincided with various mandated stay-at-home orders implemented in response to the coincided with various mandated stay-at-home orders implemented in response to the
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting
U.S. demand.3 Although unemployment rates have declined since April 2020, the rate in U.S. demand.3 Although unemployment rates have declined since April 2020, the rate inJanuaryFebruary
2021 (6. 2021 (6.32%) remains much higher than the rate observed in February 2020 (3.5%). %) remains much higher than the rate observed in February 2020 (3.5%).
This report discusses recent unemployment rate patterns at the national and state levels using This report discusses recent unemployment rate patterns at the national and state levels using
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The two primary sources are the Current Population Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The two primary sources are the Current Population
Survey (CPS) and the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. In addition to the Survey (CPS) and the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. In addition to the
usual caveats about estimates (see usual caveats about estimates (see “General Data Caveats”), there were additional data chal enges ), there were additional data chal enges
caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see “COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues”). The ”). The
pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an
error in their categorization procedures that likely underestimated unemployment early in the error in their categorization procedures that likely underestimated unemployment early in the
recession.4 This report general y finds the following: recession.4 This report general y finds the following:
The unemployment rate peaked The unemployment rate peaked in April 2020, at a level, at a level not seen since data not seen since data
collection started in collection started in
1948, in April 2020 1948, before declining to a stil -high level in before declining to a stil -high level in January 2021February 2021 relative to February 2020. .
In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession. rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.
Unemployment Unemployment rates during the current recession during the current recessionis concentrated have been relatively highest
among workers who among workers who
were last employed in industries that provide in-person services and among were last employed in industries that provide in-person services and among
young workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time young workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time
workers, and racial and ethnic minorities. workers, and racial and ethnic minorities.
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends
Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current
recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to
the economy. The pandemic resulted in limiting contact among individuals and in many shutdown the economy. The pandemic resulted in limiting contact among individuals and in many shutdown
orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those
in prior recessions (sein prior recessions (see Figure 1). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively ). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively
gradual y over the course of an economic downturn and then peaked. The current recession gradual y over the course of an economic downturn and then peaked. The current recession
exhibited an unprecedented sharp increase in the rate (10.3 percentage points) from February to
1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of 1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of
expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions and expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions andcontracti onscontractions, see , see
https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions_faq.html#:~:text=https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions_faq.html#:~:text=
What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=
Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief . Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief .
2 T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession, 2 T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession,ho weverhowever, never surpassed those of the early , never surpassed those of the early 1980’s.
1980s. 3 See CRS Insight IN11388, 3 See CRS Insight IN11388, COVID-19: U.S. Economic Effects, by Rena S. Miller and Marc , by Rena S. Miller and MarcLabonteLabont e. .
4 See CRS Insight IN11456, 4 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
1 1
link to page 6 link to page 6
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
exhibited an unprecedented sharp increase in the rate (10.3 percentage points) from February to April 2020.5 Following April, the rate declined rapidly (April 2020.5 Following April, the rate declined rapidly (86.4 percentage points from April 2020 to .4 percentage points from April 2020 to
January 2021August 2020) as temporarily furloughed workers returned to work. Despite these rapid declines, ) as temporarily furloughed workers returned to work. Despite these rapid declines,
the theJanuaryFebruary 2021 unemployment rate persisted at a high level 2021 unemployment rate persisted at a high level (6.(6.32%). The share of workers on %). The share of workers on
furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off
workers has steadily increasedworkers has steadily increased and has now passed the number furloughed for the first time since
March 2020.6 The.6 Although economic projections have general y improved since
early in the recession, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Congressional Budget Office (CBO) and the Federal Reserve havehas projected projected
that elevated that elevated
unemployment rates over unemployment rates over 65.0% wil persist over the next % wil persist over the next threetwo years.7 years.7
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 to Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 toJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research . .
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession
During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5.0% in December 2007 (the % in December 2007 (the
start of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (sestart of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (see Figure 2). The ). The
unemployment rate peaked at 10unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% in October 2009, four months after the recession official y % in October 2009, four months after the recession official y
concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February
2020 to 4.4% in March 2020, peaked8 at 14.8% in April 2020, and then fel to 6.2020 to 4.4% in March 2020, peaked8 at 14.8% in April 2020, and then fel to 6.3% in January
2021. The peak represents the quickest month-over-month increase in unemployment rates and
the highest overal unemployment rate since the CPS data started being collected in 1948.92% in February
5 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the 5 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the
congressional response during the Great Recession in the congressional response during the Great Recession in theUnemp loymentUnemployment Insurance system, see CRS Report R46472, Insurance system, see CRS Report R46472,
Com paring the Congressional Response to the Great Recession and the COVID -19-Related Recession: Unem ploym ent
Insurance (UI) Provisions, by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker. , by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker.
6 CRS analysis of BLS data, which can be found at https://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab11.htm. Workers on 6 CRS analysis of BLS data, which can be found at https://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab11.htm. Workers on
temporary layoff declined from 18temporary layoff declined from 18.0 million in April 2020 to 2. million in April 2020 to 2.72 million in million in JanuaryFebruary 2021 as the number of permanent job 2021 as the number of permanent job
losers increasedlosers increased from 2from 2.0 million in April 2020 to 3.5 million in million in April 2020 to 3.5 million in JanuaryFebruary 2021.
7 For CBO’s 10-year economic projections of unemployment rates as of February 2021, see https://www.cbo.gov/about/products/budget-economic-data#4.
2021.
7 See CRS Insight IN11460, COVID-19: How Quickly Will Unemployment Recover?, by Lida R. Weinstock.
8 T hroughout this report, 8 T hroughout this report, peak refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 and refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 andJanuaryFebruary 2021. It 2021. It
does not account for months outside this range. does not account for months outside this range.
9 T here are many differences in labor force stat istics observed during the Great Recession, its aftermath, and the
COVID-19 recession. For more on this and for information on labor market patterns since 2007, see CRS Report
R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte.
Congressional Research Service
2
link to page 7 
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Congressional Research Service
2
link to page 7
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
2021. The peak represents the quickest month-over-month increase in unemployment rates and
the highest overal unemployment rate since the CPS data started being collected in 1948.9
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 to Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 toJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, industry, and The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, industry, and
major demographic group. In the early stages of the current recession, unemployment rates major demographic group. In the early stages of the current recession, unemployment rates
disproportionately increased in industries delivering in-person services. Some demographic disproportionately increased in industries delivering in-person services. Some demographic
groups are overrepresented in such industries, contributing to higher rates for those workers.10 groups are overrepresented in such industries, contributing to higher rates for those workers.10
Unemployment Rates by State
Figure 3 displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January to December 2020 and displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January to December 2020 and
indicates whether the rate increased or decreased from November to December. Further, the indicates whether the rate increased or decreased from November to December. Further, the
figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.11 The data figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.11 The data
for January for January and February 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. Since the onset of the 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. Since the onset of the
current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of Columbia surpassed current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of Columbia surpassed
levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage was due to a number was due to a number
of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-essential services to in-
9 T here are many differences in labor force statistics observed during the Great Recession, its aftermath, and the COVID-19 recession. For more on this and for information on labor market patterns since 2007, see CRS Report R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte. 10 Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,” 10 Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,”
Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of
Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020. Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020.
