Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

Changes from October 5, 2020 to November 4, 2021

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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable
~~October 5, 2020~~November 4, 2021
Land Imaging Program
Anna E. Normand
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ~~anticipates launching~~launched Landsat 9, a Landsat 9, a
remote Analyst in Natural Analyst in Natural
~~remote~~ sensing satellite NASA sensing satellite NASA ~~is developing~~developed in partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey in partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), on Resources Policy Resources Policy
~~(USGS), in 2021.~~ September 27, 2021. Landsat satellites have collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth’s Landsat satellites have collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth’s

surface at moderate spatial resolution since the launch of Landsat 1 on July 23, 1972. surface at moderate spatial resolution since the launch of Landsat 1 on July 23, 1972. ~~The two~~
~~latest satellites in the series,~~ Currently, Landsat 7 and Landsat 8Landsat 7 and Landsat 8, are are ~~still~~ in orbit and supplying images and in orbit and supplying images and

data. Stakeholders use Landsat data. Stakeholders use Landsat data in a variety of applications, including land use planning, data in a variety of applications, including land use planning,
agriculture, forestry, natural resources management, public safety, homeland security, climate research, and natural disaster agriculture, forestry, natural resources management, public safety, homeland security, climate research, and natural disaster
management. Landsat data support government, commercial, industrial, civilian, military, and educational users throughout management. Landsat data support government, commercial, industrial, civilian, military, and educational users throughout
the United States and the United States and worldwide. Landsat ~~worldwide. Landsat 7, however, is expected to consume its remaining fuel by summer 2021. To reduce~~
~~the risk of a gap in Landsat data availability, Landsat~~ 9 development was initiated in March 2015, with a design that is 9 development was initiated in March 2015, with a design that is
essentially a rebuild of Landsat 8. Once Landsat 9 is operationalessentially a rebuild of Landsat 8. Once Landsat 9 is operational (estimated to be about 100 days after launch), it and Landsat 8 will acquire , it and Landsat 8 will acquire ~~around~~roughly 1,500 high-quality 1,500 high-quality
images of the Earth per day, with a repeat visit every eight days, on averageimages of the Earth per day, with a repeat visit every eight days, on average, and Landsat 7 is to be decommissioned. .
Various entities have led the Landsat program over the past five decades. It was initiated Various entities have led the Landsat program over the past five decades. It was initiated in the late 1960s as a research program under NASA. as a research program under NASA.
In the 1980s, the executive branch proposed and Congress approved policies to privatize Landsat under the leadership of the In the 1980s, the executive branch proposed and Congress approved policies to privatize Landsat under the leadership of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and a commercial entity, the Earth National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and a commercial entity, the Earth ~~Observat ion~~Observation Satellite Satellite
Company (EOSAT). The attempted privatization ended with the passage of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 Company (EOSAT). The attempted privatization ended with the passage of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992
(P.L. 102-555),(P.L. 102-555), which returned responsibility for management of the Landsat program to the federal government. In 2016, which returned responsibility for management of the Landsat program to the federal government. In 2016,
NASA and the Department of the Interior (DOI, the department overseeing the USGS) entered into an interagency NASA and the Department of the Interior (DOI, the department overseeing the USGS) entered into an interagency
agreement, redefining their long-term collaboration on Landsat through the Sustainable Land Imaging Program and outlining agreement, redefining their long-term collaboration on Landsat through the Sustainable Land Imaging Program and outlining
~~responsibilities for Landsat 9.~~ responsibilities for Landsat 9. Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, the agencies are to develop a multi-decade, spaceborne system that will provide high-quality, global, land-imaging measurements that are compatible with the existing Landsat record. In this partnership, NASA develops the satellite and the instruments, launches the spacecraft, In this partnership, NASA develops the satellite and the instruments, launches the spacecraft,
and checks its performance. Then, the USGS takes over satellite operations and manages and distributes the data from the and checks its performance. Then, the USGS takes over satellite operations and manages and distributes the data from the
Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Falls, SD. NASA Landsat activities are funded under the Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Falls, SD. NASA Landsat activities are funded under the
Earth Science Division of the Science Mission Directorate, and USGS Landsat activities are funded under the National Land Earth Science Division of the Science Mission Directorate, and USGS Landsat activities are funded under the National Land
Imaging Program in the Land Resources Mission Area. As of Imaging Program in the Land Resources Mission Area. As of ~~FY2020~~FY2021, NASA has spent $, NASA has spent $~~517~~699 million on its responsibilities million on its responsibilities
for developing and launching Landsat 9for developing and launching Landsat 9~~, out of an overall life-cycle cost commitment of $885 million,~~ and the USGS has and the USGS has
~~spent approximately~~spent over $120 million on $120 million on ~~Landsat 9 for~~its ground system development. ground system development.
