< Back to Current Version

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Changes from October 23, 2020 to November 27, 2020

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with red strikethrough and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.


Women in the Middle East and North Africa:
October 23November 27, 2020 , 2020
Issues for Congress
Zoe Danon
Many experts have found that women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) fare Many experts have found that women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) fare
Coordinator of Research Coordinator of Research
worse than those in other parts of the world on a range of social, economic, legal and worse than those in other parts of the world on a range of social, economic, legal and
Planning Planning
political measures. Some attribute this underperformance to prevailing gender roles and political measures. Some attribute this underperformance to prevailing gender roles and

perspectives (including discriminatory laws and beliefs), as well as challenges facing the perspectives (including discriminatory laws and beliefs), as well as challenges facing the
Sarah R. Collins
region overall (such as a preponderance of undemocratic governments, poor economic region overall (such as a preponderance of undemocratic governments, poor economic
Research Assistant Research Assistant
growth, wars, and mass displacement, which often disproportionately affect women). growth, wars, and mass displacement, which often disproportionately affect women).

Some key issues facing many women in the region include the following: Some key issues facing many women in the region include the following:

  Unequal Legal Rights. Women in the MENA region face greater legal . Women in the MENA region face greater legal
discrimination than women elsewhere, with differential laws on issues such as marriage, freedom discrimination than women elsewhere, with differential laws on issues such as marriage, freedom
of movement, and inheritance, as well as limited to no legal protection from domestic violence. of movement, and inheritance, as well as limited to no legal protection from domestic violence.
  Constraints on Economic Participation and Opportunity. Regional conditions, in addition to . Regional conditions, in addition to
gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant difference between men and women’s gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant difference between men and women’s
participation in MENA economies. For example, women do not participate in the labor force to participation in MENA economies. For example, women do not participate in the labor force to
the same degree as women in other regions, and those who do participate face on average nearly the same degree as women in other regions, and those who do participate face on average nearly
twice the levels of unemployment than men. twice the levels of unemployment than men.
  Underrepresentation in Political Processes. Women—particularly in Yemen, Kuwait and . Women—particularly in Yemen, Kuwait and
Lebanon—are poorly represented in legislative bodies compared to the global average. Lebanon—are poorly represented in legislative bodies compared to the global average.
  Conflict and Displacement. Women and girls constitute the majority of displaced civilian . Women and girls constitute the majority of displaced civilian
populations and are at a higher risk of exploitation and abuse in conflict and displacement populations and are at a higher risk of exploitation and abuse in conflict and displacement
settings. Experts are particularly concerned about displaced populations in Syria and Yemen. settings. Experts are particularly concerned about displaced populations in Syria and Yemen.
  Lack of Representation in Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations. Women have been . Women have been
sidelined in most formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three largest ongoing wars in sidelined in most formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three largest ongoing wars in
Libya, Syria, and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to involve women in these Libya, Syria, and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to involve women in these
processes. processes.
  Susceptibility to Radicalization, Terrorism, and Violent Extremism. Women, like men, are . Women, like men, are
susceptible to radicalization by extremist groups like the Islamic State. Some extremists target susceptible to radicalization by extremist groups like the Islamic State. Some extremists target
women for support and recruitment, though experts have noted that women also may be uniquely women for support and recruitment, though experts have noted that women also may be uniquely
positioned to counter violent extremist ideology. In Egypt and Algeria, for example, governments positioned to counter violent extremist ideology. In Egypt and Algeria, for example, governments
have trained women clerics to counter radicalization. have trained women clerics to counter radicalization.
  Disproportionate Vulnerability to Possible Impacts of the Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) Pandemic. Women in the MENA region are experiencing unique and particularly . Women in the MENA region are experiencing unique and particularly
dire effects from the COVID-19 pandemic, though the full effects remain to be seen. dire effects from the COVID-19 pandemic, though the full effects remain to be seen.
Over the years, many Members of Congress have supported U.S. efforts to bolster gender equality in the MENA Over the years, many Members of Congress have supported U.S. efforts to bolster gender equality in the MENA
region in the context of advocating for women’s rights and well-being globally. Some also have argued that region in the context of advocating for women’s rights and well-being globally. Some also have argued that
supporting women’s rights may advance broader U.S. national security interests in the region. To support these supporting women’s rights may advance broader U.S. national security interests in the region. To support these
positions, proponents sometimes cite research suggesting that the relative status of women in society appears to be positions, proponents sometimes cite research suggesting that the relative status of women in society appears to be
linked to greater political stability, security, and prosperity, as well as to better governance. linked to greater political stability, security, and prosperity, as well as to better governance.
Congress has addressed issues related to women through foreign assistance appropriations and authorizations, Congress has addressed issues related to women through foreign assistance appropriations and authorizations,
resolutions, statements and letters, and oversight activities. Some of these measures have been global in scope, resolutions, statements and letters, and oversight activities. Some of these measures have been global in scope,
while others have been region-specific. Going forward, Members may consider whether improvements in the while others have been region-specific. Going forward, Members may consider whether improvements in the
status of women may contribute to other U.S. policy goals, and debate the appropriate level and types of U.S. status of women may contribute to other U.S. policy goals, and debate the appropriate level and types of U.S.
engagement on the particular challenges facing women in different MENA countries. engagement on the particular challenges facing women in different MENA countries.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service


link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 17 link to page 20 link to page 23 link to page 26 link to page 28 link to page 29 link to page 30 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 19 link to page 22 link to page 25 link to page 32 link to page 37 link to page 4 link to page 4 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 9 link to page 10 link to page 11 link to page 13 link to page 13 link to page 17 link to page 20 link to page 23 link to page 26 link to page 28 link to page 29 link to page 30 link to page 5 link to page 6 link to page 14 link to page 15 link to page 19 link to page 22 link to page 25 link to page 32 link to page 37 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Current Status of Women in the MENA Region ............................................................................. 1
Key Trends and Challenges ............................................................................................................. 2
Discriminatory Laws and Beliefs .............................................................................................. 3
Regional Dynamics ................................................................................................................... 3
Research on Women, Prosperity, Good Governance, and Security ........................................... 4
Overview of U.S. Policy .................................................................................................................. 6
Selected MENA-Specific Congressional Actions ..................................................................... 7
Selected Global Congressional Actions .................................................................................... 8
Policy Issues .................................................................................................................................. 10
Legal Rights ............................................................................................................................ 10
Economic Participation and Opportunity ................................................................................ 14
Political Representation .......................................................................................................... 17
Conflict and Displacement ...................................................................................................... 20
Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations ........................................................................... 23
Radicalization, Terrorism and Violent Extremism .................................................................. 25
Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic ............................................................................... 26
Considerations for Congress.......................................................................................................... 27

Figures
Figure 1. MENA Performance on Global Measures of Women’s Equality ..................................... 2
Figure 2. Public Opinion on Women’s Rights in Select MENA Countries ..................................... 3
Figure 3. Legal Discrimination Score by World Region ................................................................ 11
Figure 4. Selected Measures of Legal Discrimination Against MENA Women ............................ 12
Figure 5. Selected Economic Indicators for Women in the MENA region ................................... 16
Figure 6. Political Representation of Women ................................................................................ 19
Figure 7. Conflict, Displacement, and Gender-based Violence ..................................................... 22

Appendixes
Appendix. Legislation in the 116th Congress ................................................................................. 29

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 34


Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

link to page 32 link to page 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Introduction
Congressional efforts to improve conditions for women in the Middle East and North Africa Congressional efforts to improve conditions for women in the Middle East and North Africa
(MENA) have garnered widespread support since at least the early 2000s. The broad appeal may (MENA) have garnered widespread support since at least the early 2000s. The broad appeal may
reflect a convergence of goals for those advocating positive change for women as an end-goal in reflect a convergence of goals for those advocating positive change for women as an end-goal in
itself, and those supporting such change primarily as a potential means to advance broader U.S. itself, and those supporting such change primarily as a potential means to advance broader U.S.
interests in the region, such as peace and stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and interests in the region, such as peace and stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and
fostering good governance and human rights—goals that have been assigned unequal priority for fostering good governance and human rights—goals that have been assigned unequal priority for
decades. Such support reflects a growing body of research suggesting that improving decades. Such support reflects a growing body of research suggesting that improving
opportunities and conditions for women in a society may promote such outcomes both globally opportunities and conditions for women in a society may promote such outcomes both globally
and in the region. and in the region.
This report provides background and data on key issues regarding women in the MENA region This report provides background and data on key issues regarding women in the MENA region
and describes selected ways in which Congress has engaged on issues such as women’s legal and describes selected ways in which Congress has engaged on issues such as women’s legal
rights, economic participation, and political representation; the humanitarian impact of conflict rights, economic participation, and political representation; the humanitarian impact of conflict
and displacement on women; women’s inclusion in conflict resolution and peace processes; and displacement on women; women’s inclusion in conflict resolution and peace processes;
violence against women; and women’s roles in perpetuating and combatting violent extremism. violence against women; and women’s roles in perpetuating and combatting violent extremism.
Many Members of Congress have demonstrated an interest in women’s issues, both within the Many Members of Congress have demonstrated an interest in women’s issues, both within the
MENA region and globally, through legislation (seeMENA region and globally, through legislation (see Appendix), statements and letters, direct , statements and letters, direct
engagement with regional leaders, and oversight. engagement with regional leaders, and oversight.
For the purposes of this report, the MENA region comprises the areas defined as “Near East” by For the purposes of this report, the MENA region comprises the areas defined as “Near East” by
the State Department: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, the State Department: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Yemen.1 Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Yemen.1
Current Status of Women in the MENA Region
The World Economic Forum’s (WEF’s) 2020 Global Gender Gap Report ranked the Arab states The World Economic Forum’s (WEF’s) 2020 Global Gender Gap Report ranked the Arab states
of the MENA region the lowest in the world for achieving gender equality, with MENA states of the MENA region the lowest in the world for achieving gender equality, with MENA states
comprising 13 of the 25 worst-performing countries globally.2 The region also performed poorly comprising 13 of the 25 worst-performing countries globally.2 The region also performed poorly
in the 2019 Women Peace and Security (WPS) Index, in which MENA states comprise 7 of the 25 in the 2019 Women Peace and Security (WPS) Index, in which MENA states comprise 7 of the 25
worst-performing countries.3 Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen—all countries sustaining significant worst-performing countries.3 Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen—all countries sustaining significant
levels of violent conflict at the time of survey—were among the 10 worst performers on the WPS levels of violent conflict at the time of survey—were among the 10 worst performers on the WPS
Index. The gender gap in the region (as measured by WEF) narrowed by 0.5 percentage points Index. The gender gap in the region (as measured by WEF) narrowed by 0.5 percentage points
since 2018 and 3.6 points since 2006: before the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 since 2018 and 3.6 points since 2006: before the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) pandemic, which is expected to widen the global gender gap, it would have taken (COVID-19) pandemic, which is expected to widen the global gender gap, it would have taken

1 This report does not include data on the West Bank or the Gaza Strip. Some of the key sources on which this report 1 This report does not include data on the West Bank or the Gaza Strip. Some of the key sources on which this report
relies do not provide data for the West Bank and Gaza. For information on the status of women in the West Bank and relies do not provide data for the West Bank and Gaza. For information on the status of women in the West Bank and
Gaza, see for example: U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, “Social and Economic Situation of Gaza, see for example: U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, “Social and Economic Situation of
Palestinian Women and Girls (July 2016 – June 2018),” E/ESCWA/ECW/2019/Technical Paper 2, January 9, 2019. Palestinian Women and Girls (July 2016 – June 2018),” E/ESCWA/ECW/2019/Technical Paper 2, January 9, 2019.
2 The WEF index “benchmarks national gender gaps on economic, education, health and political criteria, and provides 2 The WEF index “benchmarks national gender gaps on economic, education, health and political criteria, and provides
country rankings that allow for effective comparisons across regions and income groups.” The 13 countries are: country rankings that allow for effective comparisons across regions and income groups.” The 13 countries are:
Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Oman, Morocco, Jordan, Qatar, Egypt, Bahrain, and Algeria. WEF, Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Oman, Morocco, Jordan, Qatar, Egypt, Bahrain, and Algeria. WEF,
Global Gender Gap Report 2020, December 2019. , December 2019.
3 The WPS Index measures performance across three dimensions of a woman’s wellbeing: inclusion (economic, social, 3 The WPS Index measures performance across three dimensions of a woman’s wellbeing: inclusion (economic, social,
and political), justice (formal laws and informal discrimination), and security (at the family, community, and societal and political), justice (formal laws and informal discrimination), and security (at the family, community, and societal
levels). Countries in the bottom 25 are: Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, and Algeria. Georgetown Institute levels). Countries in the bottom 25 are: Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, and Algeria. Georgetown Institute
for Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) and Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), for Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) and Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), Women, Peace and Security Index
2019/20: Tracking sustainable peace through inclusion, justice, and security for women
, October 2019. , October 2019.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
1 1

link to page 5 link to page 5
Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

approximately 150 years to close the MENA region’s gender gap.4 Not all MENA countries approximately 150 years to close the MENA region’s gender gap.4 Not all MENA countries
perform equally poorly, asperform equally poorly, as Figure 1 below illustrates. For example, Israel scores higher than other below illustrates. For example, Israel scores higher than other
MENA states in both rankings. MENA states in both rankings.
Figure 1. MENA Performance on Global Measures of Women’s Equality

Sources: Created by CRS with data from World Economic Forum, Created by CRS with data from World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2020, December , December
2019; Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security and Peace Research Institute Oslo, 2019; Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security and Peace Research Institute Oslo, Women, Peace
and Security Index 2019/20
, October 2019. , October 2019.
Key Trends and Challenges
Explanations for the region’s underperformance on most measures of gender equality are subject Explanations for the region’s underperformance on most measures of gender equality are subject
to debate, but generally fall into two overlapping categories: to debate, but generally fall into two overlapping categories: prevailing gender roles and
perspectives,
andand challenges facing the MENA region overall. The 2019 WPS Index posits that The 2019 WPS Index posits that
the region’s poor performance is “traceable largely to high levels of organized violence and the region’s poor performance is “traceable largely to high levels of organized violence and
discriminatory laws that disempower women, often coupled with low rates of inclusion, discriminatory laws that disempower women, often coupled with low rates of inclusion,