11 Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “ 11 Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “ Is the Cure Worse than the Problem Itself? Immediate Labor Market Effects of COVID-Is the Cure Worse than the Problem Itself? Immediate Labor Market Effects of COVID-
19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al., 19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al.,
“Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from Vacancy “Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from VacancyP ostingsPostings and UI Claims,” NBER Working Paper and UI Claims,” NBER Working Paper
No. 27061, April 2020. No. 27061, April 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
3 3
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
essential services to in-person customers,12 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing declines in personal person customers,12 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing declines in personal
consumption,13 and the implementation of stay-at-home orders and business consumption,13 and the implementation of stay-at-home orders and business
closure policies.14 closure policies.14
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rates
Seasonal y adjusted data, displaying rates from November to December 2020 and change since last month Seasonal y adjusted data, displaying rates from November to December 2020 and change since last month
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment
Statistics program. Statistics program.
Notes: The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current
recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The
data for January data for January and February 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report.
The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In December The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In December
2020, the five states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.3%), Nevada (9.2%), 2020, the five states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.3%), Nevada (9.2%),
California (9.0%), Colorado (8.4%), and New Mexico (8.2%). The states with the lowest California (9.0%), Colorado (8.4%), and New Mexico (8.2%). The states with the lowest
12 Matthew Dey and Mark 12 Matthew Dey and MarkLoewensteinLoewenst ein, “How many workers are employed in sectors directly affected by COVID, “How many workers are employed in sectors directly affected by COVID -19 -19
shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” Monthly Labor Review, April 2020. , April 2020.
13 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic 13 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic
decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432, June 2020. June 2020.
14 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market 14 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor MarketOut comesOutcomes,”,” NBER Working Paper No. NBER Working Paper No.
2780, May 2020. 2780, May 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
4 4
link to page 9 link to page 9 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
unemployment rates in December 2020 were Nebraska (3.0%), South Dakota (3.0%), Iowa unemployment rates in December 2020 were Nebraska (3.0%), South Dakota (3.0%), Iowa
(3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Utah (3.6%). (3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Utah (3.6%).
While the figure shows that While the figure shows that in December 2020 most states were substantial y below their peak most states were substantial y below their peak unemployment ratesunemployment rates
in December 2020, several states’ recoveries have seemingly slowed. Colorado’s unemployment , several states’ recoveries have seemingly slowed. Colorado’s unemployment
rate has either plateaued or increased in every month, month-over-month, from September (6.4%) rate has either plateaued or increased in every month, month-over-month, from September (6.4%)
to December 2020 (8.4%). Nine other states with elevated rates exhibited wavering recoveries to December 2020 (8.4%). Nine other states with elevated rates exhibited wavering recoveries
over the same period, as rates either increased or stal ed in at least two of three months. Ranked over the same period, as rates either increased or stal ed in at least two of three months. Ranked
by their recent unemployment rates, these states are Rhode Island (10.5% by their recent unemployment rates, these states are Rhode Island (10.5% in September 2020 to in September 2020 to
8.1% in December 2020), New Jersey (6.7% to 7.6%), Arizona (6.5% to 7.5%), Michigan (8.6% 8.1% in December 2020), New Jersey (6.7% to 7.6%), Arizona (6.5% to 7.5%), Michigan (8.6%
to 7.5%), North Carolina (7.2% to 6.2%), Tennessee (6.5% to 6.4%), Kentucky (5.6% to 6.0%), to 7.5%), North Carolina (7.2% to 6.2%), Tennessee (6.5% to 6.4%), Kentucky (5.6% to 6.0%),
Wisconsin (5.4% to 5.5%), and South Carolina (5.2% to 4.6%). For most of these states, rates Wisconsin (5.4% to 5.5%), and South Carolina (5.2% to 4.6%). For most of these states, rates
declined from September to October before stal ing or increasing in declined from September to October before stal ing or increasing in
November and December. November and December.
Unemployment Rates by Industry
Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality industry experienced a higher peak in Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality industry experienced a higher peak in
unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any
other industry; they also had the other industry; they also had the second highest unemployment rate in highest unemployment rate in JanuaryFebruary 2021 ( 2021 (15.913.5%). However, %). However,
elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to industries providing in-person services. elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to industries providing in-person services.
Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction industry have experienced steadily Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction industry have experienced steadily
increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; in increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; inJanuaryFebruary 2021 they 2021 they exhibited the
secondexhibited the highest rate among al highest rate among al workers across industries (workers across industries (14.219.3%) and the steepest year-over %) and the steepest year-over
year year
increase (up from increase (up from1.9% in January5.4% in February 2020). The lowest 2020). The lowest JanuaryFebruary 2021 rates were among workers 2021 rates were among workers
whose last job was in the government (whose last job was in the government (3.0 %) or financial activities (3.42.8%), financial activities (3.7%), or education and health services (3.7%) industries. These %) industries. These two
industries have had unemployment rates below 15% from industries have had unemployment rates below 15% fromJanuaryFebruary 2020 through 2020 through JanuaryFebruary 2021.15 2021.15
Within industries, some workers were more likely to lose their jobs than othersWithin industries, some workers were more likely to lose their jobs than others early in the recession. For example, . For example,
recent studies suggest that low-recent studies suggest that low- wage workers in the leisure and hospitality industry and other wage workers in the leisure and hospitality industry and other
services industries experienced services industries experienced
disproportionately large employment losses.16 disproportionately large employment losses.16
Figure 4 displays the change in industry unemployment rates from displays the change in industry unemployment rates fromJanuaryFebruary 2020, 2020, beforeat the start of
the recession but before unemployment rates increased, to February the
recession, to January 2021. CRS estimated that al of these year-over-year changes were 2021. CRS estimated that al of these year-over-year changes were
statistical y significant, except for those exhibited by agricultural workers.17 Further, CRS chose statistical y significant, except for those exhibited by agricultural workers.17 Further, CRS chose
to compare to compare JanuaryFebruary 2020 with 2020 with JanuaryFebruary 2021 because of a lack of seasonal y adjusted data. 2021 because of a lack of seasonal y adjusted data.
Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to determine whether unemployment trends are Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to determine whether unemployment trends are
related to the recession or to seasonal trends. This related to the recession or to seasonal trends. This report attempts to minimize seasonal influences report attempts to minimize seasonal influences
(for non-adjusted data) by comparing year-over-(for non-adjusted data) by comparing year-over-
year estimates. year estimates.
15 T 15 The third lowest January 2021 unemployment rate was in the education and health services sector (4.3%). T hese data hese data
are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation in are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation inemployme ntemployment within the education and within the education and
health services sector. health services sector.
16 Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,”16 Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,” NBER Working Paper NBER Working Paper
No. 27613No. 27613, July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the
Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020. Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020.