Under a policy initiated in 2008, all Landsat data in USGS archives are available for download free and without restrictions. Under a policy initiated in 2008, all Landsat data in USGS archives are available for download free and without restrictions.
Every year, the USGS distributes millions of Landsat images to thousands of users. On March 11, 2020, a Landsat 8 image of Every year, the USGS distributes millions of Landsat images to thousands of users. On March 11, 2020, a Landsat 8 image of
New Zealand’s North Island became the 100 millionth download from the USGS’s user interface tools. Landsat data also are New Zealand’s North Island became the 100 millionth download from the USGS’s user interface tools. Landsat data also are
used for commercial applications and in derived products, such as Google Earth, which themselves have millions of users. used for commercial applications and in derived products, such as Google Earth, which themselves have millions of users.
Researchers estimate that Landsat imagery provided domestic and international users $3.45 billion in benefits in 2017 ($4.18 Researchers estimate that Landsat imagery provided domestic and international users $3.45 billion in benefits in 2017 ($4.18
billion when including cloud vendors), with U.S. users accounting for $2.06 billion of those benefits. Because of Landsat’s billion when including cloud vendors), with U.S. users accounting for $2.06 billion of those benefits. Because of Landsat’s
length of record, availability of data, global coverage, and calibration standards, it serves as the central reference comparison length of record, availability of data, global coverage, and calibration standards, it serves as the central reference comparison
point for many other moderate- and high-resolution optical satellite systems operated by governments and commercial point for many other moderate- and high-resolution optical satellite systems operated by governments and commercial
entities. Landsat also has influenced the development of other Earth remote sensing satellites by governments (e.g., the entities. Landsat also has influenced the development of other Earth remote sensing satellites by governments (e.g., the
European Space Agency’s Copernicus Program Sentinel-2 satellite constellation) and the private sector. European Space Agency’s Copernicus Program Sentinel-2 satellite constellation) and the private sector.
With the With the ~~pending~~ launch of Landsat 9, Congress may launch of Landsat 9, Congress may ~~wish to~~ consider the future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program. consider the future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program.
A future moderate-resolution mission could differ from previous Landsat satellites by adopting a smaller satellite design, A future moderate-resolution mission could differ from previous Landsat satellites by adopting a smaller satellite design,
increasing image resolution, increasing the number of images captured per day, reducing the time between images of a given increasing image resolution, increasing the number of images captured per day, reducing the time between images of a given
location, sensing a wider variety of optical and infrared frequencies, or making other design changes. Alternative location, sensing a wider variety of optical and infrared frequencies, or making other design changes. Alternative
arrangements could include obtaining images from other sources, such as through public-private partnerships or by procuring arrangements could include obtaining images from other sources, such as through public-private partnerships or by procuring
data from other satellites. Reports from stakeholders such as the Landsat Advisory Group and the National Academies of data from other satellites. Reports from stakeholders such as the Landsat Advisory Group and the National Academies of
Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine have discussed such options and their tradeoffs. A joint NASA-USGS Sustainable Land Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine have discussed such options and their tradeoffs. A joint NASA-USGS Sustainable Land
Imaging Architecture Study has developed options for the follow-on to Landsat 9, known as Landsat Next, and the agencies Imaging Architecture Study has developed options for the follow-on to Landsat 9, known as Landsat Next, and the agencies
anticipate sharing information about Landsat Next in anticipate sharing information about Landsat Next in ~~the President’s FY2022 budget request~~2022. Whether Congress supports the . Whether Congress supports the
agencies’ plans for Landsat Next or prefers some alternative, it may consider shaping the Sustainable Land Imaging Program agencies’ plans for Landsat Next or prefers some alternative, it may consider shaping the Sustainable Land Imaging Program
and Landsat Next development through oversight activities, authorizing legislation (such as amendments to the Land Remote and Landsat Next development through oversight activities, authorizing legislation (such as amendments to the Land Remote