4 WEF, 4 WEF, Global Gender Gap Report 2020. This is the same amount of time as WEF predicts will take North America to . This is the same amount of time as WEF predicts will take North America to
close its gap, given a slower projected rate of change. For more on the impact of COVID-19 on the gender gap, see close its gap, given a slower projected rate of change. For more on the impact of COVID-19 on the gender gap, see
Johnny Wood, “COVID-19 has worsened gender inequality,” World Economic Forum, September 4, 2020.Johnny Wood, “COVID-19 has worsened gender inequality,” World Economic Forum, September 4, 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
2 2

link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 13 link to page 6 link to page 7 link to page 7 link to page 13 link to page 6
Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

especially in paid employment.”5 Since the early 2000s, some experts and policymakers have especially in paid employment.”5 Since the early 2000s, some experts and policymakers have
increasingly related these issues to research examining possible links between the well-being of increasingly related these issues to research examining possible links between the well-being of
women and the overall stability of societies (see women and the overall stability of societies (see “Research on Women, Prosperity, Good
Governance, and Security”)
. .
Discriminatory Laws and Beliefs
Many experts postulate that some combination of institutionalized legal discrimination, cultural Many experts postulate that some combination of institutionalized legal discrimination, cultural
practices, and religious beliefs about women contribute to gender inequality in the MENA region. practices, and religious beliefs about women contribute to gender inequality in the MENA region.
Legal discrimination (discussed in Legal discrimination (discussed in “Legal Rights”) and cultural views relegating women to a and cultural views relegating women to a
lower standing in many regional countries appear to be pervasive, despite some signs of change. lower standing in many regional countries appear to be pervasive, despite some signs of change.
Public opinion surveys in predominantly Arab countries, which make up most but not all of the Public opinion surveys in predominantly Arab countries, which make up most but not all of the
MENA region, suggest that certain cultural beliefs against women’s equality are prevalent. For MENA region, suggest that certain cultural beliefs against women’s equality are prevalent. For
example, Arab Barometer’s 2019 survey on women’s rights in 12 Arab countries found that the example, Arab Barometer’s 2019 survey on women’s rights in 12 Arab countries found that the
majority of survey respondents believed that men are better leaders and should have greater say in majority of survey respondents believed that men are better leaders and should have greater say in
family decision making, and that women should not be allowed to travel independently or have an family decision making, and that women should not be allowed to travel independently or have an
equal share in inheritance (seequal share in inheritance (see Figure 2).6 6
Figure 2. Public Opinion on Women’s Rights in Select MENA Countries

Source: Created by CRS with data from Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Created by CRS with data from Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North
Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. The Arab Barometer survey included 10 countries within the scope of Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. The Arab Barometer survey included 10 countries within the scope of
this report—Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Yemen—as well as this report—Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia, and Yemen—as well as
Sudan and Palestine. Sudan and Palestine.
Regional Dynamics
Experts also point to challenges facing the region as a whole to explain why women in the MENA Experts also point to challenges facing the region as a whole to explain why women in the MENA
region fare worse than women in most other regions in terms of a broad range of political, legal, region fare worse than women in most other regions in terms of a broad range of political, legal,
and socioeconomic indicators. Most MENA states have shown improvement on these indicators and socioeconomic indicators. Most MENA states have shown improvement on these indicators
over the last few generations.7 However, decades of civil and inter-state wars, a lack of effective over the last few generations.7 However, decades of civil and inter-state wars, a lack of effective

5 GIWPS and PRIO, 5 GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20, p. 1. , p. 1.
6 One 2019 study found that people who agree that men are better political leaders than women, regardless of their 6 One 2019 study found that people who agree that men are better political leaders than women, regardless of their
gender, are more likely to state that corruption is justifiable. See Ortrun Merkle and Pui-Hang Wong, “It Is All about gender, are more likely to state that corruption is justifiable. See Ortrun Merkle and Pui-Hang Wong, “It Is All about
Power: Corruption, Patriarchy and the Political Participation of Women,” in Power: Corruption, Patriarchy and the Political Participation of Women,” in Women and Sustainable Development:
Empowering Women in Africa, ed.ed. Maty Konte and Nyasha Tirivayi (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), pp. 353-368. Maty Konte and Nyasha Tirivayi (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), pp. 353-368.
7 For a historical look at the status of women in the MENA region, see Nikki R. Keddie, 7 For a historical look at the status of women in the MENA region, see Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East:
Past and Present
(Princeton University Press, 2007); and, Freedom House, (Princeton University Press, 2007); and, Freedom House, Women’s Rights in the Middle East and
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
3 3

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

governing institutions, and a lag in developing robust, diversified economies arguably have governing institutions, and a lag in developing robust, diversified economies arguably have
inhibited this progress. The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, and the wave of unrest that followed inhibited this progress. The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, and the wave of unrest that followed
the “Arab Spring” in 2011 led to the fall of longstanding leaders in some countries, and political the “Arab Spring” in 2011 led to the fall of longstanding leaders in some countries, and political
conflict and sectarian violence in others. Those changes and the rise of the Islamic State (IS, aka conflict and sectarian violence in others. Those changes and the rise of the Islamic State (IS, aka
ISIS/ISIL) in 2014 produced a general deterioration in human development indicators across the ISIS/ISIL) in 2014 produced a general deterioration in human development indicators across the
region.8 region.8
A majority of countries in the region are currently experiencing some combination of war, A majority of countries in the region are currently experiencing some combination of war,
political instability, terrorism, economic challenges, and/or poor governance. The COVID-19 political instability, terrorism, economic challenges, and/or poor governance. The COVID-19
pandemic has layered on additional challenges to those preexisting conditions. These phenomena pandemic has layered on additional challenges to those preexisting conditions. These phenomena
have had negative impacts on societies as a whole, including some effects that are unique to, or have had negative impacts on societies as a whole, including some effects that are unique to, or
worse for, women (see below). In Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen women have faced wars and/or worse for, women (see below). In Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen women have faced wars and/or
terrorist/insurgent violence that have eroded central governance and produced large-scale terrorist/insurgent violence that have eroded central governance and produced large-scale
humanitarian crises. Some have warned that Lebanon is nearing state collapse after a series of humanitarian crises. Some have warned that Lebanon is nearing state collapse after a series of
failed governments, an economic crisis, and an explosion in August 2020 that left hundreds of failed governments, an economic crisis, and an explosion in August 2020 that left hundreds of
thousands displaced from the capital city, Beirut.9 Algeria and Egypt, after facing protests in 2019 thousands displaced from the capital city, Beirut.9 Algeria and Egypt, after facing protests in 2019
and 2020, doubled down on authoritarian responses, imprisoning those speaking out against the and 2020, doubled down on authoritarian responses, imprisoning those speaking out against the
government. Freedom House noted in 2020 that region-wide, “credible elections remain government. Freedom House noted in 2020 that region-wide, “credible elections remain
exceedingly rare.”10 Tunisia remains the sole MENA country to have made a seemingly durable exceedingly rare.”10 Tunisia remains the sole MENA country to have made a seemingly durable
transition to democracy as a result of the 2011 uprisings, but it continues to struggle to build transition to democracy as a result of the 2011 uprisings, but it continues to struggle to build
strong government institutions and overcome political polarization. strong government institutions and overcome political polarization.
Research on Women, Prosperity, Good Governance, and Security
During the past two decades, research linking the well-being of women and the economic, social, During the past two decades, research linking the well-being of women and the economic, social,
and political stability and security of societies has gained prominence.11 Some U.S. policymakers and political stability and security of societies has gained prominence.11 Some U.S. policymakers
have sought to examine these links in the context of the MENA region, suggesting that have sought to examine these links in the context of the MENA region, suggesting that
improvements to women’s status have the potential to contribute to other U.S. regional policy improvements to women’s status have the potential to contribute to other U.S. regional policy
objectives by improving outcomes for the region as a whole. Below is a summary of some of the objectives by improving outcomes for the region as a whole. Below is a summary of some of the
research as it pertains to U.S. policy objectives in the region, such as promoting peace and research as it pertains to U.S. policy objectives in the region, such as promoting peace and
stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and fostering good governance. stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and fostering good governance.
  Women’s equality appears to foster increased socioeconomic development
and political stability.12 Studies have demonstrated a correlation between the .12 Studies have demonstrated a correlation between the

North Africa, 2010. , 2010.
8 Since the Arab Spring, all but two MENA countries have witnessed a decline in Human Development Indicators: in 8 Since the Arab Spring, all but two MENA countries have witnessed a decline in Human Development Indicators: in
2009, only Yemen met ‘low human development’ criteria, but by 2018 Egypt, Morocco, and Syria had joined Yemen in 2009, only Yemen met ‘low human development’ criteria, but by 2018 Egypt, Morocco, and Syria had joined Yemen in
that category. Within the region, only Iran, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia saw improvements in their global rankings. that category. Within the region, only Iran, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia saw improvements in their global rankings.
9 “Preventing State Collapse in Lebanon,” International Crisis Group, October 1, 2020. 9 “Preventing State Collapse in Lebanon,” International Crisis Group, October 1, 2020.
10 While the number of flawed democracies in the region doubled from one in 2009 (Israel) to two in 2019 (Israel and 10 While the number of flawed democracies in the region doubled from one in 2009 (Israel) to two in 2019 (Israel and
Tunisia), five countries experienced decreases in democracy scores over the last decade (Bahrain, Lebanon, Kuwait, Tunisia), five countries experienced decreases in democracy scores over the last decade (Bahrain, Lebanon, Kuwait,
Syria, and Yemen). Freedom House, Syria, and Yemen). Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2020: : A Leaderless Struggle for Democracy. .
11 Increased international awareness of this issue led to the adoption of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1325 on 11 Increased international awareness of this issue led to the adoption of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1325 on
women, peace, and security in October 2000 and nine subsequent resolutions, the most recent being Resolution 2493 women, peace, and security in October 2000 and nine subsequent resolutions, the most recent being Resolution 2493
(2019). Resolution 1325 called on U.N. member states to increase women’s participation at all decision-making levels, (2019). Resolution 1325 called on U.N. member states to increase women’s participation at all decision-making levels,
ensure the protection of and respect for human rights of women, support local women’s peace initiatives, provide ensure the protection of and respect for human rights of women, support local women’s peace initiatives, provide
suitable women candidates as U.N. special representatives and envoys, and create special measures to protect women suitable women candidates as U.N. special representatives and envoys, and create special measures to protect women
and girls from violence in situations of armed conflict. and girls from violence in situations of armed conflict.
12 This report generally accepts these prevailing conclusions that improvements in social conditions for women and 12 This report generally accepts these prevailing conclusions that improvements in social conditions for women and
increased participation by women are responsible for improvements in other areas, but acknowledges that other increased participation by women are responsible for improvements in other areas, but acknowledges that other
interpretations of these positive correlations are possible. For a discussion on causation see for example Arjan de Haan, interpretations of these positive correlations are possible. For a discussion on causation see for example Arjan de Haan,
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
4 4

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

extent to which women are involved and empowered in a country’s economy and extent to which women are involved and empowered in a country’s economy and
politics and better outcomes for the overall society in terms of economic growth politics and better outcomes for the overall society in terms of economic growth
and stability.13 The World Bank has argued that “gender equality is smart and stability.13 The World Bank has argued that “gender equality is smart
economics,” asserting that gender equality enhances productivity and improves economics,” asserting that gender equality enhances productivity and improves
other development outcomes, including prospects for the next generation and for other development outcomes, including prospects for the next generation and for
the quality of societal policies and institutions.14 the quality of societal policies and institutions.14
  Women’s political participation may be critical to developing good
governance and sustaining lasting democratic transitions. Various studies . Various studies
have found that women’s empowerment as political leaders is correlated with have found that women’s empowerment as political leaders is correlated with
greater government responsiveness to citizen needs, increased cooperation across greater government responsiveness to citizen needs, increased cooperation across
party and ethnic lines, decreased levels of corruption, lower levels of civil party and ethnic lines, decreased levels of corruption, lower levels of civil
conflict, and a reduced risk of civil war relapse.15 conflict, and a reduced risk of civil war relapse.15
  Women’s and girls’ experiences in conflict and displacement settings may
have long-term impacts on a country’s economic and social development.
Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against women and girls tends to Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against women and girls tends to
increase during conflict and humanitarian crises due to the sudden breakdown of increase during conflict and humanitarian crises due to the sudden breakdown of
family and social structures and security deterioration amid forced family and social structures and security deterioration amid forced
displacement.16 Gaps in education, combined with war-related trauma and SGBV, displacement.16 Gaps in education, combined with war-related trauma and SGBV,
may have long-term implications for the region’s economic growth; rates of may have long-term implications for the region’s economic growth; rates of
child, early, and forced marriage and fertility; and maternal and child health.17 A child, early, and forced marriage and fertility; and maternal and child health.17 A
World Bank study estimates that ending childhood marriage globally would have World Bank study estimates that ending childhood marriage globally would have
significant socioeconomic benefits.18 significant socioeconomic benefits.18
  Women’s participation in peace processes may enhance post-conflict
stability.. Studies have shown that the inclusion of women in peace processes can Studies have shown that the inclusion of women in peace processes can
help to reduce conflict and improve long-term prospects for peace.19 A 2015 help to reduce conflict and improve long-term prospects for peace.19 A 2015

“The Win-Win Case for Women’s Economic Empowerment and Growth: Review of the Literature,” International “The Win-Win Case for Women’s Economic Empowerment and Growth: Review of the Literature,” International
Development Research Centre, Development Research Centre, GrOW Working Paper Series, March 2017. , March 2017.
13 See, for example, Esther Duflo, “Women Empowerment and Economic Development,” 13 See, for example, Esther Duflo, “Women Empowerment and Economic Development,” Journal of Economic
Literature
, vol. 50, no. 4 (2012), pp. 1051-79. , vol. 50, no. 4 (2012), pp. 1051-79.
14 The World Bank, 14 The World Bank, World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development, 2012; The World Bank, , 2012; The World Bank,
Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa, 2013. , 2013.
15 See, for example, David Dollar et al., “Are Women Really the ‘Fairer’ Sex? Corruption and Women in 15 See, for example, David Dollar et al., “Are Women Really the ‘Fairer’ Sex? Corruption and Women in
Government,” Government,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, vol. 49 (2001), pp. 423-9; Georgina Waylen, “Gender , vol. 49 (2001), pp. 423-9; Georgina Waylen, “Gender
and Transitions: What do We Know?” and Transitions: What do We Know?” Democratization, vol. 10, no. 1 (2003), pp. 157-78; Erik Melander, “Gender , vol. 10, no. 1 (2003), pp. 157-78; Erik Melander, “Gender
Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict,” Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict,” International Studies International Studies Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 4 (2005), vol. 49, no. 4 (2005),
pp. 695–714; Jacqueline Demeritt et al., “Female Participation and Civil War Relapse,” pp. 695–714; Jacqueline Demeritt et al., “Female Participation and Civil War Relapse,” Civil Wars, vol. 16, no. 3 , vol. 16, no. 3
(2014). (2014).
16 See, for example, U.N. Population Fund, 16 See, for example, U.N. Population Fund, Humanitarian Action: 2019 Overview, December 2018; and U.N. Security , December 2018; and U.N. Security
Council, Council, Conflict-related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General, S/2019/280, March 29, , S/2019/280, March 29,
2019. The WPS Index 2019 also posits that intimate partner violence is correlated with security in a country at large, 2019. The WPS Index 2019 also posits that intimate partner violence is correlated with security in a country at large,
finding that “a 1 percentage point increase in the share of women experiencing current intimate partner violence is finding that “a 1 percentage point increase in the share of women experiencing current intimate partner violence is
associated with a 1.4 percent increase in organized violence.” GIWPS and PRIO, associated with a 1.4 percent increase in organized violence.” GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index
2019/20
, p. 5. , p. 5.
17 See, for example, Oxfam, “Factsheet: Women, Peace and Security in the Middle East and North Africa Region,” 17 See, for example, Oxfam, “Factsheet: Women, Peace and Security in the Middle East and North Africa Region,”
February 2016; UNHCR, “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018. February 2016; UNHCR, “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018.
18 The study estimated the welfare benefits from lower population growth due to ending child marriage globally would 18 The study estimated the welfare benefits from lower population growth due to ending child marriage globally would
be $22 billion in 2015 and $566 billion in 2030 (for 106 countries). Quentin Wodon et al., “Economic Impacts of Child be $22 billion in 2015 and $566 billion in 2030 (for 106 countries). Quentin Wodon et al., “Economic Impacts of Child
Marriage: Global Synthesis Report,” The World Bank, June 2017. Marriage: Global Synthesis Report,” The World Bank, June 2017.
19 For a review of the literature on women’s involvement in peace processes and the positive correlation with success 19 For a review of the literature on women’s involvement in peace processes and the positive correlation with success
and durability, see Maxwell Adjei, “Women’s participation in peace processes: a review of literature,” and durability, see Maxwell Adjei, “Women’s participation in peace processes: a review of literature,” Journal of
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
5 5