17 BLS publishes a series of formulas used to produce standard errors for unemployment rates, from which they can 17 BLS publishes a series of formulas used to produce standard errors for unemployment rates, from which they can
calculate confidence intervals to determine whether a year -over-year difference is statistically significant. CRS used calculate confidence intervals to determine whether a year -over-year difference is statistically significant. CRS used
these formulas to calculate significance at the 95% confidence level. Bureau of Labor these formulas to calculate significance at the 95% confidence level. Bureau of LaborStatistic sStatistics, “ Calculating , “ Calculating
Approximate Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Current Population Survey Estimates,” Washington, DC, Approximate Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Current Population Survey Estimates,” Washington, DC,
2018, p. 10, https://www.bls.gov/cps/calculating-standard-errors-and-confidence-intervals.pdf. 2018, p. 10, https://www.bls.gov/cps/calculating-standard-errors-and-confidence-intervals.pdf.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
5 5
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by Industry
Non-seasonal y adjusted data, displaying dif erences between Non-seasonal y adjusted data, displaying dif erences betweenJanuaryFebruary 2020 and 2020 and JanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the different Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the different
industries are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Industry sectors are defined by the industries are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Industry sectors are defined by the
North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/
iag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemployment rates for wage and salary workers. iag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemployment rates for wage and salary workers.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
6 6
link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 10 link to page 11
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers
As shown iAs shown in Figure 5, part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5% part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5%
in April 2020) than full-time workers (12.9% in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the in April 2020) than full-time workers (12.9% in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the
recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers in recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers inJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
(6.0(6.4%)
is equivalent to%) is less than the unemployment rate for full-time workers (6. the unemployment rate for full-time workers (6.43%). %).
There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparent There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparentrecovery since Aprileconomic recovery may not reflect the may not reflect the
economic realities they face. First, realities they face. First, the gap between full- andsome workers with part-time part-time workersjobs may have left the labor force, and hence are not counted in the official statistics used in this report may have
narrowed because workers with part-time jobs are leaving the labor force. It is unclear whether . It is unclear whether
that is the that is the case. Additional y, more workers who would have been working full-time before the pandemic have beencase, though labor force participation rates have declined since March. Additional y,
workers who normal y would be working full-time may be working part-time for economic working part-time for economic
reasons.reasons.18 This could reduce the unemployment rate This could reduce the unemployment rate
among part-time workers. among part-time workers. Further, BLS has observed BLS has observed
that during the current recession, measures of labor underutilization, including workers who are
part-time due to economic reasons, have remained elevated.18that labor underutilization has remained
elevated for workers, including those who have been working part-time for economic reasons.19
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 toJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Note: Notes: Both groups experienced their peak unemploymentBoth groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020.rate in April 2020.
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
As seen inAs seen in Figure 6, unemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workersunemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workers and were and were
higher for women early in the recession.higher for women early in the recession. Between February and April 2020, the rate for women Between February and April 2020, the rate for women
ages 16-19 increased by 25.ages 16-19 increased by 25.86 percentage points to 36.6%; in contrast, the rates for men of the percentage points to 36.6%; in contrast, the rates for men of the
same age increased by same age increased by 16.415.8 percentage points to 27.6%. Since then, the gap percentage points to 27.6%. Since then, the gap betw een between younger
men and men and
women has women hasnarrowedreversed. The unemployment rate for teenaged men (16.6%) was higher than the rate for teenaged women (11.2%) in February 2021. Although unemployment rates for younger workers remain relatively high . Although unemployment rates for younger workers remain relatively high
compared to older workers, the compared to older workers, theJanuaryFebruary 2021 rates for
18 T he number of workers working part -time for economic reasons has increased from 4.4 million in February 2020 to 6.1 million in February 2021 on a seasonally adjusted basis. See https://www.bls.gov/web/empsit/cpseea07.htm. 19 2021 rates for men and women across age groups have
declined to similar levels. The unemployment rate for teenaged men (15.7%) was higher than the
rate for teenaged women (14.0%) in January 2021. The rate for men ages 20-24 (10.0%) was
18 See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t15.htm for U-6 unemployment rates, a measure of the total See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t15.htm for U-6 unemployment rates, a measure of the total
unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic
reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on
this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, Introduction to U.S. Econom y: Unem ployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
7 7
link to page 12 link to page 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
men and women across the remaining age groups have declined to similar levels. The rate for men ages 20-24 (10.1%) was slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.51%). The large disparities observed in %). The large disparities observed in
AprilApril 2020 between younger men and women were not observed in older age groups, although women between younger men and women were not observed in older age groups, although women
ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage points ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage pointshighhigher than their male counterparts. than their male counterparts.
This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate in This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate inJanuaryFebruary 2021 for women ages 25 to 54 2021 for women ages 25 to 54
(5.(5.87%) was %) was lower thansimilar to that of men (5. that of men (5.96%), and the rate for %), and the rate for
women ages 55 and over (5.1%) was women ages 55 and over (5.1%) was
also lower than that of men lower than that of men ages 55 and over (5.6%)(5.4%) from the same age group. .
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 toJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old
men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020. men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020.
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity
As seen inAs seen in Figure 7, the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, and the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, andWhite19White20 workers increased workers increased
sharply in early 2020. But whereas the unemployment rate for White workers peaked in April sharply in early 2020. But whereas the unemployment rate for White workers peaked in April
2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. The 2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. TheJanuaryFebruary
2021 rates for Black (9.2021 rates for Black (9.29%), Asian (%), Asian (6.65.1%), and White (5.%), and White (5.76%) workers were al higher than their %) workers were al higher than their
respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined7.66.9 percentage points percentage points
since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of8.49.9 percentage points for Asian workers and percentage points for Asian workers and
6. 6.78 percentage points for White workers across the same period. percentage points for White workers across the same period.
1920 Asian, Black, and White are the three racial categories used in BLS, T able A2: Employment status of the civilian Asian, Black, and White are the three racial categories used in BLS, T able A2: Employment status of the civilian
population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm. population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
8 8
link to page 12 link to page 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Figure 7. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Racial Group
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 toJanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak
rate occurred in April 2020. rate occurred in April 2020.
People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in
Figure 8, Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated
unemployment rates. In unemployment rates. InJanuaryFebruary 2021, unemployment rates experienced by Hispanic (9. 2021, unemployment rates experienced by Hispanic (9.40%) and %) and
non-Hispanic (6.non-Hispanic (6.20%) workers were almost twice as high as those experienced in the previous %) workers were almost twice as high as those experienced in the previous
January, beforeFebruary, early in the recession. While unemployment remains elevated compared to the recession. While unemployment remains elevated compared to January February 2020, 2020,
these rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in Aprilthese rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in April 2020. The unemployment rate for 2020. The unemployment rate for
Hispanic workers rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.Hispanic workers rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.95% from February to % from February to April
April 2020. For non-Hispanic workers the unemployment rate increased by 10 points to 13.6%. 2020. For non-Hispanic workers the unemployment rate increased by 10 points to 13.6%.
Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin
Non-seasonal y adjusted data, Non-seasonal y adjusted data,January 2020 and JanuaryFebruary 2020 to February 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the Hispanic for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the Hispanic
and non-Hispanic groups are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Statistical significance and non-Hispanic groups are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Statistical significance
is not calculated because BLS does not provide formula parameters for non-Hispanic workers. is not calculated because BLS does not provide formula parameters for non-Hispanic workers.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
9 9
link to page 13 link to page 13
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Unemployment Rates by Education
In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of
unemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen i unemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen in Figure 9. .
The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020 The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020
(21.2%), which was higher than the peak for al other education levels. The (21.2%), which was higher than the peak for al other education levels. TheJanuaryFebruary 2021 rate for 2021 rate for
workers with less than a high school diploma (workers with less than a high school diploma (910.1%) was also higher than the rate for al other .1%) was also higher than the rate for al other
education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level
classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest
JanuaryFebruary 2021 rate ( 2021 rate (43.8%) among al education levels. %) among al education levels.
Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education
Seasonal y adjusted Seasonal y adjusted monthly data, January 2020 to data, January 2020 to JanuaryFebruary 2021 2021
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020. Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020.
Data Limitations and Caveats
National level data presented in this report are from the CPS and state level data are from the National level data presented in this report are from the CPS and state level data are from the
LAUS program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the LAUS program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the
Census Bureau for BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates Census Bureau for BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates
using multiple data sources, including the CPS. using multiple data sources, including the CPS.2021
2021 In addition to the CPS, LAUS uses the Current Employment Statistics survey, state Unemployment Insurance claims In addition to the CPS, LAUS uses the Current Employment Statistics survey, state Unemployment Insurance claims
counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’s American counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’s American
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
10 10
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Both the CPS and LAUS estimates are subject to sampling and non-sampling error. Both the CPS and LAUS estimates are subject to sampling and non-sampling error.2122 Sampling Sampling
error occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while error occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while
non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.2223 Sampling error is a Sampling error is a
result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS
sample is selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does not sample is selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does not
accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.2324 Non-sampling error refers to al sources of Non-sampling error refers to al sources of
error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and
processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly
records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question. records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question.
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues
The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS due to a number of factors. The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS due to a number of factors.
For example, BLS reported that the survey experienced lower household response rates.For example, BLS reported that the survey experienced lower household response rates.2425 (The (The
bureau has made statements affirming the robustness of its estimates despite these lower response bureau has made statements affirming the robustness of its estimates despite these lower response
rates. rates.2526) Furthermore, BLS detected an error in its categorization procedures that likely ) Furthermore, BLS detected an error in its categorization procedures that likely
underestimated unemployment early in the recession.underestimated unemployment early in the recession.26 Specifically27 Specifical y, large numbers of workers , large numbers of workers
were classified as were classified as employed but not at work when they should have been recorded as when they should have been recorded as unemployed
on temporary layoff. .
Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the
unemployment rate. BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y unemployment rate. BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y
adjusted unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1 adjusted unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1
in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November, in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November,
0.6 in December, and 0.6 in and 0.6 inDecember. In JanuaryJanuary 2021. In February 2021, the error underestimated seasonal y adjusted 2021, the error underestimated seasonal y adjusted
unemployment by an estimated 0.unemployment by an estimated 0.65 percentage points. These estimates evaluate what the impact percentage points. These estimates evaluate what the impact
would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a statement would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a statement
regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size of the regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size of the
misclassification error.”misclassification error.”2728 In later months, BLS made efforts to correct this classification In later months, BLS made efforts to correct this classification error
error during data collection and processing.during data collection and processing.2829
LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its
connection with the CPS. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources connection with the CPS. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources
Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
2122 For further discussion of error, see the “Reliability of the Estimates” section of the Employment Situation report’s For further discussion of error, see the “Reliability of the Estimates” section of the Employment Situation report’s
T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures, T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures,
see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
2223 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/error-measurements.htm. For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/error-measurements.htm.
2324 For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/sampling.htm. For more information, see https://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/topic/sampling.htm.
2425 See the FAQ BLS produced on this topic for more on the impact of COVID-19 on data collection by month at See the FAQ BLS produced on this topic for more on the impact of COVID-19 on data collection by month at
https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm. https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm.
2526 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-april-2020.htm. See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-april-2020.htm.
2627 See CRS Insight IN11456, See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
2728 See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-january-2021.htm# See https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment-situation-covid19-faq-january-2021.htm#ques5.
28ques3. 29 Among other protocols, the Census Bureau monitored survey Among other protocols, the Census Bureau monitored survey respon sesresponses in August and marked those they felt could in August and marked those they felt could
be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the
misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9. misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
11 11
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS
estimates is unknown. estimates is unknown.2930
General Data Caveats
Other data considerations include the following: Other data considerations include the following:
Lack of seasonally adjusted data: Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS : Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS
for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends. for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends.3031
Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related
to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this
report compares year-over-year estimates to minimize seasonal influences. report compares year-over-year estimates to minimize seasonal influences.
Reference week: In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week
containing the 12th of the month. This could lead to incongruity between actual containing the 12th of the month. This could lead to incongruity between actual
labor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observed. labor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observed.
CPS and LAUS comparability: While the LAUS program uses the same : While the LAUS program uses the same
unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS
estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data). estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data).
Consequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparable. Consequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparable.
Statistical significance: CRS used BLS formulas to calculate year-over-year : CRS used BLS formulas to calculate year-over-year
statistical significance in changes in monthly data. As a tool, statistical statistical significance in changes in monthly data. As a tool, statistical
significance does not guarantee that year-over-year changes were meaningful. significance does not guarantee that year-over-year changes were meaningful.
Author Information
Gene Falk, Coordinator Gene Falk, Coordinator
Emma C. Nyhof Emma C. Nyhof
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Jameson A. Carter Jameson A. Carter
Paul D. Romero Paul D. Romero
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Isaac A. Nicchitta Isaac A. Nicchitta
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Acknowledgments
The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis
and writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist in Social Policy. Questions from and writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist in Social Policy. Questions from
congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.
2930 For more on the impacts of COVID-19 on LAUS and its inputs, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/effects-of-covid- For more on the impacts of COVID-19 on LAUS and its inputs, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/effects-of-covid-
19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm. 19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm.