Sensing Policy Act of 1992), and appropriations bills and report language. Sensing Policy Act of 1992), and appropriations bills and report language.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service

Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

Introduction
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) ~~anticipates launching~~launched Landsat 9, a Landsat 9, a
remote remote sensing satellite NASA developed~~sensing satel ite NASA is developing~~ in partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey in partnership with the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS), (USGS), inon September 27, 2021.1 Landsat 9 2021.1 Landsat 9 ~~wil be~~is the latest in a series of Earth-observing the latest in a series of Earth-observing ~~satel ites~~satellites that began that began
on July 23, 1972, with the launch of Earth Resources Technology on July 23, 1972, with the launch of Earth Resources Technology ~~Satel ite~~Satellite 1, now known as 1, now known as
Landsat 1.2 Stakeholders use Landsat data in a variety of applications, including land use Landsat 1.2 Stakeholders use Landsat data in a variety of applications, including land use
planning, agriculture, forestry, natural resources management, public safety, homeland security, planning, agriculture, forestry, natural resources management, public safety, homeland security,
climate research, and natural disaster management.3 Landsat data support government, climate research, and natural disaster management.3 Landsat data support government,
commercial, industrial, civilian, military, and educational users throughout the United States and commercial, industrial, civilian, military, and educational users throughout the United States and
worldwide. Once Landsat 9 is operationalworldwide. Once Landsat 9 is operational (estimated to be about 100 days after launch), it and Landsat 8 , it and Landsat 8 ~~wil~~ will acquire approximately 1,500 acquire approximately 1,500
high-quality images of the Earth per day, with a repeat visit every eight days, on average.4high-quality images of the Earth per day, with a repeat visit every eight days, on average.4
For almost 50 years, Landsat For almost 50 years, Landsat ~~satel ites~~satellites have collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth’s have collected remotely sensed imagery of the Earth’s
surface at moderate spatial resolution, which refers to the amount of detail shown in the image or surface at moderate spatial resolution, which refers to the amount of detail shown in the image or
the size of a pixel on the ground.5 At present, two the size of a pixel on the ground.5 At present, two ~~satel ites~~satellites—Landsat 7 and Landsat 8—are in —Landsat 7 and Landsat 8—are in
orbit and supplying images and data.6 Landsat 7, however, is expected to consume its remaining orbit and supplying images and data.6 Landsat 7, however, is expected to consume its remaining
~~fuel by summer 2021.~~
fuel in 2021 and will be decommissioned once Landsat 9 is operational. In 2016, NASA and the Department of the Interior (DOI), which oversees the USGS, entered into In 2016, NASA and the Department of the Interior (DOI), which oversees the USGS, entered into
an interagency agreement, redefining their long-term collaboration through the Sustainable Land an interagency agreement, redefining their long-term collaboration through the Sustainable Land
Imaging Program and outlining responsibilities for Landsat 9.7 Imaging Program and outlining responsibilities for Landsat 9.7 Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, the agencies are to develop a multi-decade, spaceborne system that will provide high-quality global land-imaging measurements that are compatible with the existing Landsat record. Landsat 9 has a design very ~~Landsat 9 has a design very~~
similar to Landsat 8, in order to shorten the development time and reduce the risk of a Landsat similar to Landsat 8, in order to shorten the development time and reduce the risk of a Landsat
data gap when Landsat 7 ceases to operate. In the NASA-USGS partnership, NASA data gap when Landsat 7 ceases to operate. In the NASA-USGS partnership, NASA ~~is developing~~
~~the satel ite and the instruments and wil launch the spacecraft and check its performance~~develops Landsat satellites and instruments, launches spacecrafts, and checks the performance of Landsat missions. Then, . Then,
~~the USGS wil take over satel ite operations and wil manage and distribute the data from the~~
~~Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Fal s, SD.8~~

~~1 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Landsat Missions, “Landsat 9,” accessed on August 10, 2020, at~~
~~https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-9.~~
~~2 USGS,~~ the USGS takes over satellite 1 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Earth Observatory, “NASA and USGS Launch Landsat 9,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/148888/nasa-and-usgs-launch-landsat-9. 2 U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Landsat Missions, “Landsat Satellite Missions,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-Landsat Missions, “Landsat Satellite Missions,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-
satellite-missions. satellite-missions.