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

study estimated that the participation of women and civil society groups in a study estimated that the participation of women and civil society groups in a
peace negotiation makes a peace agreement 64% less likely to fail and 35% more peace negotiation makes a peace agreement 64% less likely to fail and 35% more
likely to last at least 15 years.20 likely to last at least 15 years.20
  Women’s status and roles may be tied to relative terrorism outcomes. Some . Some
studies have linked the status of women at the household level to the resilience of studies have linked the status of women at the household level to the resilience of
a state and community to violence and violent extremism.21 Terrorist groups have a state and community to violence and violent extremism.21 Terrorist groups have
tasked female members with concealing explosive devices, relaying tasked female members with concealing explosive devices, relaying
communications, ferrying funds, and the like, assuming that women are less communications, ferrying funds, and the like, assuming that women are less
likely to be searched or otherwise draw attention from security forces.22 At the likely to be searched or otherwise draw attention from security forces.22 At the
same time, some research found that women may be uniquely positioned as same time, some research found that women may be uniquely positioned as
“mitigators” of terrorism, both as “predictors” and “preventers.”23 “mitigators” of terrorism, both as “predictors” and “preventers.”23
Overview of U.S. Policy
Successive U.S. Administrations at least since the George W. Bush presidency have expressed an Successive U.S. Administrations at least since the George W. Bush presidency have expressed an
interest in improving women’s conditions in the MENA region, and have established or supported interest in improving women’s conditions in the MENA region, and have established or supported
programs aimed at pursuing that goal. Successive Congresses have authorized initiatives and programs aimed at pursuing that goal. Successive Congresses have authorized initiatives and
appropriated funds to enable these efforts. At the same time, because of the complex nature of appropriated funds to enable these efforts. At the same time, because of the complex nature of
broader U.S. policy, activities that specifically address the well-being of women often compete broader U.S. policy, activities that specifically address the well-being of women often compete
with other regional policy priorities. with other regional policy priorities.
The primary U.S. government agencies that address women in the region are the State The primary U.S. government agencies that address women in the region are the State
Department and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Bilateral aid funded Department and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Bilateral aid funded
by the State Department and USAID-funded democracy and governance activities routinely by the State Department and USAID-funded democracy and governance activities routinely
incorporate the promotion of women’s equality.24 The Trump Administration requested incorporate the promotion of women’s equality.24 The Trump Administration requested
approximately $75 million and $83 million in FY2019 and FY2020 respectively for State approximately $75 million and $83 million in FY2019 and FY2020 respectively for State
Department and USAID gender-focused programs in the region.25 Broader U.S. foreign affairs Department and USAID gender-focused programs in the region.25 Broader U.S. foreign affairs

Peace Education, vol. 16, no. 2 (2019), pp. 133-154. , vol. 16, no. 2 (2019), pp. 133-154.
20 Marie O’Reilly, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Thania Paffenholz, 20 Marie O’Reilly, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Thania Paffenholz, Re-Imagining Peacemaking: Women’s Roles in
Peace Processes
, International Peace Institute, June 2015. , International Peace Institute, June 2015.
21 Krista Couture, “A Gendered Approach to Countering Violent Extremism: Lessons Learned From Women in 21 Krista Couture, “A Gendered Approach to Countering Violent Extremism: Lessons Learned From Women in
Peacebuilding and Conflict Prevention Applied Successfully in Bangladesh and Morocco,” Brookings Institution, Peacebuilding and Conflict Prevention Applied Successfully in Bangladesh and Morocco,” Brookings Institution,
Policy Paper, July 2014; Testimony of Dr. Valerie Hudson, in House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Terrorism, , July 2014; Testimony of Dr. Valerie Hudson, in House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Terrorism,
Nonproliferation and Trade, Nonproliferation and Trade, Women’s Role in Countering Terrorism, hearing 115th Cong., 2nd sess., February 27, 2018 , hearing 115th Cong., 2nd sess., February 27, 2018
(Washington DC: GPO, 2018); Valerie Hudson et. al., (Washington DC: GPO, 2018); Valerie Hudson et. al., The First Political Order: How Sex Shapes Governance and
National Security Worldwide
(New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2020). (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2020).
22 Jamille Bigio and Rebecca Turkington, “U.S. Counterterrorism’s Big Blindspot: Women,” 22 Jamille Bigio and Rebecca Turkington, “U.S. Counterterrorism’s Big Blindspot: Women,” The New Republic, March , March
27, 2019. For an in-depth look at one terrorist organization that has utilized this tactic to unprecedented levels, see 27, 2019. For an in-depth look at one terrorist organization that has utilized this tactic to unprecedented levels, see
Hilary Matfess, Hilary Matfess, Women and the War on Boko Haram: Wives, Weapons, Witnesses (Zed Books, 2017).(Zed Books, 2017).
23 For a discussion of the range of roles women play in perpetrating and mitigating terrorism, see Jamille Bigio and 23 For a discussion of the range of roles women play in perpetrating and mitigating terrorism, see Jamille Bigio and
Rachel Vogelstein, “Women and Terrorism: Hidden Threats, Forgotten Partners,” Council on Foreign Relations, Rachel Vogelstein, “Women and Terrorism: Hidden Threats, Forgotten Partners,” Council on Foreign Relations,
Discussion Paper, May 2019. Discussion Paper, May 2019.
24 USAID’s Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Policy seeks to “advance gender equality through integrated 24 USAID’s Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment Policy seeks to “advance gender equality through integrated
approaches as well as specific programming that dives deeper into the gender disparities across the region.” See approaches as well as specific programming that dives deeper into the gender disparities across the region.” See
USAID, “Middle East Regional: Democracy and Governance,” last updated May 4, 2018. USAID, “Middle East Regional: Democracy and Governance,” last updated May 4, 2018.
25 FY2019 and FY2020 Congressional Budget Justification supplementary tables for the Department of State, Foreign 25 FY2019 and FY2020 Congressional Budget Justification supplementary tables for the Department of State, Foreign
Operations, and Related Programs. The MENA region accounted for 8% and 11% of the FY2019 and FY2020 regional Operations, and Related Programs. The MENA region accounted for 8% and 11% of the FY2019 and FY2020 regional
funding requests for gender programs. The FY2021 Congressional Budget Justification does not similarly specify how funding requests for gender programs. The FY2021 Congressional Budget Justification does not similarly specify how
much funding is requested for gender programs in the region. much funding is requested for gender programs in the region.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
6 6

link to page 32 link to page 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

and security assistance programs addressing cross-cutting issues such as global health, and security assistance programs addressing cross-cutting issues such as global health,
humanitarian activities, defense, and legal and political rights may also address women’s issues. humanitarian activities, defense, and legal and political rights may also address women’s issues.
It is unclear how much money the United States spends annually on programs that address the It is unclear how much money the United States spends annually on programs that address the
status of women in the MENA region: the executive branch does not consistently or status of women in the MENA region: the executive branch does not consistently or
comprehensively track the number or cost of relevant programs, and Congress has not mandated comprehensively track the number or cost of relevant programs, and Congress has not mandated
such accounting. Capturing this information is complicated by the varying degree to which such accounting. Capturing this information is complicated by the varying degree to which
programs focus on women, and the extent to which they focus on the region or are part of broader programs focus on women, and the extent to which they focus on the region or are part of broader
global initiatives. Despite a lack of government-wide accounting, some U.S. agencies have global initiatives. Despite a lack of government-wide accounting, some U.S. agencies have
provided potentially useful snapshots of their activities. For example, USAID estimates that in provided potentially useful snapshots of their activities. For example, USAID estimates that in
FY2018, it spent over $30 million on projects or activities in the region in which gender equality FY2018, it spent over $30 million on projects or activities in the region in which gender equality
or women’s and girls’ empowerment was the primary or secondary goal; an additional $3.4 or women’s and girls’ empowerment was the primary or secondary goal; an additional $3.4
million was spent by USAID on projects targeting gender-based violence and trafficking in million was spent by USAID on projects targeting gender-based violence and trafficking in
persons.26 persons.26
Selected MENA-Specific Congressional Actions
In recent Congresses, legislation introduced and/or enacted aims to address issues of women’s In recent Congresses, legislation introduced and/or enacted aims to address issues of women’s
rights and well-being in the MENA region. Some examples are described below. (rights and well-being in the MENA region. Some examples are described below. (See Appendix
for additional legislation.) for additional legislation.)
  FY2020 Appropriations. Section 7041(a) of P.L. 116-94 includes a provision . Section 7041(a) of P.L. 116-94 includes a provision
that withholds $300 million of Foreign Military Financing (FMF) funds to Egypt that withholds $300 million of Foreign Military Financing (FMF) funds to Egypt
until the Secretary of State certifies that the Government of Egypt is taking until the Secretary of State certifies that the Government of Egypt is taking
effective steps to advance democracy and human rights, among other things, to effective steps to advance democracy and human rights, among other things, to
include protecting religious minorities and the rights of women.27 Section 7041 include protecting religious minorities and the rights of women.27 Section 7041
(l) provides $40 million for stabilization assistance for Yemen, including a (l) provides $40 million for stabilization assistance for Yemen, including a
contribution for United Nations (U.N.) stabilization and governance facilities, contribution for United Nations (U.N.) stabilization and governance facilities,
and to meet the needs of vulnerable populations, including women and girls.28 and to meet the needs of vulnerable populations, including women and girls.28
  Saudi Arabia. In the 116th Congress, two resolutions have been introduced to . In the 116th Congress, two resolutions have been introduced to
condemn the government of Saudi Arabia’s detention and alleged abuse of condemn the government of Saudi Arabia’s detention and alleged abuse of
women’s rights activists (H.Res. 129, passed in the House on July 15, 2019, and women’s rights activists (H.Res. 129, passed in the House on July 15, 2019, and
S.Res. 73). The Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019 S.Res. 73). The Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019
(H.R. 2037) passed in the House on July 25, 2019 and would impose sanctions (H.R. 2037) passed in the House on July 25, 2019 and would impose sanctions
related to the killing of Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi, which related to the killing of Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi, which
could be suspended if, among other criteria, “the Government of Saudi Arabia could be suspended if, among other criteria, “the Government of Saudi Arabia
has taken verifiable steps to repeal any law or regulation that requires Saudi has taken verifiable steps to repeal any law or regulation that requires Saudi
women to obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the country.”29 women to obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the country.”29

26 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019. CRS has requested information on FY2019 and 26 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019. CRS has requested information on FY2019 and
FY2020 funding levels and will provide such information when it becomes available. FY2020 funding levels and will provide such information when it becomes available.
27 The FMF certification requirement for Egypt in P.L. 116-94 does not apply to funds appropriated for 27 The FMF certification requirement for Egypt in P.L. 116-94 does not apply to funds appropriated for
counterterrorism, border security, and nonproliferation programs for Egypt. This provision has been in annual counterterrorism, border security, and nonproliferation programs for Egypt. This provision has been in annual
appropriations bills since FY2012. appropriations bills since FY2012.
28 Joint Explanatory Statement for Division G – Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs 28 Joint Explanatory Statement for Division G – Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94). Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94).
29 The act was incorporated as amendment 475 to the House-passed National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) 29 The act was incorporated as amendment 475 to the House-passed National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA)
(H.R. 2500), but only parts of the act (reporting requirements on Saudi Arabia’s human rights record and on the killing (H.R. 2500), but only parts of the act (reporting requirements on Saudi Arabia’s human rights record and on the killing
of Jamal Khashoggi) were incorporated into the final version (Sect. 1276 and 1277, P.L. 116-92). Shortly after the of Jamal Khashoggi) were incorporated into the final version (Sect. 1276 and 1277, P.L. 116-92). Shortly after the
NDAA passed the House, the Saudi government eased some restrictions on women’s movement, however several NDAA passed the House, the Saudi government eased some restrictions on women’s movement, however several
prominent women activists remain in jail. See Anya van Wagtendonk “Saudi Arabia changed its guardianship laws, but prominent women activists remain in jail. See Anya van Wagtendonk “Saudi Arabia changed its guardianship laws, but
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
7 7