3031 See CPS and LAUS documentation for more on seasonal See CPS and LAUS documentation for more on seasonal adjustmentadjustmen t at https://www.bls.gov/cps/seasonal- at https://www.bls.gov/cps/seasonal-
adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm. adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
12 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material. copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
R46554 R46554 · VERSION79 · UPDATED
13 13
Pandemic: In Brief
Gene Falk, Coordinator
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant effect on
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
unemployment in every state, industry, and major demographic group in the United unemployment in every state, industry, and major demographic group in the United
States. This report provides information on which groups have experienced the largest States. This report provides information on which groups have experienced the largest
Jameson A. Carter
increases in unemployment rates since the onset of the pandemic in 2020. Young increases in unemployment rates since the onset of the pandemic in 2020. Young
Research Assistant Research Assistant
workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time workers, and racial workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time workers, and racial
and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020. Many, but and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020. Many, but
Isaac A. Nicchitta
not al , of these groups had relatively high rates in not al , of these groups had relatively high rates in
Research Assistant Research Assistant
also compares the overal unemployment rate during the current recession with the compares the overal unemployment rate during the current recession with the
unemployment rate experienced during the Great Recession unemployment rate experienced during the Great Recession
Emma C. Nyhof
2009). This report shows the following: following:
Research Assistant Research Assistant
The unemployment rate peaked at an unprecedented level, not seen since data The unemployment rate peaked at an unprecedented level, not seen since data
Paul D. Romero
collection started in 1948, in April 2020 (14.8%) before declining to a stil - collection started in 1948, in April 2020 (14.8%) before declining to a stil -
Research Assistant Research Assistant
elevated level in elevated level in
In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession. rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.
State-level unemployment has since general y declined, although some states’ State-level unemployment has since general y declined, although some states’
recoveries have recently showed signs of slowing down or reversing. recoveries have recently showed signs of slowing down or reversing.
In the early months of the recession, In the early months of the recession,
industries remain elevated, other industries with loose attachment to in-person services are now industries remain elevated, other industries with loose attachment to in-person services are now
experiencing high rates. For example, the mining industry exhibited an unemployment rate of experiencing high rates. For example, the mining industry exhibited an unemployment rate of
Part-time workers experienced an unemployment rate almost twice that of their full-time Part-time workers experienced an unemployment rate almost twice that of their full-time
counterparts in April 2020 (24.5% vs. 12.9%), but this gap has since effectively closed. counterparts in April 2020 (24.5% vs. 12.9%), but this gap has since effectively closed.
Workers without a college degree experienced worse unemployment rates in April 2020 (e.g., Workers without a college degree experienced worse unemployment rates in April 2020 (e.g.,
21.2% for workers with no high school degree) than workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher 21.2% for workers with no high school degree) than workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher
(8.4%). The gap between educated and less-educated workers remained in (8.4%). The gap between educated and less-educated workers remained in
Teenaged women experienced an unemployment rate of 36.6% in April 2020, and teenaged men, Teenaged women experienced an unemployment rate of 36.6% in April 2020, and teenaged men,
28.6%; compared with 13.7% for women and 12.1% for men ages 25-54. The gap between men 28.6%; compared with 13.7% for women and 12.1% for men ages 25-54. The gap between men
and women has since narrowed overal , but young workers are and women has since narrowed overal , but young workers are
rates of rates of
Racial and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020 (16.7% for Racial and ethnic minorities had relatively high unemployment rates in April 2020 (16.7% for
Black workers compared to 14.2% for White workers, and 18.9% for Hispanic workers compared Black workers compared to 14.2% for White workers, and 18.9% for Hispanic workers compared
to 13.6% for non-Hispanic workers), and these gaps persisted in to 13.6% for non-Hispanic workers), and these gaps persisted in
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 15 link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 8 link to page 10 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 12 link to page 12 link to page 13 link to page 15 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends ....................................................................... 1
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession ......................................... 2
COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends..................................................................... 3
Unemployment Rates by State ..................................................................................... 3
Unemployment Rates by Industry ................................................................................ 5
Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers.................................................... 7
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age .......................................................................... 7
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity ......................................... 8
Unemployment Rates by Education ............................................................................ 10
Data Limitations and Caveats.......................................................................................... 10
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues ................................................................... 11
General Data Caveats ............................................................................................... 12
Figures
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate ............................................................................ 2
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate.................................................................................... 3
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rates ..................................................................... 4
Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by Industry......................................................................... 6
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers ............................... 7
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age ...................................................... 8
Figure 7. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Racial Group ..................................................... 9
Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin ................................................. 9
Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education ....................................................... 10
Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 12
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
link to page 15 link to page 14 link to page 5 link to page 15 link to page 14 link to page 5 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Introduction
The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn The National Bureau of Economic Research declared the start of the current economic downturn
in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This in February 2020, marking the end of the longest period of expansion in U.S. history.1 This
expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely expansion followed the Great Recession (December 2007 to June 2009), a downturn widely
considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The considered to be the worst since the Great Depression (August 1929 to March 1933).2 The
unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its unemployment rate rose quickly in March 2020, and by April 2020 it had greatly surpassed its
previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This spike in unemployment previous peaks observed during and just after the Great Recession. This spike in unemployment
coincided with various mandated stay-at-home orders implemented in response to the coincided with various mandated stay-at-home orders implemented in response to the
Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and other pandemic-related factors affecting
U.S. demand.3 Although unemployment rates have declined since April 2020, the rate in U.S. demand.3 Although unemployment rates have declined since April 2020, the rate in
2021 (6. 2021 (6.
This report discusses recent unemployment rate patterns at the national and state levels using This report discusses recent unemployment rate patterns at the national and state levels using
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The two primary sources are the Current Population Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The two primary sources are the Current Population
Survey (CPS) and the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. In addition to the Survey (CPS) and the Local Area Unemployment Statistics (LAUS) program. In addition to the
usual caveats about estimates (see usual caveats about estimates (see “General Data Caveats”), there were additional data chal enges ), there were additional data chal enges
caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see caused by the COVID-19 pandemic (see “COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues”). The ”). The
pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an pandemic led to lower survey response rates by businesses and households, and BLS detected an
error in their categorization procedures that likely underestimated unemployment early in the error in their categorization procedures that likely underestimated unemployment early in the
recession.4 This report general y finds the following: recession.4 This report general y finds the following:
The unemployment rate peaked The unemployment rate peaked in April 2020, at a level, at a level
In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment In April 2020, every state and the District of Columbia reached unemployment
rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession. rates greater than their highest unemployment rates during the Great Recession.
Unemployment Unemployment rates during the current recession during the current recession
young workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time young workers, women, workers with low educational attainment, part-time
workers, and racial and ethnic minorities. workers, and racial and ethnic minorities.
U.S. Unemployment Rate: Historical Trends
Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current Prior recessions typical y developed with gradual y increasing economic distress. The current
recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to recession was caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, which was an abrupt and exogenous shock to
the economy. The pandemic resulted in limiting contact among individuals and in many shutdown the economy. The pandemic resulted in limiting contact among individuals and in many shutdown
orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those orders. Therefore, the trends in the unemployment rate in the current recession differ from those
in prior recessions (sein prior recessions (see Figure 1). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively ). Rates observed during prior recessions rose relatively
1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of 1 T he National Bureau of Economic Research; see https://www.nber.org/cycles.html for their historical series of
expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions and expansions and contractions. For more on their process for determining expansions and
https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions_faq.html#:~:text=https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions_faq.html#:~:text=
What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=What%20is%20an%20expansion%3F,more%20than%20a%20few%20months.& text=
Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief . Expansion%20is%20the%20normal%20state,economy%3B%20most%20recessions%20are%20brief .