3 Zhuoting Wu et al., “User Needs 3 Zhuoting Wu et al., “User Needs for Futurefor Future Landsat Missions,” Landsat Missions,” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 231 (September , vol. 231 (September
15, 2019), p. 111214, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111214. Hereinafter Wu et al., “15, 2019), p. 111214, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111214. Hereinafter Wu et al., “ User Needs.” User Needs.”
4 USGS, 4 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat 9,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-9. Landsat Missions, “Landsat 9,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-9.
5 Moderate-resolution land imaging satellites have a spatial resolution between 5 meters and 120 meters. Landsats 7, 8, 5 Moderate-resolution land imaging satellites have a spatial resolution between 5 meters and 120 meters. Landsats 7, 8,
and 9 have spatial resolution in the optical range of 30 x 30 meters (about the size of a baseballand 9 have spatial resolution in the optical range of 30 x 30 meters (about the size of a baseball diamond) and in the diamond) and in the
thermal infrared range of 100 meters. thermal infrared range of 100 meters. ~~T he~~The 100 x 100 meter thermal infrared observations are resampled to 30 meters 100 x 100 meter thermal infrared observations are resampled to 30 meters
duringduring product generation. For a complete history of the Landsat program, see Sam N. Gowardproduct generation. For a complete history of the Landsat program, see Sam N. Goward et al., et al., Landsat’s
Enduring Legacy: Pioneering Global Land Observations from ~~Space~~ Space (Bethesda, MD: American Society for (Bethesda, MD: American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2017). Hereinafter Goward et al., Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2017). Hereinafter Goward et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy. .
6 6 ~~T he~~The Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM, now Landsat Data Continuity Mission (LDCM, now called Landsat 8) initially wascalled Landsat 8) initially was planned for launch in July 2011 planned for launch in July 2011
and wouldand would have filledhave filled the data gap in Landsat coverage after the USGSthe data gap in Landsat coverage after the USGS stopped collecting data from Landsat 5. Due to stopped collecting data from Landsat 5. Due to
scheduleschedule delays,delays, the LDCM wasthe LDCM was not placed in orbit until Februarynot placed in orbit until February 2013, when it was2013, when it was renamed Landsat 8. On May 30, renamed Landsat 8. On May 30,
2013, data from Landsat 8 became available.2013, data from Landsat 8 became available. USGS,USGS, Landsat Missions,Landsat Missions, “ “Landsat Data Continuity Mission History,” at Landsat Data Continuity Mission History,” at
https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-data-continuity-mission-history. https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-data-continuity-mission-history.