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

  Sexual and Gender-based Violence. The Accountability for Sexual and Gender-. The Accountability for Sexual and Gender-
based Violence as a Tool in Conflict Act of 2019 (S. 1777 and H.R. 3212) would based Violence as a Tool in Conflict Act of 2019 (S. 1777 and H.R. 3212) would
provide for sanctions against foreign persons responsible for conflict-related acts provide for sanctions against foreign persons responsible for conflict-related acts
of sexual and gender-based violence, and finds that “rape and sexual assault have of sexual and gender-based violence, and finds that “rape and sexual assault have
been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and
Syria.”30 Syria.”30
Congress also has conducted some oversight on the status of women in the region. In the 116th Congress also has conducted some oversight on the status of women in the region. In the 116th
Congress, at least five hearings were held in which some Members asked about the status of Congress, at least five hearings were held in which some Members asked about the status of
women in the region.31 Some Members also have publicized meetings with senior women serving women in the region.31 Some Members also have publicized meetings with senior women serving
in the region’s governments, and during official travel for oversight purposes have expressed in the region’s governments, and during official travel for oversight purposes have expressed
concerns related to the status of women.32 Some Senators have raised questions regarding U.S. concerns related to the status of women.32 Some Senators have raised questions regarding U.S.
efforts to advance the status of women and sought related commitments from executive branch efforts to advance the status of women and sought related commitments from executive branch
nominees for ambassadorships to the region and Assistant Secretary positions within the State nominees for ambassadorships to the region and Assistant Secretary positions within the State
Department.33 Department.33
Selected Global Congressional Actions
In recent years, legislation has been enacted or introduced to address women’s issues worldwide, In recent years, legislation has been enacted or introduced to address women’s issues worldwide,
including on women, peace, and security; economic empowerment; and gender-based violence. including on women, peace, and security; economic empowerment; and gender-based violence.
Although these pieces of legislation are global in scope, they have the potential to apply to the Although these pieces of legislation are global in scope, they have the potential to apply to the
MENA region given prevailing political, economic and security conditions. Three examples are MENA region given prevailing political, economic and security conditions. Three examples are
described below. described below.
  The Women Peace and Security Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-68) states it is the policy (P.L. 115-68) states it is the policy
of the United States “to promote the meaningful participation of women in of the United States “to promote the meaningful participation of women in
overseas conflict prevention, management and resolution, and post-conflict relief overseas conflict prevention, management and resolution, and post-conflict relief
and recovery efforts” and calls for the creation of a new Women, Peace and and recovery efforts” and calls for the creation of a new Women, Peace and
Security strategy to detail the operationalization of the WPS Act.34 It also Security strategy to detail the operationalization of the WPS Act.34 It also

activists who fought them remain imprisoned,” Vox.com, August 3, 2019, and Human Rights Watch, “Saudi Arabia: activists who fought them remain imprisoned,” Vox.com, August 3, 2019, and Human Rights Watch, “Saudi Arabia:
Unrelenting Repression: Positive Reforms for Women Tainted by Ongoing Arrests of Activists, Dissidents,” News Unrelenting Repression: Positive Reforms for Women Tainted by Ongoing Arrests of Activists, Dissidents,” News
Release, January 14, 2020. Release, January 14, 2020.
30 Both bills were introduced in June 2019, but have not received votes. 30 Both bills were introduced in June 2019, but have not received votes.
31 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Transnational Crime, Civilian Security, 31 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Transnational Crime, Civilian Security,
Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues, Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues, Women in Conflict: Advancing Women’s Role in Peace and
Security
, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June 13, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June 13, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South
Asia, Central Asia and Counterterrorism, Asia, Central Asia and Counterterrorism, Iraq: A Crossroads of U.S. Policy, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July 16,
2020; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, 2020; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, The FY20
Budget: State Department Counterterrorism and Countering Violent Extremism Bureau
, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,
July 24, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism July 24, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism
The Path Forward: Key Findings from the Syria Study Group Report, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., September 24, , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., September 24,
2019; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, 2019; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, Egypt: Trends
in Politics, Economics, and Human Rights
, hearing, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., September 9, 2020, hearing, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., September 9, 2020.. .
32 For example, Senators Young and King met with female activists during a congressional delegation to Saudi Arabia 32 For example, Senators Young and King met with female activists during a congressional delegation to Saudi Arabia
in September 2019 to discuss women’s rights in the Middle East. Sen. Todd Young and Sen. Angus King, “Public in September 2019 to discuss women’s rights in the Middle East. Sen. Todd Young and Sen. Angus King, “Public
actions, not private assurances, will help repair US-Saudi relations,” actions, not private assurances, will help repair US-Saudi relations,” Defense News, September 20, 2019. , September 20, 2019.
33 See, for example, questions raised about Saudi Arabia’s detention of women’s rights activists during the Senate 33 See, for example, questions raised about Saudi Arabia’s detention of women’s rights activists during the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Ambassadorial Nominations for Saudi Arabia and Iraq, March 6, 2019, on Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Ambassadorial Nominations for Saudi Arabia and Iraq, March 6, 2019, on
Pending Nomination for Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, March 27, 2019, and on Pending Nomination for Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, March 27, 2019, and on
Pending Nomination for Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, And Human Rights, September 22, Pending Nomination for Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, And Human Rights, September 22,
2020. 2020.
34 The Trump Administration delivered its strategy on Women Peace and Security on June 11, 2019. Available at 34 The Trump Administration delivered its strategy on Women Peace and Security on June 11, 2019. Available at
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
8 8

link to page 32 link to page 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

requires training for selected U.S. government employees, consultation and requires training for selected U.S. government employees, consultation and
collaboration between State Department and USAID to increase the meaningful collaboration between State Department and USAID to increase the meaningful
participation of women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding, as well as a participation of women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding, as well as a
reporting requirement on the WPS strategy two years after enactment. reporting requirement on the WPS strategy two years after enactment.
  The Women’s Entrepreneurship and Economic Empowerment Act of 2018
(P.L. 115-428) modifies USAID programs to provide targeted assistance for (P.L. 115-428) modifies USAID programs to provide targeted assistance for
women and authorizes the President to provide programs in developing countries women and authorizes the President to provide programs in developing countries
for micro, small, and medium-sized businesses, particularly those owned, for micro, small, and medium-sized businesses, particularly those owned,
managed, and controlled by women. managed, and controlled by women.
  The Women and Countering Violent Extremism Act of 2019 (H.R. 1653) (H.R. 1653)
would find that the Islamic State benefited strategically and financially from the would find that the Islamic State benefited strategically and financially from the
subjugation of women, and would authorize assistance to women-led and subjugation of women, and would authorize assistance to women-led and
women’s empowerment organizations in foreign countries working on countering women’s empowerment organizations in foreign countries working on countering
violent extremism and terrorism. Section 1047 of the National Defense violent extremism and terrorism. Section 1047 of the National Defense
Authorization Act for FY2020 (P.L. 116-92) incorporates a similar provision Authorization Act for FY2020 (P.L. 116-92) incorporates a similar provision
contained in H.R. 1653 that requires an independent assessment of the contained in H.R. 1653 that requires an independent assessment of the
relationship between gender and violent extremism (serelationship between gender and violent extremism (see Appendix). .
Over the years, several Members also have introduced various versions of the International Over the years, several Members also have introduced various versions of the International
Violence Against Women Act, and Congress has enacted legislation on a range of women’s issues Violence Against Women Act, and Congress has enacted legislation on a range of women’s issues
in annual appropriations acts (see in annual appropriations acts (see text box below). Some Members also have sought to codify the below). Some Members also have sought to codify the
executive branch positions and offices related to global women’s issues.35 executive branch positions and offices related to global women’s issues.35

https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/WPS_Strategy_10_October2019.pdf. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/WPS_Strategy_10_October2019.pdf.
35 For example, selected legislative vehicles that have sought to codify the State Department’s Office of Global 35 For example, selected legislative vehicles that have sought to codify the State Department’s Office of Global
Women’s Issues and the Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women’s issues over the years included versions of the Women’s Issues and the Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women’s issues over the years included versions of the
International Violence Against Women Act; some proposed Senate State and Foreign Operations appropriations bills; International Violence Against Women Act; some proposed Senate State and Foreign Operations appropriations bills;
and proposed State Department authorization bills. and proposed State Department authorization bills.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
9 9

link to page 14 link to page 14 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

FY2020 Foreign Aid Appropriations for Global Women’s Issues
Section 7059 of the FY2020 State and Foreign Operations (SFOPS) appropriations (Division G, Section 7059 of the FY2020 State and Foreign Operations (SFOPS) appropriations (Division G, P.L.
116-94
) provides up to $330 million to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment global y. ) provides up to $330 million to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment global y.
It is unclear to what extent, if any, such funding might impact women in the MENA region. It is unclear to what extent, if any, such funding might impact women in the MENA region.
  Women’s Economic Empowerment—Up to $100 million in bilateral economic assistance —Up to $100 million in bilateral economic assistance
(Title III) funds for the Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Fund. (Title III) funds for the Women’s Global Development and Prosperity Fund.
  Women’s Leadership—Not less than $50 million in Title III funds for programs “specifically —Not less than $50 million in Title III funds for programs “specifically
designed to increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls designed to increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls
suffer discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s suffer discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s
political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and increasing political status, expanding women’s participation in political parties and elections, and increasing
women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors at the local, women’s opportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectors at the local,
provincial, and national levels.” provincial, and national levels.”
  Gender-based Violence—Not less than $165 mil ion in Title III and IV (international security —Not less than $165 mil ion in Title III and IV (international security
assistance) funds to implement a multi-year strategy to prevent and respond to a variety of assistance) funds to implement a multi-year strategy to prevent and respond to a variety of
forms of gender-based violence including child, early, and forced marriage, rape, female genital forms of gender-based violence including child, early, and forced marriage, rape, female genital
cutting and mutilation, and domestic violence, in conflict and non-conflict settings. cutting and mutilation, and domestic violence, in conflict and non-conflict settings.
  Women, Peace and Security—Unspecified level of funds from various accounts to support a —Unspecified level of funds from various accounts to support a
multi-year strategy to expand, and improve coordination of U.S. government efforts to empower multi-year strategy to expand, and improve coordination of U.S. government efforts to empower
women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building, transitional processes, and women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building, transitional processes, and
reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transition, and to ensure the reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transition, and to ensure the
equitable provision of relief and recovery assistance to women and girls. equitable provision of relief and recovery assistance to women and girls.
  Women and Girls at Risk from Extremism and Conflict—Not less than $15 million in —Not less than $15 million in
Economic Support Fund monies “to support women and girls who are at risk from extremism Economic Support Fund monies “to support women and girls who are at risk from extremism
and conflict.” and conflict.”
Policy Issues
The following sections describe several issues policymakers and lawmakers may take into The following sections describe several issues policymakers and lawmakers may take into
account when considering whether and how to improve the status of women in the MENA region, account when considering whether and how to improve the status of women in the MENA region,
including women’s legal rights and protections, economic participation, political representation, including women’s legal rights and protections, economic participation, political representation,
and the impact of conflict, displacement, and the COVID-19 pandemic on women and girls. Each and the impact of conflict, displacement, and the COVID-19 pandemic on women and girls. Each
section examines both the gender perspectives and regional dynamics that affect women in the section examines both the gender perspectives and regional dynamics that affect women in the
region. region.
Legal Rights
One challenge facing many women in the MENA region is a lack of legal recognition of One challenge facing many women in the MENA region is a lack of legal recognition of
fundamental rights. The region exhibits high levels of gender-based legal discrimination (see fundamental rights. The region exhibits high levels of gender-based legal discrimination (see
Figure 3): according to the aforementioned 2019 WPS Index, all 18 MENA countries except : according to the aforementioned 2019 WPS Index, all 18 MENA countries except
Israel are below the global average and 10 countries are among the world’s bottom 12 Israel are below the global average and 10 countries are among the world’s bottom 12
performers.36 Saudi Arabia ranked the lowest globally for legal discrimination against women, performers.36 Saudi Arabia ranked the lowest globally for legal discrimination against women,
followed closely by Yemen, the UAE, and Syria. (These findings pre-date legal and followed closely by Yemen, the UAE, and Syria. (These findings pre-date legal and
administrative changes undertaken by Saudi Arabia in 2019 regarding guardianship laws.) administrative changes undertaken by Saudi Arabia in 2019 regarding guardianship laws.)

36 This measure captures both legal discrimination and discriminatory norms. GIWPS and PRIO, 36 This measure captures both legal discrimination and discriminatory norms. GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and
Security Index 2019/20
. .
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
10 10

link to page 15 link to page 15 link to page 15 link to page 15
Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Figure 3. Legal Discrimination Score by World Region
2019 WPS Index 2019 WPS Index

Sources: Created by CRS with data from GIWPS and PRIO, Created by CRS with data from GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20. The . The
Index calculates the legal discrimination score by aggregating and weighting scores of 78 laws and regulations that Index calculates the legal discrimination score by aggregating and weighting scores of 78 laws and regulations that
limit women’s ability to participate in society or the economy or that differentiate between men and women, as limit women’s ability to participate in society or the economy or that differentiate between men and women, as
measured by The World Bank, measured by The World Bank, Women, Business, and the Law 2019: A Decade of Reform, February 2019. , February 2019.
Note: The WPS index “Fragile States” classification is based on The World Bank “Harmonized List of Fragile The WPS index “Fragile States” classification is based on The World Bank “Harmonized List of Fragile
Situations,” 2019. Situations,” 2019.
The constitutions of some MENA countries nominally guarantee legal equality between men and The constitutions of some MENA countries nominally guarantee legal equality between men and
women (seewomen (see Figure 4).37 However, in practice, rules governing matters of family law apply .37 However, in practice, rules governing matters of family law apply
differently to women in nearly all MENA countries, as they are often based on religious differently to women in nearly all MENA countries, as they are often based on religious
jurisprudence. On issues related to family matters, all of the Arab countries and Iran apply Islamic jurisprudence. On issues related to family matters, all of the Arab countries and Iran apply Islamic
law, which is not gender-neutral on marriage, divorce, child custody and guardianship, and law, which is not gender-neutral on marriage, divorce, child custody and guardianship, and
inheritance. Israel’s legal system places status issues of marriage and divorce under the inheritance. Israel’s legal system places status issues of marriage and divorce under the
jurisdiction of religious courts, which include Jewish Rabbinical Religious Courts, as well as jurisdiction of religious courts, which include Jewish Rabbinical Religious Courts, as well as
Muslim, Druze, and Christian courts, none of which are gender-neutral.38 In general, Muslim, Druze, and Christian courts, none of which are gender-neutral.38 In general,
constitutional provisions and laws mandating gender equality cannot be effective if judicial constitutional provisions and laws mandating gender equality cannot be effective if judicial
institutions are not independent and if executive institutions are unwilling or unable to implement institutions are not independent and if executive institutions are unwilling or unable to implement
the laws, or hold law-breakers accountable.39 the laws, or hold law-breakers accountable.39
As illustrated in As illustrated in Figure 4, no MENA countries treat women fully equally under the law. no MENA countries treat women fully equally under the law.
Specifically, women are treated differently under Specifically, women are treated differently under
  Gender equality and discrimination laws. Half of MENA countries (9 of 18) . Half of MENA countries (9 of 18)
include a constitutional provision enshrining the principle of gender equality. The include a constitutional provision enshrining the principle of gender equality. The
other half either have an equality provision that does not specifically mention the other half either have an equality provision that does not specifically mention the
term “gender,” or they provide for equality based on Islamic legal criteria, which term “gender,” or they provide for equality based on Islamic legal criteria, which
treat women and men differently. treat women and men differently.
  Domestic violence laws. Half of MENA countries have laws addressing . Half of MENA countries have laws addressing
domestic violence. In three of these countries, legal provisions address some acts domestic violence. In three of these countries, legal provisions address some acts
of domestic violence but do not address marital rape. of domestic violence but do not address marital rape.