2 T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession, 2 T he unemployment rates observed during the Great Recession,
1980s. 3 See CRS Insight IN11388, 3 See CRS Insight IN11388, COVID-19: U.S. Economic Effects, by Rena S. Miller and Marc , by Rena S. Miller and Marc
4 See CRS Insight IN11456, 4 See CRS Insight IN11456, COVID-19: Measuring Unemployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
1 1
link to page 6 link to page 6
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
exhibited an unprecedented sharp increase in the rate (10.3 percentage points) from February to April 2020.5 Following April, the rate declined rapidly (April 2020.5 Following April, the rate declined rapidly (
the the
furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off furlough has declined since peaking in April 2020, while the share of permanently laid off
workers has steadily increasedworkers has steadily increased
Figure 1. Historical Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 to Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from January 1948 to
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research Shaded regions indicate recessionary periods as identified by the National Bureau of Economic Research
Comparing the Great Recession and the COVID-19 Recession
During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5During the Great Recession, the unemployment rate increased from 5.0% in December 2007 (the % in December 2007 (the
start of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (sestart of the recession) to 9.5% in June 2009 (the end of the recession) (see Figure 2). The ). The
unemployment rate peaked at 10unemployment rate peaked at 10.0% in October 2009, four months after the recession official y % in October 2009, four months after the recession official y
concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February concluded. In the current recession, the unemployment rate increased from 3.5% in February
2020 to 4.4% in March 2020, peaked8 at 14.8% in April 2020, and then fel to 6.2020 to 4.4% in March 2020, peaked8 at 14.8% in April 2020, and then fel to 6.
5 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the 5 For information on the differences between the congressional response to the current recession compared to the
congressional response during the Great Recession in the congressional response during the Great Recession in the
Com paring the Congressional Response to the Great Recession and the COVID -19-Related Recession: Unem ploym ent
Insurance (UI) Provisions, by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker. , by Katelin P. Isaacs and Julie M. Whittaker.
temporary layoff declined from 18temporary layoff declined from 18.0 million in April 2020 to 2. million in April 2020 to 2.
losers increasedlosers increased
8 T hroughout this report, 8 T hroughout this report, peak refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 and refers to the highest level of unemployment between January 2020 and
does not account for months outside this range. does not account for months outside this range.
Figure 2. U.S. Unemployment Rate
Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 to Seasonal y adjusted monthly data from November 2004 to
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
COVID-19 Recession: Unemployment Trends
The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, industry, and The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the unemployment rates for every state, industry, and
disproportionately increased in industries delivering in-person services. Some demographic disproportionately increased in industries delivering in-person services. Some demographic
groups are overrepresented in such industries, contributing to higher rates for those workers.10 groups are overrepresented in such industries, contributing to higher rates for those workers.10
Unemployment Rates by State
Figure 3 displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January to December 2020 and displays state-level monthly unemployment rates from January to December 2020 and
indicates whether the rate increased or decreased from November to December. Further, the indicates whether the rate increased or decreased from November to December. Further, the
figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.11 The data figure shows that no state was immune from economic damage early in the pandemic.11 The data
current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of Columbia surpassed current recession, the unemployment rate for every state and the District of Columbia surpassed
levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage levels seen during the Great Recession. The variation in economic damage was due to a number was due to a number
of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-of factors, including the proportion of jobs in sectors that provide non-
9 T here are many differences in labor force statistics observed during the Great Recession, its aftermath, and the COVID-19 recession. For more on this and for information on labor market patterns since 2007, see CRS Report R45330, Labor Market Patterns Since 2007, by Sarah A. Donovan and Marc Labonte. 10 Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,” 10 Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic,”
Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of Upjohn Institute, May 2020; and Robert Fairlie, “ T he Impact of Covid-19 on Small Business Owners: Evidence of
Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020. Early-Stage Losses from the April 2020 Current Population Survey,” NBER Working Paper No. 27309, June 2020.
11 Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “ 11 Felipe Lozano-Rojas et al., “
19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al., 19 Case Rates and School Closures in the U.S.,” NBER Working Paper No. 27127, May 2020; Eliza Forsythe et al.,
“Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from Vacancy “Labor Demand in the T ime of COVID-19: Evidence from Vacancy
No. 27061, April 2020. No. 27061, April 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
3 3
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
essential services to in-person customers,12 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing declines in personal person customers,12 individual concerns of contracting COVID-19 causing declines in personal
Figure 3. Monthly State Unemployment Rates
Seasonal y adjusted data, displaying rates from November to December 2020 and change since last month Seasonal y adjusted data, displaying rates from November to December 2020 and change since last month
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) Local Area Unemployment
Statistics program. Statistics program.
Notes: The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current The National Bureau of Economic Research identified February of 2020 as the first month of the current
recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The recession. The month-over-month changes are point estimates and have not been tested for significance. The
data for January data for January and February 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report. 2021 have not been released as of the cover date of this report.
The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In December The unemployment rate in most states peaked in April 2020 and has since declined. In December
2020, the five states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.3%), Nevada (9.2%), 2020, the five states with the highest unemployment rates were Hawai (9.3%), Nevada (9.2%),
California (9.0%), Colorado (8.4%), and New Mexico (8.2%). The states with the lowest California (9.0%), Colorado (8.4%), and New Mexico (8.2%). The states with the lowest
12 Matthew Dey and Mark 12 Matthew Dey and Mark
shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” shutdowns, where do they work, and how much do they earn?” Monthly Labor Review, April 2020. , April 2020.
13 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic 13 Austan Goolsbee and Chad Syverson, “Fear, lockdown, and diversion: comparing drivers of pandemic economic
decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432decline 2020,” NBER Working Paper No. 27432, June 2020. June 2020.
14 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market 14 Sumedha Gupta et al., “Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market
2780, May 2020. 2780, May 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
4 4
link to page 9 link to page 9 Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
unemployment rates in December 2020 were Nebraska (3.0%), South Dakota (3.0%), Iowa unemployment rates in December 2020 were Nebraska (3.0%), South Dakota (3.0%), Iowa
(3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Utah (3.6%). (3.1%), Vermont (3.1%), and Utah (3.6%).