7 USGS, 7 USGS, “ “MOU - SustainableMOU - Sustainable Land ImagingLand Imaging Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at
https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-developmenthttps://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-development ~~-and-operations.~~
~~8 For more information on the USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, see USGS, “ Earth~~
~~Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros.~~
-and-operations. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

~~Beginning~~ operations and manages and distributes the data from the Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux Falls, SD.8 Beginning in 2008, the USGS began the process of making in 2008, the USGS began the process of making al all Landsat data held in USGS Landsat data held in USGS
archives available for download at no charge and without restrictions.9 Every year, the USGS archives available for download at no charge and without restrictions.9 Every year, the USGS
distributes distributes ~~mil ions~~millions of these remotely sensed Landsat images to thousands of users. On March 11, of these remotely sensed Landsat images to thousands of users. On March 11,
2020, a Landsat 8 image of New Zealand’s North Island became the 100 2020, a Landsat 8 image of New Zealand’s North Island became the 100 ~~mil ionth~~millionth download download
from the USGS’s user interface tools.10 USGS researchers estimate that Landsat imagery from the USGS’s user interface tools.10 USGS researchers estimate that Landsat imagery
provided domestic and international users $3.45 provided domestic and international users $3.45 ~~bil ion~~billion in benefits in 2017, with U.S. users in benefits in 2017, with U.S. users
accounting for $2.06 accounting for $2.06 ~~bil ion~~billion of those benefits.11 The Landsat program’s policies and technologies of those benefits.11 The Landsat program’s policies and technologies
also have inspired international governmental also have inspired international governmental ~~satel ites~~satellites, such as the European Space Agency’s , such as the European Space Agency’s
(ESA’s) Copernicus Program Sentinel-2 (ESA’s) Copernicus Program Sentinel-2 ~~satel ite constel ation~~satellite constellation and a new generation of and a new generation of
commercial commercial ~~satel ites~~satellites with Landsat-like characteristics.12 with Landsat-like characteristics.12
With the With the ~~pending~~ launch of Landsat 9, Congress may wish to consider the future of the launch of Landsat 9, Congress may wish to consider the future of the
Sustainable Land Imaging Program. After completing a Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Sustainable Land Imaging Program. After completing a Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture
Study initiated in 2018, NASA and the USGS are developing details and options for the followStudy initiated in 2018, NASA and the USGS are developing details and options for the follow -
-on to Landsat 9, known as Landsat Next. They anticipate sharing information about Landsat Next on to Landsat 9, known as Landsat Next. They anticipate sharing information about Landsat Next
~~in the President’s FY2022 budget request.13~~
in 2022.13 This report describes the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, Landsat This report describes the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, Landsat ~~satel ite~~satellite instrumentation, instrumentation,
uses of Landsat data, and aspects of Landsat’s history. The report also discusses potential uses of Landsat data, and aspects of Landsat’s history. The report also discusses potential
alternatives to the current Landsat alternatives to the current Landsat ~~satel ite~~satellite system and Sustainable Land Imaging Program, as system and Sustainable Land Imaging Program, as
~~wel~~ well as possible tradeoffs among those alternatives. as possible tradeoffs among those alternatives.
Landsat and the Sustainable Land Imaging Program
Over the more than 50 years of Landsat planning and operations, various entities have led Landsat Over the more than 50 years of Landsat planning and operations, various entities have led Landsat
mission acquisition (i.e., planning, financing, building, prelaunch activity) and operations (i.e., mission acquisition (i.e., planning, financing, building, prelaunch activity) and operations (i.e.,
management and data activities).14 After initiatingmanagement and data activities).14 After initiating Landsat as a research program under NASA, Landsat as a research program under NASA,
the Carter and Reagan Administrations proposed and Congress approved policies in the 1980s to the Carter and Reagan Administrations proposed and Congress approved policies in the 1980s to
privatize Landsat under the leadership of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration privatize Landsat under the leadership of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
~~(NOAA) and a commercial entity, the Earth Observation Satel ite Company (EOSAT).15 The~~
~~attempt at privatizing the Landsat system ended with the passage of Land Remote Sensing Policy~~
~~Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555), which returned responsibility for management of the Landsat~~

~~9 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Imagery for Everyone, T imeline Set to Release Entire USGS~~ 8 For more information on the USGS Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center, see USGS, “Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros. 9 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Imagery for Everyone, Timeline Set to Release Entire USGS Landsat Archive at No Landsat Archive at No
Charge,” April 2008, at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/imagery-everyone.Charge,” April 2008, at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/imagery-everyone.
10 USGS,10 USGS, “ “A Landsat Milestone: One HundredA Landsat Milestone: One Hundred Million Downloads,”Million Downloads,” at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/a-landsat-at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/a-landsat-
milestone-one-hundred-million-downloads. milestone-one-hundred-million-downloads.