37 Additionally, every MENA country, with the exception of Iran, has ratified the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of 37 Additionally, every MENA country, with the exception of Iran, has ratified the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), though almost every country ratified with conditions. (The United States Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), though almost every country ratified with conditions. (The United States
has not ratified CEDAW.) has not ratified CEDAW.)
38 In Israel, laws regulating inheritance, transmission of citizenship, and age of marriage do not differentiate between 38 In Israel, laws regulating inheritance, transmission of citizenship, and age of marriage do not differentiate between
persons based on their gender. The Law Library of Congress, “Legal Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries, persons based on their gender. The Law Library of Congress, “Legal Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries,
Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020. See also Ruth Levush, “Israel: Spousal Agreements for Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020. See also Ruth Levush, “Israel: Spousal Agreements for
Couples Not Belonging to Any Religion—A Civil Marriage Option?” Law Library of Congress, September 2015. Couples Not Belonging to Any Religion—A Civil Marriage Option?” Law Library of Congress, September 2015.
39 For example, the State Department noted that in Morocco, “the judiciary lacked willingness to enforce [family law 39 For example, the State Department noted that in Morocco, “the judiciary lacked willingness to enforce [family law
reforms enacted in 2004], as many judges did not agree with their provisions” and where “corruption among working-reforms enacted in 2004], as many judges did not agree with their provisions” and where “corruption among working-
level court clerks and lack of knowledge about its provisions among lawyers were also obstacles to enforcing the law.” level court clerks and lack of knowledge about its provisions among lawyers were also obstacles to enforcing the law.”
U.S. Department of State, “Morocco 2019 Human Rights Report,” March 2020. U.S. Department of State, “Morocco 2019 Human Rights Report,” March 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
11 11


Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

  Age of marriage laws. More than half of MENA countries (11 of 18) have set a . More than half of MENA countries (11 of 18) have set a
minimum age for marriage of 18 or older for both girls and boys. Nevertheless, minimum age for marriage of 18 or older for both girls and boys. Nevertheless,
13 countries (including Israel) have a provision in their family law allowing a 13 countries (including Israel) have a provision in their family law allowing a
religious court to marry women younger than the legal age of marriage. Iran has religious court to marry women younger than the legal age of marriage. Iran has
the lowest legal age of marriage for girls at 13 years old, and Yemen has no the lowest legal age of marriage for girls at 13 years old, and Yemen has no
minimum age for marriage. minimum age for marriage.
Figure 4. Selected Measures of Legal Discrimination Against MENA Women

Source: Created by CRS with data fromCreated by CRS with data from the GIWPS and PRIO, the GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20 (legal (legal
discrimination score, reflecting country conditions as of 2019) and The Law Library of Congress, “Legal discrimination score, reflecting country conditions as of 2019) and The Law Library of Congress, “Legal
Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries, Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020. Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries, Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
12 12

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Legal Spotlight: Violence Against Women and Sexual Harassment
Violence against women, sexual harassment and gender discrimination are longstanding and pervasive problems in Violence against women, sexual harassment and gender discrimination are longstanding and pervasive problems in
the MENA region, with perpetrators often not held accountable by local or national governments.40 In recent the MENA region, with perpetrators often not held accountable by local or national governments.40 In recent
years, there has been increased public awareness of these issues through media reporting and social media years, there has been increased public awareness of these issues through media reporting and social media
movements. Some governments in the region have recently passed legislation addressing violence against women movements. Some governments in the region have recently passed legislation addressing violence against women
and protecting victims of sexual harassment, but implementation of the laws remains spotty. Members of Congress and protecting victims of sexual harassment, but implementation of the laws remains spotty. Members of Congress
have engaged on two of these legal efforts in Tunisia and Egypt. have engaged on two of these legal efforts in Tunisia and Egypt.
Tunisia. Some 60% of Tunisian women have experienced domestic violence, according to the Ministry of Some 60% of Tunisian women have experienced domestic violence, according to the Ministry of
Women, Family and Children.41 In 2017, parliament passed a law to prevent and address violence against women, Women, Family and Children.41 In 2017, parliament passed a law to prevent and address violence against women,
though there have been challenges to implementation.42 In late 2019, Tunisian women began to share testimonies though there have been challenges to implementation.42 In late 2019, Tunisian women began to share testimonies
of sexual harassment under the hashtag #EnaZeda, (“MeToo” in Tunisian dialect).43 In the explanatory statement of sexual harassment under the hashtag #EnaZeda, (“MeToo” in Tunisian dialect).43 In the explanatory statement
accompanying the FY2018 aid appropriations measure (Division K, P.L. 115-141), Congress directed some funds accompanying the FY2018 aid appropriations measure (Division K, P.L. 115-141), Congress directed some funds
“to support implementation of Tunisia’s Law on Eliminating Violence Against Women.” Similar directives were not “to support implementation of Tunisia’s Law on Eliminating Violence Against Women.” Similar directives were not
included in FY2019 or FY2020 appropriations. included in FY2019 or FY2020 appropriations.
Egypt. Harassment of women in Egypt is widespread: a 2013 U.N. survey found that 99% of respondents had Harassment of women in Egypt is widespread: a 2013 U.N. survey found that 99% of respondents had
been subjected to some form of sexual harassment.44 The government passed a law in 2014 criminalizing sexual been subjected to some form of sexual harassment.44 The government passed a law in 2014 criminalizing sexual
harassment, but abuses continue, including some by the government. For example, human rights advocates have harassment, but abuses continue, including some by the government. For example, human rights advocates have
expressed concern over recent government arrests of multiple young women for “offending public morals” and expressed concern over recent government arrests of multiple young women for “offending public morals” and
“undermining family values” in their social media videos.45 Violence against women is also an issue: U.N. Women “undermining family values” in their social media videos.45 Violence against women is also an issue: U.N. Women
reports that roughly 25% of women experience Lifetime Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence and 87% reports that roughly 25% of women experience Lifetime Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence and 87%
of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years have undergone Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C).46 Accusations of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years have undergone Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C).46 Accusations
of sexual harassment and assault have increasingly surfaced in the media, and in early July 2020, hundreds of of sexual harassment and assault have increasingly surfaced in the media, and in early July 2020, hundreds of
accounts of rape and sexual harassment published on social media with the hashtag #MeToo led to the arrest of accounts of rape and sexual harassment published on social media with the hashtag #MeToo led to the arrest of
six men accused of rape.47 On August 16, 2020, the Egyptian parliament passed a new law to protect the identity six men accused of rape.47 On August 16, 2020, the Egyptian parliament passed a new law to protect the identity
of victims reporting incidences of sexual harassment and assault.48 of victims reporting incidences of sexual harassment and assault.48
In a September 2020 hearing on Egypt, House Foreign Affairs Middle East and North Africa Subcommittee In a September 2020 hearing on Egypt, House Foreign Affairs Middle East and North Africa Subcommittee
Chairman Ted Deutch raised the issue: “[T]he Egyptian government has claimed that it's taking sexual assault Chairman Ted Deutch raised the issue: “[T]he Egyptian government has claimed that it's taking sexual assault and--
and—and harassment seriously. But efforts to go after victims as well as the LGBT community show otherwiseand harassment seriously. But efforts to go after victims as well as the LGBT community show otherwise--suggest suggest
otherwise.” He then asked, “otherwise.” He then asked, “. . . what additional legal mechanisms could Egypt put in place to protect women from . what additional legal mechanisms could Egypt put in place to protect women from
sexual harassment and gender-based violence and to support and protect the LGBT community?” sexual harassment and gender-based violence and to support and protect the LGBT community?”

40 The United Nations defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely 40 The United Nations defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely
to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” U.N. General Assembly, “Declaration on arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” U.N. General Assembly, “Declaration on
the Elimination of Violence against Women,” A/RES/48/104, February 1994. the Elimination of Violence against Women,” A/RES/48/104, February 1994.
41 Lilia Blaise, “‘I Can Finally Dream’: Tunisia Expands Protection for Battered Women,” 41 Lilia Blaise, “‘I Can Finally Dream’: Tunisia Expands Protection for Battered Women,” The New York Times, May , May
12, 2018. 12, 2018.
42 See, e.g., Rihab Boukhayatia, “Tunisia’s Violence against Women Law Seemed Perfect on Paper. In Practice, It 42 See, e.g., Rihab Boukhayatia, “Tunisia’s Violence against Women Law Seemed Perfect on Paper. In Practice, It
Hasn’t Been.,” Hasn’t Been.,” HuffPost, December 13, 2018; Charlotte Bailey, “One Year Ago, Tunisia Passed a Groundbreaking Law , December 13, 2018; Charlotte Bailey, “One Year Ago, Tunisia Passed a Groundbreaking Law
to Protect Women. Has It Worked?” to Protect Women. Has It Worked?” Time, July 26, 2018. , July 26, 2018.
43 Mohamed Haddad, “#EnaZeda, le #metoo tunisien est né,” 43 Mohamed Haddad, “#EnaZeda, le #metoo tunisien est né,” Le Monde, October 15, 2019. Makhlouf resigned from the , October 15, 2019. Makhlouf resigned from the
Qalb Tounes party on May 14, 2020 but remains a member of parliament. Qalb Tounes party on May 14, 2020 but remains a member of parliament.
44 Bouthiana El Deeb, “Study on Ways and Methods to Eliminate Sexual Harassment in Egypt,” United Nations Entity 44 Bouthiana El Deeb, “Study on Ways and Methods to Eliminate Sexual Harassment in Egypt,” United Nations Entity
for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (U.N. Women), May 23, 2013. for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (U.N. Women), May 23, 2013.
45 Human Rights Watch, “Egypt: Spate of ‘Morality’ Prosecutions of Women,” August 17, 2020. 45 Human Rights Watch, “Egypt: Spate of ‘Morality’ Prosecutions of Women,” August 17, 2020.
46 U.N. Women, “Global Database on Violence against Women: Egypt,” 2016. 46 U.N. Women, “Global Database on Violence against Women: Egypt,” 2016.
47 “Egypt #MeToo: Arrests over Alleged Gang Rape after Instagram Campaign,” BBC News, August 26, 2020. 47 “Egypt #MeToo: Arrests over Alleged Gang Rape after Instagram Campaign,” BBC News, August 26, 2020.
48 Menna A. Farouk, “Egypt Approves Law to Protect Identities of Women Reporting Sex Abuse,” 48 Menna A. Farouk, “Egypt Approves Law to Protect Identities of Women Reporting Sex Abuse,” Reuters, August 16, , August 16,
2020. 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
13 13

link to page 19 link to page 19 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Economic Participation and Opportunity49
Regional conditions, in addition to gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant Regional conditions, in addition to gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant
difference between men and women’s economic participation. With the partial exception of major difference between men and women’s economic participation. With the partial exception of major
oil- and gas-producing countries, the MENA region has long lagged on economic development oil- and gas-producing countries, the MENA region has long lagged on economic development
indicators when compared with other regions. Some have argued that the limits in women’s indicators when compared with other regions. Some have argued that the limits in women’s
economic participation may be among many factors that have contributed to regional shortfalls: economic participation may be among many factors that have contributed to regional shortfalls:
in 2016, the OECD estimated that gender-based discrimination in laws and social norms costs the in 2016, the OECD estimated that gender-based discrimination in laws and social norms costs the
MENA region $575 billion a year.50 Development indicators have declined further in some MENA region $575 billion a year.50 Development indicators have declined further in some
countries as a result of violent unrest since 2011, and in 2020 the “dual shocks” of the COVID-19 countries as a result of violent unrest since 2011, and in 2020 the “dual shocks” of the COVID-19
pandemic and the oil price decline have presented daunting economic challenges.51 Before the pandemic and the oil price decline have presented daunting economic challenges.51 Before the
pandemic, women were arguably experiencing these national and regional disadvantages more pandemic, women were arguably experiencing these national and regional disadvantages more
severely than men, and the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to exacerbate these inequalities. severely than men, and the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to exacerbate these inequalities.
Within the region, states have significant differences with regard to income level. To some extent, Within the region, states have significant differences with regard to income level. To some extent,
women in states that have achieved more economic success overall have had higher participation women in states that have achieved more economic success overall have had higher participation
in the labor force and lower unemployment rates than women in the lower-income, less in the labor force and lower unemployment rates than women in the lower-income, less
developed countries (seedeveloped countries (see Figure 5). This is not uniformly true, however; in Saudi Arabia, where . This is not uniformly true, however; in Saudi Arabia, where
the legal system and culture traditionally have discouraged women’s participation in the the legal system and culture traditionally have discouraged women’s participation in the
economy, many fewer women work despite relative national wealth. Saudi authorities have begun economy, many fewer women work despite relative national wealth. Saudi authorities have begun
encouraging women’s participation in the workforce in recent years as a component of broader encouraging women’s participation in the workforce in recent years as a component of broader
national economic development and transformation initiatives.52 national economic development and transformation initiatives.52
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the MENA region had the lowest rates of female labor force Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the MENA region had the lowest rates of female labor force
participation (i.e., the percentage of women who work or are actively seeking employment) in the participation (i.e., the percentage of women who work or are actively seeking employment) in the
world. The regional average female labor force participation rate (28.3%) was 19 percentage world. The regional average female labor force participation rate (28.3%) was 19 percentage
points below the global average for women (47.7%), ranging from 5.8% in Yemen to 59.2% in points below the global average for women (47.7%), ranging from 5.8% in Yemen to 59.2% in
Israel.53 On average, women participated in the labor force at less than half the rate of men in the Israel.53 On average, women participated in the labor force at less than half the rate of men in the
region (76.2%). Women’s unpaid domestic and agricultural labor is seldom quantified and not region (76.2%). Women’s unpaid domestic and agricultural labor is seldom quantified and not
measured in official statistics. The greatest gaps between male and female participation in the measured in official statistics. The greatest gaps between male and female participation in the
labor force were found in Yemen, Iraq and Syria—countries that face severe instability and labor force were found in Yemen, Iraq and Syria—countries that face severe instability and
conflict in addition to economic woes—and in Gulf monarchies (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Oman). conflict in addition to economic woes—and in Gulf monarchies (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Oman).
Experts expect more women to leave the labor force due to the COVID-19 pandemic.54 A U.N. Experts expect more women to leave the labor force due to the COVID-19 pandemic.54 A U.N.
report from April 2020 reported that 700,000 women in the region faced income insecurity, with report from April 2020 reported that 700,000 women in the region faced income insecurity, with
women’s jobs accounting for around 40% of the 1.7 million jobs expected to be lost. That is women’s jobs accounting for around 40% of the 1.7 million jobs expected to be lost. That is