While the figure shows that While the figure shows that in December 2020 most states were substantial y below their peak most states were substantial y below their peak unemployment ratesunemployment rates
rate has either plateaued or increased in every month, month-over-month, from September (6.4%) rate has either plateaued or increased in every month, month-over-month, from September (6.4%)
to December 2020 (8.4%). Nine other states with elevated rates exhibited wavering recoveries to December 2020 (8.4%). Nine other states with elevated rates exhibited wavering recoveries
over the same period, as rates either increased or stal ed in at least two of three months. Ranked over the same period, as rates either increased or stal ed in at least two of three months. Ranked
by their recent unemployment rates, these states are Rhode Island (10.5% by their recent unemployment rates, these states are Rhode Island (10.5% in September 2020 to in September 2020 to
to 7.5%), North Carolina (7.2% to 6.2%), Tennessee (6.5% to 6.4%), Kentucky (5.6% to 6.0%), to 7.5%), North Carolina (7.2% to 6.2%), Tennessee (6.5% to 6.4%), Kentucky (5.6% to 6.0%),
Wisconsin (5.4% to 5.5%), and South Carolina (5.2% to 4.6%). For most of these states, rates Wisconsin (5.4% to 5.5%), and South Carolina (5.2% to 4.6%). For most of these states, rates
Unemployment Rates by Industry
Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality industry experienced a higher peak in Workers whose last job was in the leisure and hospitality industry experienced a higher peak in
unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any unemployment (39.3% in April 2020) than did workers who were previously employed in any
elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to industries providing in-person services. elevated unemployment rates are not constrained to industries providing in-person services.
Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction industry have experienced steadily Workers whose last job was in the mining or extraction industry have experienced steadily
increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; in increasing unemployment since the onset of the recession; in
increase (up from increase (up from
industries have had unemployment rates below 15% from industries have had unemployment rates below 15% from
Within industries, some workers were more likely to lose their jobs than othersWithin industries, some workers were more likely to lose their jobs than others early in the recession. For example, . For example,
recent studies suggest that low-recent studies suggest that low- wage workers in the leisure and hospitality industry and other wage workers in the leisure and hospitality industry and other
Figure 4 displays the change in industry unemployment rates from displays the change in industry unemployment rates from
statistical y significant, except for those exhibited by agricultural workers.17 Further, CRS chose statistical y significant, except for those exhibited by agricultural workers.17 Further, CRS chose
Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to determine whether unemployment trends are Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to determine whether unemployment trends are
related to the recession or to seasonal trends. This related to the recession or to seasonal trends. This report attempts to minimize seasonal influences report attempts to minimize seasonal influences
15 T 15 T
are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation in are not seasonally adjusted and do not account for the likely seasonal variation in
health services sector. health services sector.
16 Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,”16 Alexander Bartik et al., “ Measuring the labor market at the onset of the COVID-19 crisis,” NBER Working Paper NBER Working Paper
No. 27613No. 27613, July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the July 2020; and Guido Matias Cortes and Eliza Forsythe, “ T he Heterogeneous Labor Market Impacts of the
Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020. Covid-19 Pandemic,” Upjohn Institute Working Paper, May 2020.
17 BLS publishes a series of formulas used to produce standard errors for unemployment rates, from which they can 17 BLS publishes a series of formulas used to produce standard errors for unemployment rates, from which they can
calculate confidence intervals to determine whether a year -over-year difference is statistically significant. CRS used calculate confidence intervals to determine whether a year -over-year difference is statistically significant. CRS used
these formulas to calculate significance at the 95% confidence level. Bureau of Labor these formulas to calculate significance at the 95% confidence level. Bureau of Labor
Approximate Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Current Population Survey Estimates,” Washington, DC, Approximate Standard Errors and Confidence Intervals for Current Population Survey Estimates,” Washington, DC,
2018, p. 10, https://www.bls.gov/cps/calculating-standard-errors-and-confidence-intervals.pdf. 2018, p. 10, https://www.bls.gov/cps/calculating-standard-errors-and-confidence-intervals.pdf.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
5 5
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Figure 4. Unemployment Rates by Industry
Non-seasonal y adjusted data, displaying dif erences between Non-seasonal y adjusted data, displaying dif erences between
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the different Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment for these data, the 2021 unemployment rates for the different
industries are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Industry sectors are defined by the industries are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Industry sectors are defined by the
North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) and can be found at https://www.bls.gov/iag/tgs/
iag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemployment rates for wage and salary workers. iag_index_naics.htm. The figure shows unemployment rates for wage and salary workers.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
6 6
link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 10 link to page 11
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Unemployment Rates for Full- and Part-Time Workers
As shown iAs shown in Figure 5, part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5% part-time workers experienced a higher peak unemployment rate (24.5%
in April 2020) than full-time workers (12.9% in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the in April 2020) than full-time workers (12.9% in April 2020). This disparity has closed as the
recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers in recession has progressed, as the unemployment rate for part-time workers in
There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparent There are a few reasons why part-time workers’ apparent
that is the that is the case. Additional y, more workers who would have been working full-time before the pandemic have been
Figure 5. Monthly Unemployment Rates for Part- and Full-Time Workers
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
As seen inAs seen in Figure 6, unemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workersunemployment rates tended to increase more for younger workers and were and were
higher for women early in the recession.higher for women early in the recession. Between February and April 2020, the rate for women Between February and April 2020, the rate for women
ages 16-19 increased by 25.ages 16-19 increased by 25.
women has women has
compared to older workers, the compared to older workers, the
unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic unemployed, plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force, plus total employed part time for economic
reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on reasons, as a percentage of the civilian labor force plus all persons marginally attached to the labor force. For more on
this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, this measure, see CRS In Focus IF10443, Introduction to U.S. Econom y: Unem ployment, by Lida R. Weinstock. , by Lida R. Weinstock.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
7 7
link to page 12 link to page 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
men and women across the remaining age groups have declined to similar levels. The rate for men ages 20-24 (10.1%) was slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.slightly higher than the rate for women of the same age (9.
AprilApril 2020 between younger men and women were not observed in older age groups, although women between younger men and women were not observed in older age groups, although women
ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage points ages 25-54 and 55 and over had rates 1-3 percentage points
This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate in This relatively modest gap has since closed; the rate in
(5.(5.
Figure 6. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old Every group experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020, except for 16 - to 19-year-old
men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020. men, who experienced their peak rate in May 2020.
Unemployment Rates by Racial Group and Hispanic Ethnicity
As seen inAs seen in Figure 7, the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, and the unemployment rates for Black, Asian, and
2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. The 2020, the rate for Black and Asian workers continued to rise through May 2020. The
2021 rates for Black (9.2021 rates for Black (9.
respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined respective rates in January 2020. The rate for Black workers has declined
since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of since peaking in May 2020, compared to a decline of
6. 6.
population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm. population by race, sex, and age. See https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.t02.htm.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
8 8
link to page 12 link to page 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Figure 7. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Racial Group
Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to Seasonal y adjusted data, January 2020 to
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak Black and Asian workers experienced their peak unemployment rate in May 2020. White workers peak
rate occurred in April 2020. rate occurred in April 2020.
People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in People of any race can identify as being either Hispanic or non-Hispanic in the CPS. As seen in
Figure 8, Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated Hispanic workers, like Black and Asian workers, continue to experience elevated
unemployment rates. In unemployment rates. In
non-Hispanic (6.non-Hispanic (6.
these rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in Aprilthese rates are much lower than the peak exhibited in April
Hispanic workers rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.Hispanic workers rapidly increased by 13.7 percentage points to 18.