11 Christa L. Straub,11 Christa L. Straub, Stephen R. Koontz, and John B. Loomis, Stephen R. Koontz, and John B. Loomis, Economic Valuation of Landsat Imagery, U.S. , U.S.
GeologicalGeological ~~Survey~~ Survey Open-File Report 2019–1112, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20191112. Hereinafter USGS, Open-File Report 2019–1112, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20191112. Hereinafter USGS,
~~Econom ic~~Economic Valuation of Landsat ~~Im agery~~Imagery. .
12 For an overview of government and commercial land remote sensing satellites, see 12 For an overview of government and commercial land remote sensing satellites, see Jon B.Jon B. Christopherson, Shankar Christopherson, Shankar
N. Ramaseri Chandra, and Joel Q. QuanbeckN. Ramaseri Chandra, and Joel Q. Quanbeck , , 2019 Joint Agency ~~Com m ercial Im agery~~Commercial Imagery Evaluation—Land Remote
Sensing Satellite ~~Com pendium~~ Compendium, USGS, USGS Circular 1455, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1455. National Geospatial Circular 1455, 2019, at https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1455. National Geospatial
Advisory Committee (NGAC), Landsat Advisory Group (LAG),Advisory Committee (NGAC), Landsat Advisory Group (LAG), ~~Recom m endations~~ Recommendations for Possible Future U.S. Global
Land Data Collection Missions Beyond Landsat 9 , April 2018, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/april-2018/, April 2018, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/april-2018/
ngac-landsatngac-landsat -future-missions-recommendations-paper.pdf. Hereinafter LAG, -future-missions-recommendations-paper.pdf. Hereinafter LAG, ~~Recom m endations~~Recommendations Beyond Landsat 9.
13 Congressional briefing from NASA and the USGS on September 14, 2021. The NASA FY2022 Budget Request also states, “the Administration will make key strategic decisions for Landsat Next as part of the FY 2023 budget process.” NASA, FY2022 Budget Congressional Justification NASA Budget Request, 2021, at https://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html. 14 Goward ~~13 Personal correspondence between CRS and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in July 2020~~
~~and between CRS and the USGS in July 2020.~~
~~14 Goward et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy.~~
~~15 Goward~~ et al., et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy. .
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link to page 24 link to page 24 Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

(NOAA) and a commercial entity, the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT).15 The attempt at privatizing the Landsat system ended with the passage of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555), which returned responsibility for management of the Landsat program to the federal government.16 (For more background on the history of Landsat program to the federal government.16 (For more background on the history of Landsat
privatization, privatization, seesee Appendix A.) Thereafter, agency management of Landsat changed frequently ) Thereafter, agency management of Landsat changed frequently
from 1992 through 1998, with responsibility moving from a NASA-U.S. Air Force-USGS from 1992 through 1998, with responsibility moving from a NASA-U.S. Air Force-USGS
partnership to a NASA-NOAA-USGSpartnership to a NASA-NOAA-USGS partnership to the present NASA-USGS arrangement.17partnership to the present NASA-USGS arrangement.17
In 2016, DOI and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to establish the In 2016, DOI and NASA signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to establish the
Sustainable Land Imaging Program, intended to enable the development of a multi-decade space Sustainable Land Imaging Program, intended to enable the development of a multi-decade space
system to provide users worldwide with high-quality global landsystem to provide users worldwide with high-quality global land imaging measurements imaging measurements
compatible with the previous 44-year record.18 Under the agreement, NASA maintains compatible with the previous 44-year record.18 Under the agreement, NASA maintains
responsibility for developing, launching, and testing space systems and DOI, through the USGS, responsibility for developing, launching, and testing space systems and DOI, through the USGS,
is responsible for developing and maintaining associated ground systems (including is responsible for developing and maintaining associated ground systems (including ~~satel ite~~satellite
operation and mission data systems); operating the on-orbit spacecraft; and collecting, archiving, operation and mission data systems); operating the on-orbit spacecraft; and collecting, archiving,
processing, and distributing data to users. The NASA Associate Administrator for Science and the processing, and distributing data to users. The NASA Associate Administrator for Science and the