49 Much of the economic data used for this section predates the COVID-19 pandemic, and thus will not reflect changes 49 Much of the economic data used for this section predates the COVID-19 pandemic, and thus will not reflect changes
and trends related to the pandemic. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has noted major disruptions to data and trends related to the pandemic. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has noted major disruptions to data
collection for statistical estimates of the labor market. “COVID-19 impact on the collection of labour market statistics,” collection for statistical estimates of the labor market. “COVID-19 impact on the collection of labour market statistics,”
ILO, May 10, 2020. ILO, May 10, 2020.
50 Gaëlle Ferrant and Alexandre Kolev, “The economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions,” 50 Gaëlle Ferrant and Alexandre Kolev, “The economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions,”
OECD Development Centre, OECD Development Centre, Issues Paper, June 2016. , June 2016.
51 Rabah Arezki and Ha Nguyen, “Coping with a Dual Shock: COVID-19 and Oil Prices,” The World Bank, April 14, 51 Rabah Arezki and Ha Nguyen, “Coping with a Dual Shock: COVID-19 and Oil Prices,” The World Bank, April 14,
2020. See also, Larry Luxnor, “COVID-19 could set back Mideast Economies for Years,” New Atlanticist, July 14, 2020. See also, Larry Luxnor, “COVID-19 could set back Mideast Economies for Years,” New Atlanticist, July 14,
2020. 2020.
52 The World Bank, “Saudi women rising up in business in line with Vision 2030,” March 11, 2020. 52 The World Bank, “Saudi women rising up in business in line with Vision 2030,” March 11, 2020.
53 ILO modeled estimates retrieved December 2019. For a discussion of why women’s economic participation is so low 53 ILO modeled estimates retrieved December 2019. For a discussion of why women’s economic participation is so low
in Yemen specifically, see Fawziah Al-Ammar and Hannah Patchett, “The Repercussions of War on Women in the in Yemen specifically, see Fawziah Al-Ammar and Hannah Patchett, “The Repercussions of War on Women in the
Yemeni Workforce,” Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies, July 23, 2019. Yemeni Workforce,” Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies, July 23, 2019.
54 Anu Madgavkar et al., “COVID-19 and Gender Equality: Countering the Regressive Effects,” McKinsey Global 54 Anu Madgavkar et al., “COVID-19 and Gender Equality: Countering the Regressive Effects,” McKinsey Global
Institute, July 15, 2020. Institute, July 15, 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
14 14

link to page 19 link to page 19 link to page 19 link to page 19 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

despite women in the region constituting a much smaller percentage of the workforce.55 For despite women in the region constituting a much smaller percentage of the workforce.55 For
example, data from Israel—one of the countries in the region in which women’s participation in example, data from Israel—one of the countries in the region in which women’s participation in
the economy is highest—show that women accounted for 56% of jobs lost from March to May; the economy is highest—show that women accounted for 56% of jobs lost from March to May;
during a second lockdown in September, women made up 62.7% of the newly unemployed in during a second lockdown in September, women made up 62.7% of the newly unemployed in
September.56 The prevalence of women in the informal sector, where basic protections such as September.56 The prevalence of women in the informal sector, where basic protections such as
unemployment insurance and health benefits are generally lacking, add to their economic unemployment insurance and health benefits are generally lacking, add to their economic
vulnerability. vulnerability.
The “MENA Paradox”
In what has been referred to as the “MENA paradox,” female labor force participation remains low across the In what has been referred to as the “MENA paradox,” female labor force participation remains low across the
region despite rapidly rising female education attainmentregion despite rapidly rising female education attainment (see Figure 5).57 The World Bank argues that the 57 The World Bank argues that the
region’s conservative gender norms, legal and institutional barriers, and incentives and opportunities generated by region’s conservative gender norms, legal and institutional barriers, and incentives and opportunities generated by
local economic structures drive low rates of women’s participation in the public sphere.58 Some observers have local economic structures drive low rates of women’s participation in the public sphere.58 Some observers have
posited that the mismatch is demand-side driven, as young women have increasingly entered the workforce at a posited that the mismatch is demand-side driven, as young women have increasingly entered the workforce at a
time when job opportunities happen to have stagnated for both men and women.59 Others argue that the paradox time when job opportunities happen to have stagnated for both men and women.59 Others argue that the paradox
can be explained by a trifecta of constraints on supply-side factors, namely discriminatory gender norms, attitudes can be explained by a trifecta of constraints on supply-side factors, namely discriminatory gender norms, attitudes
and regulations; a lack of financial and business services for women; and limited access to skil s, knowledge, and regulations; a lack of financial and business services for women; and limited access to skil s, knowledge,
markets and networks.60 markets and networks.60
Even before the pandemic, the World Bank had noted that a failure to address the high Even before the pandemic, the World Bank had noted that a failure to address the high
unemployment rates among youth and women could “deter economic recovery and hamper long-unemployment rates among youth and women could “deter economic recovery and hamper long-
term growth prospects in the region.”61 High rates of unemployment and under-employment term growth prospects in the region.”61 High rates of unemployment and under-employment
(reflecting those who are actively seeking work), particularly among young people, continue to (reflecting those who are actively seeking work), particularly among young people, continue to
challenge MENA governments (seechallenge MENA governments (see Figure 5). The average unemployment rate for women in the . The average unemployment rate for women in the
region (14.7%) was more than twice the regional average for men (6.6%).62 Youth region (14.7%) was more than twice the regional average for men (6.6%).62 Youth
unemployment, while a challenge for men as well as women, was worse for young women in all unemployment, while a challenge for men as well as women, was worse for young women in all
the MENA countries except Israel: on average, female youth unemployment was nearly 14 the MENA countries except Israel: on average, female youth unemployment was nearly 14
percentage points higher than male youth unemployment (31.6% compared to 18%).63 Economic percentage points higher than male youth unemployment (31.6% compared to 18%).63 Economic
frustration was arguably one of the driving forces behind the Arab Spring uprisings in 2011, and frustration was arguably one of the driving forces behind the Arab Spring uprisings in 2011, and

55 UN Women and UN ESCWA, “The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region,” 55 UN Women and UN ESCWA, “The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region,”
E/ESCWA/2020/Policy Brief.4, April 2020. The World Bank has forecasted significant macroeconomic losses to the E/ESCWA/2020/Policy Brief.4, April 2020. The World Bank has forecasted significant macroeconomic losses to the
region’s Gross Domestic Product, and predicts an increase in poverty, especially for those who are self-employed, work region’s Gross Domestic Product, and predicts an increase in poverty, especially for those who are self-employed, work
in informal sector lacking social protection, and those who work in sectors directly hit by the COVID-19 crisis. The in informal sector lacking social protection, and those who work in sectors directly hit by the COVID-19 crisis. The
World Bank “MENA Crisis Tracker,” October 14, 2020. World Bank “MENA Crisis Tracker,” October 14, 2020.
56 Lee Yaron, “Almost Twice as Many Women as Men Lost Jobs in Israel 56 Lee Yaron, “Almost Twice as Many Women as Men Lost Jobs in Israel's Second Lockdown,” s Second Lockdown,” Haaretz, October 18, October 18,
2020. 2020.
57 ILO, “High female education and low labour participation rates: IFAD and ILO tackle the ‘MENA gender paradox,’” 57 ILO, “High female education and low labour participation rates: IFAD and ILO tackle the ‘MENA gender paradox,’”
ILO News, July 19, 2017. ILO News, July 19, 2017.
58 The World Bank, 58 The World Bank, Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa, 2013. , 2013.
59 Ragui Assaad et al., “Explaining the MENA Paradox: Rising Educational Attainment, Yet Stagnant Female Labor 59 Ragui Assaad et al., “Explaining the MENA Paradox: Rising Educational Attainment, Yet Stagnant Female Labor
Force Participation,” IZA Institute of Labor Economics, Force Participation,” IZA Institute of Labor Economics, Discussion Paper No. 11385, March 2018. No. 11385, March 2018.
60 Drew Gardiner, “Attitudes and Norms on Women’s Employment in the MENA region,” ILO, March 2018. 60 Drew Gardiner, “Attitudes and Norms on Women’s Employment in the MENA region,” ILO, March 2018.
61 Rabah Arezki et al., “A New Economy for the Middle East and North Africa,” The World Bank, 61 Rabah Arezki et al., “A New Economy for the Middle East and North Africa,” The World Bank, Middle East and
North Africa Economic Monitor
, October 2018. , October 2018.
62 The ILO defines unemployment as the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking 62 The ILO defines unemployment as the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking
employment. Twelve of the world’s 14 worst performing countries on female employment are Yemen, Syria, Algeria, employment. Twelve of the world’s 14 worst performing countries on female employment are Yemen, Syria, Algeria,
Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Lebanon. ILOSTAT data, 2018, presented in Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Lebanon. ILOSTAT data, 2018, presented in
GIWPS and PRIO, GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20. .
63 CRS calculations using ILO-modeled estimates last updated April 9, 2020. 63 CRS calculations using ILO-modeled estimates last updated April 9, 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
15 15


Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

renewed protests in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon in 2019 and 2020 again brought the issue renewed protests in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon in 2019 and 2020 again brought the issue
to the fore.64 to the fore.64
The picture has not been uniformly negative: between 2000 and 2018, over nine million women The picture has not been uniformly negative: between 2000 and 2018, over nine million women
entered the region’s labor force.65 Some observers also point to increased female entrepreneurship entered the region’s labor force.65 Some observers also point to increased female entrepreneurship
in countries such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar as positive economic developments for women. In in countries such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar as positive economic developments for women. In
2019, Saudi Arabia and Qatar were found to have more women entrepreneurs than men, an 2019, Saudi Arabia and Qatar were found to have more women entrepreneurs than men, an
increase from 2017 when there were around eight women for every 10 male entrepreneurs.66 increase from 2017 when there were around eight women for every 10 male entrepreneurs.66
Figure 5. Selected Economic Indicators for Women in the MENA region

Source: Labor force participation rate and unemployment rate are International Labor Organization (ILO)- Labor force participation rate and unemployment rate are International Labor Organization (ILO)-
modeled estimates for 2019, downloaded from the World Bank data portal on May 28, 2020. GDP data are also modeled estimates for 2019, downloaded from the World Bank data portal on May 28, 2020. GDP data are also
available from the World Bank for 2018. Mean years of schooling data are from the UN Development Program available from the World Bank for 2018. Mean years of schooling data are from the UN Development Program
(UNDP), (UNDP), Human Development Report 2019, Gender Development Index, July 15, 2019. , Gender Development Index, July 15, 2019.

64 See for example Jeremy Bowen, “Is a new Arab Spring unfolding in the Middle East?” BBC News, October 29, 64 See for example Jeremy Bowen, “Is a new Arab Spring unfolding in the Middle East?” BBC News, October 29,
2019; “Ten Years of Pan-Arab Protests: Understanding the New Dynamics of Change,” Wilson Center Event, October 2019; “Ten Years of Pan-Arab Protests: Understanding the New Dynamics of Change,” Wilson Center Event, October
7, 2020.7, 2020.
65 Saadia Zahidi, 65 Saadia Zahidi, Fifty Million Rising: The New Generation of Working Women Transforming the Muslim World, (New (New
York, NY: Nation Books, 2018), p. 7. York, NY: Nation Books, 2018), p. 7.
66 Ayman Ismail, “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Middle East and North Africa,” Global Entrepreneurship Research 66 Ayman Ismail, “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Middle East and North Africa,” Global Entrepreneurship Research
Association, London Business School, November 2017; Niels Bosma et al., “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Association, London Business School, November 2017; Niels Bosma et al., “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor
2019/2020 Global Report,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School, 2020. While 2019/2020 Global Report,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School, 2020. While
promising, these gains for women are not universal across the region: the 2019 study found there are more than two promising, these gains for women are not universal across the region: the 2019 study found there are more than two
male entrepreneurs for every female entrepreneur in Egypt. male entrepreneurs for every female entrepreneur in Egypt.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
16 16

link to page 22 link to page 22 link to page 22 link to page 22 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Notes: UNDP defines mean years of schooling as “the average number of years of education received by people UNDP defines mean years of schooling as “the average number of years of education received by people
ages 25 and older, converted from educational attainment levels using official durations of each level.” The most ages 25 and older, converted from educational attainment levels using official durations of each level.” The most
recent GDP per capita data for Syria is from 2010 and from 2017 for Iran. recent GDP per capita data for Syria is from 2010 and from 2017 for Iran.
Political Representation
On a population share basis, women are underrepresented in political positions and institutions in On a population share basis, women are underrepresented in political positions and institutions in
the MENA region to a greater extent than they are in most of the world.67 For example, MENA the MENA region to a greater extent than they are in most of the world.67 For example, MENA
countries perform poorly as compared to the world average when it comes to the percentage of countries perform poorly as compared to the world average when it comes to the percentage of
seats held by women in legislative bodies: 10.4% of seats are held by women compared to 24.3% seats held by women in legislative bodies: 10.4% of seats are held by women compared to 24.3%
globally and 23.6% in the United States (seeglobally and 23.6% in the United States (see Figure 6). Moreover, no country in the region is . Moreover, no country in the region is
classified by Freedom House as a full democracy.68 Monarchies and authoritarian or hybrid classified by Freedom House as a full democracy.68 Monarchies and authoritarian or hybrid
political systems may create some opportunities for women to participate in legislative bodies, political systems may create some opportunities for women to participate in legislative bodies,
but ultimately may not be responsive to elected representatives. For example, the Saudi monarchy but ultimately may not be responsive to elected representatives. For example, the Saudi monarchy
recognized women’s right to vote in 2011 and expanded women’s participation in the advisory, recognized women’s right to vote in 2011 and expanded women’s participation in the advisory,
appointed Shura Council. Saudi Arabia has recognized some additional women’s rights (such as appointed Shura Council. Saudi Arabia has recognized some additional women’s rights (such as
the right to drive) since 2017, but the government continues to detain women activists and the right to drive) since 2017, but the government continues to detain women activists and
maintain some “guardianship” limits on women’s behavior.69 Some observers argue that maintain some “guardianship” limits on women’s behavior.69 Some observers argue that
authoritarian leaders rhetorically uphold initiatives on women’s rights to appear more inclusive authoritarian leaders rhetorically uphold initiatives on women’s rights to appear more inclusive
and divert attention away from repressive behavior or to bolster their legitimacy abroad.70 and divert attention away from repressive behavior or to bolster their legitimacy abroad.70
Some governments and political parties have attempted to improve women’s representation in Some governments and political parties have attempted to improve women’s representation in
legislative bodies by implementing gender quotas. Eight countries in the region have some form legislative bodies by implementing gender quotas. Eight countries in the region have some form
of quota to ensure women’s representation, and those countries have more women seated in lower of quota to ensure women’s representation, and those countries have more women seated in lower
houses of the legislature than the MENA average (seehouses of the legislature than the MENA average (see Figure 6). Arab Barometer findings . Arab Barometer findings
indicate that more than two-thirds of those surveyed support women’s quotas.71 One recent indicate that more than two-thirds of those surveyed support women’s quotas.71 One recent
example of quota implementation is in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, example of quota implementation is in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria,
also known as Rojava, where “each administrative institution is co-led by a woman and, in also known as Rojava, where “each administrative institution is co-led by a woman and, in
addition to all-female councils, a 40 per cent quota reinforces female representation and addition to all-female councils, a 40 per cent quota reinforces female representation and
participation in economic initiatives and civil society organizations.”72 participation in economic initiatives and civil society organizations.”72
In 2019, women won fewer parliamentary seats than in the past in both Tunisia and Israel, the In 2019, women won fewer parliamentary seats than in the past in both Tunisia and Israel, the
region’s two most democratic countries. In Tunisia, where the electoral law requires that region’s two most democratic countries. In Tunisia, where the electoral law requires that