Figure 8. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Hispanic Origin
Non-seasonal y adjusted data, Non-seasonal y adjusted data,
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment Due to the lack of seasonal adjustment
and non-Hispanic groups are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Statistical significance and non-Hispanic groups are compared to their non-seasonal y adjusted values from 2020. Statistical significance
is not calculated because BLS does not provide formula parameters for non-Hispanic workers. is not calculated because BLS does not provide formula parameters for non-Hispanic workers.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
9 9
link to page 13 link to page 13
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Unemployment Rates by Education
In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of In general, workers with lower levels of educational attainment have higher rates of
unemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen i unemployment. This pattern has been amplified during the current recession, as seen in Figure 9. .
The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020 The unemployment rate for workers with less than a high school diploma peaked in April 2020
(21.2%), which was higher than the peak for al other education levels. The (21.2%), which was higher than the peak for al other education levels. The
workers with less than a high school diploma (workers with less than a high school diploma (
education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level education levels. Workers with a Bachelor’s degree or higher, the highest educational level
classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest classified here, had the lowest peak unemployment rate (8.4% in April 2020) and the lowest
Figure 9. Monthly Unemployment Rates by Education
Seasonal y adjusted Seasonal y adjusted
Source: Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).Created by CRS using data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Notes: Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020. Al groups experienced their peak unemployment rate in April 2020.
Data Limitations and Caveats
National level data presented in this report are from the CPS and state level data are from the National level data presented in this report are from the CPS and state level data are from the
LAUS program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the LAUS program. The CPS is a sample survey of about 60,000 households conducted by the
Census Bureau for BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates Census Bureau for BLS. LAUS is a BLS program that calculates state-level unemployment rates
using multiple data sources, including the CPS. using multiple data sources, including the CPS.
counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’s American counts, the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages program, and data from the Census Bureau’s American
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
10 10
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Both the CPS and LAUS estimates are subject to sampling and non-sampling error. Both the CPS and LAUS estimates are subject to sampling and non-sampling error.
error occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while error occurs when the survey sample is not representative of the underlying population, while
non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.non-sampling error describes errors often associated with data collection.
result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS result of statistical theory that underlies any estimate generated through surveys. While the CPS
sample is selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does not sample is selected to be representative of the nation, the possibility remains that it does not
accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.accurately estimate certain nationwide statistics.
error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and error that are not due to sampling. They can result from incorrect or biased collection and
processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly processing of the data. For example, non-sampling error can occur if a surveyor incorrectly
records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question. records responses or a respondent incorrectly responds to a question.
COVID 19 Pandemic-Related Data Issues
The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS due to a number of factors. The COVID-19 pandemic increased non-sampling error in the CPS due to a number of factors.
For example, BLS reported that the survey experienced lower household response rates.For example, BLS reported that the survey experienced lower household response rates.
bureau has made statements affirming the robustness of its estimates despite these lower response bureau has made statements affirming the robustness of its estimates despite these lower response
rates. rates.
underestimated unemployment early in the recession.underestimated unemployment early in the recession.
were classified as were classified as employed but not at work when they should have been recorded as when they should have been recorded as unemployed
on temporary layoff. .
Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the Per agency policy, BLS did not adjust CPS records, but it did provide adjusted estimates of the
unemployment rate. BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y unemployment rate. BLS estimated that its categorization error underestimated seasonal y
adjusted unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1 adjusted unemployment by roughly 0.9 percentage points in March 2020, 4.8 points in April, 3.1
in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November, in May, 1.2 in June, 0.9 in July, 0.7 in August, 0.4 in September, 0.3 in October, 0.4 in November,
0.6 in December, and 0.6 in and 0.6 in
unemployment by an estimated 0.unemployment by an estimated 0.
would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a statement would be in the worst-case scenario, as the true impact is uncertain. BLS released a statement
regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size of the regarding the underestimate, noting that, “these assumptions probably overstate the size of the
misclassification error.”misclassification error.”
LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its LAUS was impacted by both the low response rate and the categorization error due to its
connection with the CPS. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources connection with the CPS. Considering that LAUS is dependent on a number of other data sources
Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. Community Survey and Population Estimates Program; https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures, T echnical Note at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.tn.htm. For a description of LAUS estimation procedures,
see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm. see https://www.bls.gov/lau/laumthd.htm.
https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm. https://www.bls.gov/covid19/home.htm.
be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the be misclassified. T hese responses were then re-evaluated. For more on BLS and Census efforts to reduce the
misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9. misclassification, see https://www.bls.gov/covid19/employment -situation-covid19-faq-august-2020.htm#ques9.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
11 11
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS that were impacted by COVID-19 in their own right, the net effect of the pandemic on LAUS
estimates is unknown. estimates is unknown.
General Data Caveats
Other data considerations include the following: Other data considerations include the following:
Lack of seasonally adjusted data: Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS : Seasonal y adjusted data are published by BLS
for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends. for selected labor force indicators to better account for seasonality in the trends.
Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related Without seasonal adjustments, it is difficult to distinguish between trends related
to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this to the recession and seasonal trends. Where adjusted data are not available, this
report compares year-over-year estimates to minimize seasonal influences. report compares year-over-year estimates to minimize seasonal influences.
Reference week: In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week In general, CPS data are collected for the calendar week
containing the 12th of the month. This could lead to incongruity between actual containing the 12th of the month. This could lead to incongruity between actual
labor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observed. labor force conditions over the course of a month and the conditions observed.
CPS and LAUS comparability: While the LAUS program uses the same : While the LAUS program uses the same
unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS unemployment concepts as the CPS and uses the CPS as an input, LAUS
estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data). estimates are based on multiple sources (including administrative data).
Consequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparable. Consequently, CPS and LAUS estimates are not directly comparable.
Statistical significance: CRS used BLS formulas to calculate year-over-year : CRS used BLS formulas to calculate year-over-year
statistical significance in changes in monthly data. As a tool, statistical statistical significance in changes in monthly data. As a tool, statistical
significance does not guarantee that year-over-year changes were meaningful. significance does not guarantee that year-over-year changes were meaningful.
Author Information
Gene Falk, Coordinator Gene Falk, Coordinator
Emma C. Nyhof Emma C. Nyhof
Specialist in Social Policy Specialist in Social Policy
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Jameson A. Carter Jameson A. Carter
Paul D. Romero Paul D. Romero
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Isaac A. Nicchitta Isaac A. Nicchitta
Research Assistant Research Assistant
Acknowledgments
The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis The four Research Assistants in CRS’s Domestic Social Policy Division were responsible for the analysis
and writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist in Social Policy. Questions from and writing of this report, under the guidance of Gene Falk, Specialist in Social Policy. Questions from
congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.congressional staff should be directed to Mr. Falk.
19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm. 19-pandemic-on-employment-and-unemployment-statistics.htm.
adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm. adjustment -methodology.htm and https://www.bls.gov/lau/lauseas.htm.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
12 12
Unemployment Rates During the COVID-19 Pandemic: In Brief
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material. copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
R46554 R46554 · VERSION
13 13