DOI Assistant Secretary for Water and Science chair the Sustainable Land Imaging Joint Steering DOI Assistant Secretary for Water and Science chair the Sustainable Land Imaging Joint Steering
Group and meet Group and meet ~~periodical y~~periodically to coordinate and integrate efforts and to enable to coordinate and integrate efforts and to enable ~~overal~~ overall program program
strategy. The Sustainable Land Imaging Program MOU also strategy. The Sustainable Land Imaging Program MOU also ~~cal s~~calls for sensor and system studies, for sensor and system studies,
business model studies, and other user-need and technology investigations to reduce cost and risk business model studies, and other user-need and technology investigations to reduce cost and risk
for future missions.19for future missions.19
In accordance with guidance from the explanatory statement of the Consolidated and Further In accordance with guidance from the explanatory statement of the Consolidated and Further
Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235),20 NASA and DOI entered into an annex Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235),20 NASA and DOI entered into an annex
agreement of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program MOU to build and launch Landsat 9, agreement of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program MOU to build and launch Landsat 9,
~~general y~~generally a remake of Landsat 8, by 2020.21 a remake of Landsat 8, by 2020.21 ~~The launch of Landsat 9 is now anticipated in 2021,~~
~~which stil would~~Landsat 9 launched on September 27, 2021, which experts expect to provide continuity of coverage, as NASA projects Landsat 7 has fuel through provide continuity of coverage, as NASA projects Landsat 7 has fuel through
~~summer 2021.~~
~~Agency Responsibilities and Budgets~~
~~The following describes the respective agency responsibilities of NASA and the USGS for the~~
~~Sustainable Land Imaging Program and funding activities for Landsat 8 and Landsat 9.~~

~~16 Goward~~ 2021. 15 Goward et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy. 16 Goward et al., et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy. .
17 National Research Council,17 National Research Council, Assessment of Impediments to Interagency Collaboration on Space and Earth Science
Missions,, 2011, at2011, at https://doi.org/10.17226/13042. https://doi.org/10.17226/13042.
18 USGS,18 USGS, “ “MOU - SustainableMOU - Sustainable Land ImagingLand Imaging Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at
https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-developmenthttps://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-development -and-operations. -and-operations.
19 Michael A. Wulder 19 Michael A. Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat Program, Science, and Applications,” et al., “Current Status of Landsat Program, Science, and Applications,” Remote Sensing of
~~Environm ent~~Environment, vol. 225 (May 2019), pp. 127-147, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.015. Hereinafter Wulder et al., , vol. 225 (May 2019), pp. 127-147, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.015. Hereinafter Wulder et al.,
“Current Status of Landsat.” “Current Status of Landsat.”
20 Explanatory statement of the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235), 20 Explanatory statement of the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2015 (P.L. 113-235),
available at “Explanatory Statement,” Proceedings and Debates of the available at “Explanatory Statement,” Proceedings and Debates of the ~~113 th~~113th Congress, Second Congress, Second Session,Session, Congressional
Record, vol. 160, part 2 (December 11, 2014), p. H9349, at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2014-12-11/, vol. 160, part 2 (December 11, 2014), p. H9349, at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CREC-2014-12-11/
pdf/CREC-2014-12-11-house-bk2.pdf. pdf/CREC-2014-12-11-house-bk2.pdf. ~~T he~~The explanatory statement called for Landsat 9 to cost substantially less than explanatory statement called for Landsat 9 to cost substantially less than
Landsat 8; to provide the same data quality as Landsat 8, so asLandsat 8; to provide the same data quality as Landsat 8, so as to not require an overhaul of associated groundto not require an overhaul of associated ground systems; systems;
and to provide no degradation or gap in data, includingand to provide no degradation or gap in data, including the eightthe eight -day continuous coverage. -day continuous coverage. ~~T he~~The explanatory statement explanatory statement
diddid not endorse efforts to develop alternative approaches that would increase risk of a coverage gap andnot endorse efforts to develop alternative approaches that would increase risk of a coverage gap and not meet the not meet the
needs of the Landsat user community. needs of the Landsat user community.