67 See CRS Report R45483, 67 See CRS Report R45483, Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet, by Susan G. Chesser. , by Susan G. Chesser.
68 In order of descending democracy scores, Freedom House ranks Israel and Tunisia as flawed democracies; Morocco, 68 In order of descending democracy scores, Freedom House ranks Israel and Tunisia as flawed democracies; Morocco,
Lebanon, and Algeria as hybrid regimes; and Jordan, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, Egypt, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Iran, Libya, Lebanon, and Algeria as hybrid regimes; and Jordan, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, Egypt, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Iran, Libya,
Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as authoritarian regimes. Sarah Repucci, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as authoritarian regimes. Sarah Repucci, Freedom in the World 2020: : A Leaderless
Struggle for Democracy
. .
69 See Eman Alhussein, “Saudi Changes to Guardianship System Ease Restrictions on Women,” Arab Gulf States 69 See Eman Alhussein, “Saudi Changes to Guardianship System Ease Restrictions on Women,” Arab Gulf States
Institute in Washington, August 7, 2019, and Amnesty International, “Saudi Arabia: Women’s rights campaigner Institute in Washington, August 7, 2019, and Amnesty International, “Saudi Arabia: Women’s rights campaigner
Loujain al-Hathloul due in court,” March 9, 2020. Loujain al-Hathloul due in court,” March 9, 2020.
70 See for example: Gabrielle Bardall, “Autocrats use feminism to undermine democracy,” Policy Options, October 30, 70 See for example: Gabrielle Bardall, “Autocrats use feminism to undermine democracy,” Policy Options, October 30,
2019; Hind Ahmed Zaki, “El-Sissi’s Women? Shifting gender discourses and the limits of state feminism,” 2019; Hind Ahmed Zaki, “El-Sissi’s Women? Shifting gender discourses and the limits of state feminism,”
Égypte/Monde Arabe, vol. 13 (2015), pp. 39-53. , vol. 13 (2015), pp. 39-53.
71 Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. Thomas 71 Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. Thomas
notes that “Many MENA publics express a preference for greater female political participation, including acceptance of notes that “Many MENA publics express a preference for greater female political participation, including acceptance of
a female head of state and the implementation of women’s quotas for elected office. However, the belief that men are a female head of state and the implementation of women’s quotas for elected office. However, the belief that men are
better political leaders prevails.” better political leaders prevails.”
72 U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab 72 U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab
Republic,” A/HRC/43/57, January 28, 2020. See also, Gayle Tzemach Lemmon, “Inside the World’s Most Radical Republic,” A/HRC/43/57, January 28, 2020. See also, Gayle Tzemach Lemmon, “Inside the World’s Most Radical
Experiment in Women’s Rights,” Defense One, February 6, 2018. Experiment in Women’s Rights,” Defense One, February 6, 2018.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
17 17

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

parliamentary candidate lists alternate between men and women (meaning that any party that parliamentary candidate lists alternate between men and women (meaning that any party that
wins more than one seat in a given district will send at least one woman to parliament), women wins more than one seat in a given district will send at least one woman to parliament), women
lost 25 seats in the 2019 parliamentary elections compared to 2014.73 In Israel, where some lost 25 seats in the 2019 parliamentary elections compared to 2014.73 In Israel, where some
political parties have voluntarily instituted gender quotas, women held 35 seats in the 120-seat political parties have voluntarily instituted gender quotas, women held 35 seats in the 120-seat
20th Knesset (elected in 2015), compared to 29 elected in April 2019, 28 in the September 2019 20th Knesset (elected in 2015), compared to 29 elected in April 2019, 28 in the September 2019
re-run of elections, and 30 in the third electoral re-run, in March 2020.74 re-run of elections, and 30 in the third electoral re-run, in March 2020.74
Where women are elected to political bodies, they may encounter additional barriers to political Where women are elected to political bodies, they may encounter additional barriers to political
participation. For example, a 2015 study found that even though women held 16% of seats in the participation. For example, a 2015 study found that even though women held 16% of seats in the
Libyan parliament (due in part to gender quotas), female members of parliament were challenged Libyan parliament (due in part to gender quotas), female members of parliament were challenged
by practices such as holding meetings late at night when it is not socially acceptable for women to by practices such as holding meetings late at night when it is not socially acceptable for women to
be out or in places considered unsafe for women to attend. They have also been subject to verbal be out or in places considered unsafe for women to attend. They have also been subject to verbal
intimidation by their male counterparts.75 intimidation by their male counterparts.75
Obstacles to women’s representation may also include cultural beliefs about a woman’s place in Obstacles to women’s representation may also include cultural beliefs about a woman’s place in
politics, though there appears to be a range of views within the region. A 2016 public opinion poll politics, though there appears to be a range of views within the region. A 2016 public opinion poll
in Arab countries indicated that men, and to a lesser extent women, view men as superior political in Arab countries indicated that men, and to a lesser extent women, view men as superior political
leaders. At the same time, the poll also found that a majority of men and a larger majority of leaders. At the same time, the poll also found that a majority of men and a larger majority of
women in each country except Algeria agreed that an Arab woman could become the head of state women in each country except Algeria agreed that an Arab woman could become the head of state
of a Muslim-majority country.76 of a Muslim-majority country.76
Furthermore, as women gain greater representation in political bodies, they may still hold less Furthermore, as women gain greater representation in political bodies, they may still hold less
power than men, a distinction that is sometimes lost in quantitative measures of participation. An power than men, a distinction that is sometimes lost in quantitative measures of participation. An
index developed by the U.S. government’s Wilson Center to measure women’s leadership in the index developed by the U.S. government’s Wilson Center to measure women’s leadership in the
MENA region found in 2020 that when women led top government departments there, they were MENA region found in 2020 that when women led top government departments there, they were
four times more likely to be found in what are considered traditionally “feminized” sectors four times more likely to be found in what are considered traditionally “feminized” sectors
focused on various forms of caretaking, such as socio-cultural ministries, rather than sectors with focused on various forms of caretaking, such as socio-cultural ministries, rather than sectors with
large budgets and greater influence over policy areas such as defense, finance, energy or justice.77 large budgets and greater influence over policy areas such as defense, finance, energy or justice.77
Selected Milestones for Women’s Political Representation
 
In 1969, Israelis elected Golda Meir as Prime Minister. From 2006-2009, Dalia Itzik served as the first Israelis elected Golda Meir as Prime Minister. From 2006-2009, Dalia Itzik served as the first
female speaker of the Israeli Knesset. female speaker of the Israeli Knesset.
 
In 2011, Bothaina Kamel became the first woman to run for president in Egypt. Bothaina Kamel became the first woman to run for president in Egypt.
 
In 2011, Saudi Arabia became the last country in the world (besides the Vatican) to recognize women’s Saudi Arabia became the last country in the world (besides the Vatican) to recognize women’s
right to vote fol owing Oman (2003), Qatar (2003), Kuwait (2005), and the UAE (2006).78 right to vote fol owing Oman (2003), Qatar (2003), Kuwait (2005), and the UAE (2006).78

73 This may be attributed, in part, to the election of a more fractious parliament in 2019, in which relatively few parties 73 This may be attributed, in part, to the election of a more fractious parliament in 2019, in which relatively few parties
won more than one seat. Composition of the 2019 parliament available at https://majles.marsad.tn/2019/fr/assemblee/. won more than one seat. Composition of the 2019 parliament available at https://majles.marsad.tn/2019/fr/assemblee/.
74 The 22nd Knesset was dissolved in December 2019 after PM Netanyahu was unable to form a coalition. Allison 74 The 22nd Knesset was dissolved in December 2019 after PM Netanyahu was unable to form a coalition. Allison
Kaplan Sommer, “Israel Election Results: Fewer Women and LGBT People – But Lots of Ex-Generals – in New Kaplan Sommer, “Israel Election Results: Fewer Women and LGBT People – But Lots of Ex-Generals – in New
Knesset,” Knesset,” Haaretz, September 24, 2019; Greer Fay Cashman, “There are fewer Israeli women in politics than it may September 24, 2019; Greer Fay Cashman, “There are fewer Israeli women in politics than it may
seem,” seem,” The Jerusalem Post, February 25, 2020. , February 25, 2020.
75 U.N. Development Program Libya, “Women, Peace and Security in Libya: Comparative Summary of the WPS 75 U.N. Development Program Libya, “Women, Peace and Security in Libya: Comparative Summary of the WPS
Baseline Study, Phase I and Phase II,” 2015.Baseline Study, Phase I and Phase II,” 2015.
76 Arab Barometer, “Views of Arab Women as Political Leaders,” February 11, 2019. 76 Arab Barometer, “Views of Arab Women as Political Leaders,” February 11, 2019.
77 Merissa Khurma et al., “Ready to Lead: Understanding Women’s Public Leadership in the Middle East and North 77 Merissa Khurma et al., “Ready to Lead: Understanding Women’s Public Leadership in the Middle East and North
Africa,” The Wilson Center, March 2020, p. 20. Africa,” The Wilson Center, March 2020, p. 20.
78 CRS Report R45483, 78 CRS Report R45483, Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet, by Susan G. Chesser. Saudi , by Susan G. Chesser. Saudi
women did not actually vote until the 2015 municipal elections. women did not actually vote until the 2015 municipal elections.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
18 18


Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

 
In 2014, Iraq adopted the region’s first National Action Plan in support of U.N. Security Council Resolution Iraq adopted the region’s first National Action Plan in support of U.N. Security Council Resolution
1325 on women, peace, and security, fol owed by Jordan (2017), Tunisia (2018), Lebanon (2019), and Yemen 1325 on women, peace, and security, fol owed by Jordan (2017), Tunisia (2018), Lebanon (2019), and Yemen
(2019). (2019).
 
In 2015, the UAE elected Dr. Amal Al Qubaisi Speaker of the Federal National Council, the first woman to the UAE elected Dr. Amal Al Qubaisi Speaker of the Federal National Council, the first woman to
serve as speaker of a legislative body in the Arab world. serve as speaker of a legislative body in the Arab world.
 
In 2018, Sarwa Abdul Wahid became the first woman to run for president in Iraq. Sarwa Abdul Wahid became the first woman to run for president in Iraq.
 
In January 2019, Lebanon’s Raya Al-Hassan was appointed the first female interior minister in the Arab Lebanon’s Raya Al-Hassan was appointed the first female interior minister in the Arab
world. world.
 
In February 2019, Princess Reema bint Bandar Al Saud became the first female ambassador to represent Princess Reema bint Bandar Al Saud became the first female ambassador to represent
Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia.
 
In September 2019, two women, Selma El oumi Rekik and Abir Moussi, ran in Tunisia’s presidential two women, Selma El oumi Rekik and Abir Moussi, ran in Tunisia’s presidential
elections. elections.
 
In January 2020, Lebanon’s Zeina Akar Adra became the first female Minister of Defense in the Arab Lebanon’s Zeina Akar Adra became the first female Minister of Defense in the Arab
world. world.
 
In March 2020, Israelis elected 33 women to the Knesset, including “the first Ethiopian-born Knesset Israelis elected 33 women to the Knesset, including “the first Ethiopian-born Knesset
member to become a government minister, the first female ultra-Orthodox Jewish lawmaker and minister, member to become a government minister, the first female ultra-Orthodox Jewish lawmaker and minister,
the first female Knesset member from the Druze religious community, and the first to wear a Muslim the first female Knesset member from the Druze religious community, and the first to wear a Muslim
hijab.”79 hijab.”79
Figure 6. Political Representation of Women
Percentage of seats held by women in parliament/consultative body and date of women’s suffrage Percentage of seats held by women in parliament/consultative body and date of women’s suffrage

Sources: Source: Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Compiled by the Congressional Research Service using data from the Monthly Ranking of Women in National parliaments published by the Inter-Parliamentary Union, Inter-Parliamentary Union, and the the
Gender Quotas Database published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Gender Quotas Database published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, and
UN Women: Women in Politics 2019as of October 1, 2020. Notes: In UAE, half of the members of the Federal National Council are appointed, half are elected by electoral col eges consisting of voters selected by emirs of each emirate. In Saudi Arabia, the Shura Council is chosen by the King, with 20% of seats reserved for women since 2013. .

79 Ruth Eglash, “Four Israeli women who’ve broken new political ground,” 79 Ruth Eglash, “Four Israeli women who’ve broken new political ground,” The Washington Post, August 7, 2020. August 7, 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
19 19

link to page 25 link to page 25 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Conflict and Displacement80
Compared with most of the rest of the world, the MENA region experienced a disproportionate Compared with most of the rest of the world, the MENA region experienced a disproportionate
share of conflict and population displacement from 2009 to 2018.81 The United Nations estimates share of conflict and population displacement from 2009 to 2018.81 The United Nations estimates
that women and children make up the majority of displaced civilian populations from Syria and that women and children make up the majority of displaced civilian populations from Syria and
Yemen.82 Prolonged situations of conflict and displacement have specific implications for sexual Yemen.82 Prolonged situations of conflict and displacement have specific implications for sexual
and gender-based violence (SGBV), girls’ access to education, and rates of child, early, and and gender-based violence (SGBV), girls’ access to education, and rates of child, early, and
forced marriage (CEFM).83 Aforced marriage (CEFM).83 As Figure 7 illustrates, the countries suffering from conflict and illustrates, the countries suffering from conflict and
humanitarian crises (Iraq, Syria) also have some of the highest rates of intimate partner violence humanitarian crises (Iraq, Syria) also have some of the highest rates of intimate partner violence
in the region.84 In some cases, SGBV may even be used as a weapon of war. For example, in the region.84 In some cases, SGBV may even be used as a weapon of war. For example,
conflict-related sexual violence has been documented in Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen. Some conflict-related sexual violence has been documented in Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen. Some
examples of instances of SGBV in countries affected by conflict and humanitarian crises follow. examples of instances of SGBV in countries affected by conflict and humanitarian crises follow.
 At the height of its power, the  At the height of its power, the Islamic State (which seized power across areas of (which seized power across areas of
Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2019) “discriminated against women, girls, and Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2019) “discriminated against women, girls, and
sexual minorities as a matter of policy.”85 The group was notably implicated in sexual minorities as a matter of policy.”85 The group was notably implicated in
genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes against the Yazidis, an ethnic genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes against the Yazidis, an ethnic
group indigenous to Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. Yazidi women and girls as young as group indigenous to Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. Yazidi women and girls as young as
nine were sold into sexual slavery by IS fighters.86 Abuses against women nine were sold into sexual slavery by IS fighters.86 Abuses against women

80 For background on global humanitarian issues, see CRS In Focus IF10568, 80 For background on global humanitarian issues, see CRS In Focus IF10568, Overview of the Global Humanitarian
and Displacement Crisis
, by Rhoda Margesson. , by Rhoda Margesson.
81 Data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program suggests that 58% of the world’s battle deaths took place in the 81 Data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program suggests that 58% of the world’s battle deaths took place in the
MENA region from 2009-2019 (available through the World Bank data portal). United Nations High Commissioner for MENA region from 2009-2019 (available through the World Bank data portal). United Nations High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that 29% of the world’s refugees and internally displaced persons in 2019 originated in Refugees (UNHCR) estimates that 29% of the world’s refugees and internally displaced persons in 2019 originated in
the MENA region. The region accounts for 6% of the total global population. UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019—the MENA region. The region accounts for 6% of the total global population. UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019—
Annex Tables,” February 2020; U.N. Population Division, “World Population Prospects 2019,” data as of July 1 2019. Annex Tables,” February 2020; U.N. Population Division, “World Population Prospects 2019,” data as of July 1 2019.
82 After eight years of war in Syria, at least 5.6 million people have fled the country as refugees, 6.2 million are 82 After eight years of war in Syria, at least 5.6 million people have fled the country as refugees, 6.2 million are
internally displaced, and an estimated 12 million Syrians are in need of humanitarian assistance. In March 2020, the internally displaced, and an estimated 12 million Syrians are in need of humanitarian assistance. In March 2020, the
U.N. Population Fund estimated that women and children make up 80% of those displaced in Syria since December U.N. Population Fund estimated that women and children make up 80% of those displaced in Syria since December
2019. The International Rescue Committee estimates that women and girls account for 75% of those displaced in 2019. The International Rescue Committee estimates that women and girls account for 75% of those displaced in
Yemen since 2015. UNHCR, “Syria Emergency,” April 19, 2018; “UN Population Fund sounds alarm over dire Yemen since 2015. UNHCR, “Syria Emergency,” April 19, 2018; “UN Population Fund sounds alarm over dire
situation facing women and girls in Syria, as 10th year of war begins,” UN News, March 16, 2020; Delphine Valette, situation facing women and girls in Syria, as 10th year of war begins,” UN News, March 16, 2020; Delphine Valette,
Protection, Participation and Potential: Women and Girls in Yemen’s War, International Rescue Committee, January International Rescue Committee, January
2019. 2019.
83 The United Nations offers the following definition of CEFM: “Child marriage, or early marriage, is any marriage 83 The United Nations offers the following definition of CEFM: “Child marriage, or early marriage, is any marriage
where at least one of the parties is under 18 years of age. Forced marriages are marriages in which one and/or both where at least one of the parties is under 18 years of age. Forced marriages are marriages in which one and/or both
parties have not personally expressed their full and free consent to the union. A child marriage is considered to be a parties have not personally expressed their full and free consent to the union. A child marriage is considered to be a
form of forced marriage, given that one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free and informed consent.” This form of forced marriage, given that one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free and informed consent.” This
naming convention has not been universally adopted, so this report uses the term “child marriage” when reflecting the naming convention has not been universally adopted, so this report uses the term “child marriage” when reflecting the
conventions of the underlying sourcing. U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Child, early and conventions of the underlying sourcing. U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Child, early and
forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings,” last updated 2020. forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings,” last updated 2020.
84 Overall rates of sexual and gender-based violence are not universally available: a USAID context analysis of six 84 Overall rates of sexual and gender-based violence are not universally available: a USAID context analysis of six
MENA countries in 2016 remarked that “existing GBV studies focus on IPV [intimate partner violence] or early and MENA countries in 2016 remarked that “existing GBV studies focus on IPV [intimate partner violence] or early and
forced marriage—and, in the case of Egypt, on female genital mutilation (FGM); as a result, numerous other forms of forced marriage—and, in the case of Egypt, on female genital mutilation (FGM); as a result, numerous other forms of
GBV are not well studied or understood.” Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab GBV are not well studied or understood.” Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab
Women for Training and Research, Women for Training and Research, Gender-Based Violence in the MENA Region: Context Analysis, USAID USAID
Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA Task Order, May 2016. Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA Task Order, May 2016.
85 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity’: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic,” 85 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity’: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic,”
A/HRC/37/CRP.3, March 2018. A/HRC/37/CRP.3, March 2018.
86 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘They Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis,” A/HRC/32/CRP.2, June 86 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘They Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis,” A/HRC/32/CRP.2, June
15, 2016. 15, 2016.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
20 20

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

attributed to IS combatants also included stonings, executions, forced marriages, attributed to IS combatants also included stonings, executions, forced marriages,
restrictions on movement, and strict dress codes enforced by lashings. restrictions on movement, and strict dress codes enforced by lashings.
 Parties to the  Parties to the Syrian conflict have allegedly used sexual violence as a tool to have allegedly used sexual violence as a tool to
“instill fear, humiliate and punish or, in the case of terrorist groups, as part of “instill fear, humiliate and punish or, in the case of terrorist groups, as part of
their enforced social order.” 87 The United Nations has alleged that rapes and their enforced social order.” 87 The United Nations has alleged that rapes and
other acts of sexual violence carried out by government forces have “formed part other acts of sexual violence carried out by government forces have “formed part
of a widespread and systematic attack directed against a civilian population, and of a widespread and systematic attack directed against a civilian population, and
amount to crimes against humanity.”88 Syrian refugee women have also noted amount to crimes against humanity.”88 Syrian refugee women have also noted
that intimate partner violence has intensified as the lack of employment that intimate partner violence has intensified as the lack of employment
opportunities for men have increased frustration, tension, and violence in the opportunities for men have increased frustration, tension, and violence in the
home.“[R]ampant child marriage” was explained, particularly by widows, as a home.“[R]ampant child marriage” was explained, particularly by widows, as a
way to alleviate financial burdens and protect the reputation of the family.89 way to alleviate financial burdens and protect the reputation of the family.89
 In  In Yemen, the United Nations recorded increased reporting of sexual violence in , the United Nations recorded increased reporting of sexual violence in
2018, including cases of physical or sexual assault, rape, and sexual slavery, 2018, including cases of physical or sexual assault, rape, and sexual slavery,
noting that “while a few cases are directly attributable to parties to the conflict, noting that “while a few cases are directly attributable to parties to the conflict,
most are the result of increased risks that women and children face, against a most are the result of increased risks that women and children face, against a
backdrop of pre-existing gender inequality, exacerbated by the chronic incapacity backdrop of pre-existing gender inequality, exacerbated by the chronic incapacity
of Government institutions to protect civilians.”90 of Government institutions to protect civilians.”90
 In 2019, then-head of U.N. Support Mission in  In 2019, then-head of U.N. Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) Ghassan (UNSMIL) Ghassan
Salamé spoke of a “pattern of violence against women across the country,” Salamé spoke of a “pattern of violence against women across the country,”
highlighting the abduction of Seham Serghewa, a member of the Libyan House highlighting the abduction of Seham Serghewa, a member of the Libyan House
of Representatives, and other instances of killing and forced disappearances. of Representatives, and other instances of killing and forced disappearances.
Salamé also noted that “women migrants and refugees in Libya are at risk of rape Salamé also noted that “women migrants and refugees in Libya are at risk of rape
and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and
forced prostitution in detention and at large.”91 forced prostitution in detention and at large.”91

87 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity.” 87 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity.”
88 Ibid, p. 1. 88 Ibid, p. 1.
89 UNHCR, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East 89 UNHCR, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East
and North Africa,” 2015; U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of and North Africa,” 2015; U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of
Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019. Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019.
90 U.N. Security Council, “Conflict Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General,” 90 U.N. Security Council, “Conflict Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General,”
S/2019/280, March 29, 2019. S/2019/280, March 29, 2019.
91 UNSMIL, “SRSG Ghassan Salamé Briefing to the Security Council,” November 18, 2019. 91 UNSMIL, “SRSG Ghassan Salamé Briefing to the Security Council,” November 18, 2019.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
21 21


Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Figure 7. Conflict, Displacement, and Gender-based Violence

Source: Created by CRS using battle death and intimate partner violence data from GIWPS and PRIO, Created by CRS using battle death and intimate partner violence data from GIWPS and PRIO, WPS
Index 2019/20;
displacement data from UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019—Annex Tables,” February 2020; and displacement data from UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019—Annex Tables,” February 2020; and
child marriage data fromchild marriage data from WEF, WEF, Global Gender Gap Report 2020. Literacy rates are from CIA World Factbook, . Literacy rates are from CIA World Factbook,
accessed June 2020. accessed June 2020.
Notes: The WPS Index measures intimate partner violence by the percentage of women who experienced The WPS Index measures intimate partner violence by the percentage of women who experienced
physical or sexual violence committed by their intimate partner in the previous 12 months. The Global Gender physical or sexual violence committed by their intimate partner in the previous 12 months. The Global Gender
Gap Report measures child marriage by the percentage of girls aged 15–19 years who are or have ever been Gap Report measures child marriage by the percentage of girls aged 15–19 years who are or have ever been
married, divorced, widowed or in an informal union in 2017. married, divorced, widowed or in an informal union in 2017.

Years of conflict and prolonged displacement, are expected to have a detrimental effect on an Years of conflict and prolonged displacement, are expected to have a detrimental effect on an
entire generation of girls’ (and boys’) education, particularly in Syria and Yemen, where two entire generation of girls’ (and boys’) education, particularly in Syria and Yemen, where two
million children were already out of school due to conflict.92 The impact of the COVID-19 million children were already out of school due to conflict.92 The impact of the COVID-19
pandemic exacerbates these trends. Yemeni women historically have had the highest rate of pandemic exacerbates these trends. Yemeni women historically have had the highest rate of
illiteracy in the region,93 and the ongoing conflict, as well as school closures due to the COVID-illiteracy in the region,93 and the ongoing conflict, as well as school closures due to the COVID-
19 pandemic, are likely to lead to a rise in that rate as girls drop out of school. Facing the 19 pandemic, are likely to lead to a rise in that rate as girls drop out of school. Facing the
economic and social burdens that emerge during protracted conflict and humanitarian crises, economic and social burdens that emerge during protracted conflict and humanitarian crises,
families may resort to harmful practices such as child, early, and forced marriage and child labor families may resort to harmful practices such as child, early, and forced marriage and child labor
that may further impact girls’ access to education and increase the risk of gender-based violence that may further impact girls’ access to education and increase the risk of gender-based violence
(see (see text box).94 Gaps in education, combined with war-related trauma, may have long-term ).94 Gaps in education, combined with war-related trauma, may have long-term

92 UNICEF, “If Not In School: The Paths Children Cross in Yemen,” March 2018. 92 UNICEF, “If Not In School: The Paths Children Cross in Yemen,” March 2018.
93 UNICEF data last updated October 2015 https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/literacy/. 93 UNICEF data last updated October 2015 https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/literacy/.
94 Joud Monla-Hassan and Mona Yacoubian, “COVID Will Lead to More Child Marriage—What Can Be Done?” 94 Joud Monla-Hassan and Mona Yacoubian, “COVID Will Lead to More Child Marriage—What Can Be Done?”
United States Institute of Peace, August 12, 2020. United States Institute of Peace, August 12, 2020.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
22 22

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

implications for the region’s economic growth, rates of child, early, and forced marriage and implications for the region’s economic growth, rates of child, early, and forced marriage and
fertility, and maternal and child health.95 fertility, and maternal and child health.95
Child, Early, and Forced Marriages in Conflict and Displacement Settings
UNICEF estimated in April 2019 that 17% of girls in the MENA region were married before their 18th birthdays, UNICEF estimated in April 2019 that 17% of girls in the MENA region were married before their 18th birthdays,
with 700,000 new child brides each year.with 700,000 new child brides each year.96 Rates of child, early and forced marriages (CEFM) had decreased Rates of child, early and forced marriages (CEFM) had decreased
between 1990 and 2010, but progress reportedly has stalled since then. Studies suggest that CEFM generally rises between 1990 and 2010, but progress reportedly has stalled since then. Studies suggest that CEFM generally rises
in conflict-affected countries and protracted displacement conditions. Civil society organization in conflict-affected countries and protracted displacement conditions. Civil society organization Girls Not Brides
explains the increase in child marriage in humanitarian crises by noting that parents may see child marriage as a explains the increase in child marriage in humanitarian crises by noting that parents may see child marriage as a
way to relieve economic difficulties by transferring the cost of supporting a girl to another family or through way to relieve economic difficulties by transferring the cost of supporting a girl to another family or through
dowry payments, and may believe that marriage wil protect girls from violence.dowry payments, and may believe that marriage wil protect girls from violence.97 Negative trends for girls in Iraq, Negative trends for girls in Iraq,
Libya, Syria, and Yemen, il ustrate this increased vulnerability. Experts are now concerned about the effect the Libya, Syria, and Yemen, il ustrate this increased vulnerability. Experts are now concerned about the effect the
COVID-19 pandemic may have on efforts to reduce child marriage, both in terms of the ability to implement COVID-19 pandemic may have on efforts to reduce child marriage, both in terms of the ability to implement
interventions due to social distancing measures, and in terms of increased poverty in vulnerable communities, a interventions due to social distancing measures, and in terms of increased poverty in vulnerable communities, a
key driver of CEFM.98 key driver of CEFM.98
  In Iraq, CEFM increased from 15% in 1997 to 24% by 2016, including 5% of marriages involving children CEFM increased from 15% in 1997 to 24% by 2016, including 5% of marriages involving children
younger than 15; younger than 15;99
  In Syria, child marriage rates are reportedly four times higher among displaced Syrian refugees than child marriage rates are reportedly four times higher among displaced Syrian refugees than
among Syrians before the crisis; among Syrians before the crisis;100
  In Libya, previously ranked among the region’s lowest rates of child marriage (2%), the number of child previously ranked among the region’s lowest rates of child marriage (2%), the number of child
brides has risen, and rose particularly rapidly in areas that were control ed or influenced by the Islamic brides has risen, and rose particularly rapidly in areas that were control ed or influenced by the Islamic
State;State;101 and and
  In Yemen, child marriage rates may be as high as two-thirds of girls under the age of 18. A September child marriage rates may be as high as two-thirds of girls under the age of 18. A September
2016 study found that in governorates with high numbers of internally displaced persons, 44% of 2016 study found that in governorates with high numbers of internally displaced persons, 44% of
marriages reportedly involved girls under the age of 15.102 marriages reportedly involved girls under the age of 15.102
Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations
Women have been sidelined in most formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three largest Women have been sidelined in most formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three largest
ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to
involve women in these processes. Women have nevertheless continued peacebuilding efforts involve women in these processes. Women have nevertheless continued peacebuilding efforts
through civil society and grassroots organizations. In May 2020, over 90 Arab women’s civil through civil society and grassroots organizations. In May 2020, over 90 Arab women’s civil
society organizations joined the U.N. Secretary General in calling for a global ceasefire to address society organizations joined the U.N. Secretary General in calling for a global ceasefire to address

95 UNHCR, “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018. 95 UNHCR, “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018.
96 UNICEF, “A Profile of Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa,” April 2019. 96 UNICEF, “A Profile of Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa,” April 2019.
97 Girls Not Brides, “Why Does Child Marriage Happen?” last updated 2020. 97 Girls Not Brides, “Why Does Child Marriage Happen?” last updated 2020.
98 UNFPA, “Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Family Planning and Ending Gender-based Violence, Female 98 UNFPA, “Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Family Planning and Ending Gender-based Violence, Female
Genital Mutilation and Child Marriage,” Interim Technical Note Information, April 27, 2020. Genital Mutilation and Child Marriage,” Interim Technical Note Information, April 27, 2020.
99 Gilgamesh Nabeel and Jacob Wirtschafter, “Early marriage figures for Iraq are startling. Child advocates worry it 99 Gilgamesh Nabeel and Jacob Wirtschafter, “Early marriage figures for Iraq are startling. Child advocates worry it
could rise even more,” Public Radio International, August 13, 2018. could rise even more,” Public Radio International, August 13, 2018.
100 U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab 100 U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on th