21 USGS, 21 USGS, “ “MOU - Collaborate on the Landsat 9 ProjectMOU - Collaborate on the Landsat 9 Project ,” September 14, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/,” September 14, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/
mou-collaborate-landsatmou-collaborate-landsat -9-project-9-project . .
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Agency Responsibilities and Budgets The following describes the respective agency responsibilities of NASA and the USGS for the Sustainable Land Imaging Program and funding activities for Landsat 8, Landsat 9, and Landsat Next development. NASA
Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, NASA is responsible for, among other things,22 Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, NASA is responsible for, among other things,22
 leading and managing the  leading and managing the ~~overal~~ overall system architecture design and development; system architecture design and development;
 developing and executing agreements with potential international partners;  developing and executing agreements with potential international partners;
 developing and executing agreements for flight hardware development with  developing and executing agreements for flight hardware development with
potential external partners; potential external partners;
 supporting ground system development and leading and managing mission  supporting ground system development and leading and managing mission
operational readiness; operational readiness;
 developing, integrating, and testing spacecraft, instruments, and launch vehicle  developing, integrating, and testing spacecraft, instruments, and launch vehicle
services for the program; services for the program;
 launching the mission, performing on-orbit checkout and commissioning, and  launching the mission, performing on-orbit checkout and commissioning, and
transitioning Landsat to DOI for operations; and transitioning Landsat to DOI for operations; and
 supporting the calibration, validation, and characterization of the instruments  supporting the calibration, validation, and characterization of the instruments
throughout the remaining mission life cycle. throughout the remaining mission life cycle.
NASA NASA Landsat activities are funded under the Earth Science Division in the Science Mission Landsat activities are funded under the Earth Science Division in the Science Mission
Directorate.23 NASA spent $857 Directorate.23 NASA spent $857 ~~mil ion~~million on Landsat 8.24 As of on Landsat 8.24 As of ~~FY2020~~the end of FY2021, NASA has , NASA has spent $699 million ~~spent $517~~
~~mil ion~~ on its responsibilities for launching Landsat 9, out of an on its responsibilities for launching Landsat 9, out of an ~~overal~~ overall life-cycle cost life-cycle cost
commitment of $885 commitment of $885 ~~mil ion~~million.25 The .25 The ~~president~~President’s budget request for NASA in ’s budget request for NASA in ~~FY2021 includes~~
~~$86.5 mil ion for Landsat 9 and $20 mil ion~~ FY2022 includes $2.8 million for Landsat 9 operations and transition to the USGS, and $56 million for the Sustainable Land Imaging Program and for the Sustainable Land Imaging Program and
planning for Landsat Next.26 Congress has provided funding each year for the Sustainable Land planning for Landsat Next.26 Congress has provided funding each year for the Sustainable Land
Imaging Program to support technology development activities for future land imaging sensors, Imaging Program to support technology development activities for future land imaging sensors,
~~as wel~~ as well as funding for the Landsat Next mission, which began pre-formulation activities in as funding for the Landsat Next mission, which began pre-formulation activities in
~~FY2020.27~~
~~U.S. Geological Survey~~
~~Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, DOI, through the USGS, is responsible for, among~~
~~other things,28~~
~~ defining the needs of national and international users for a land imaging system~~
~~and providing technical, managerial, and scientific support to NASA related to~~
~~those needs throughout the space system development life cycle;~~
~~ supporting, under NASA leadership, the overal land imaging system architecture~~
~~design and development;~~

~~22 USGS, “ MOU - Sustainable Land Imaging~~ FY2020.27 22 USGS, “MOU - Sustainable Land Imaging Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at
https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-developmenthttps://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-development -and-operations. -and-operations.
23 NASA, 23 NASA, ~~FY2021~~ FY2022 Budget: Congressional Justification NASA Budget Request, 2021~~, 2020~~, at https://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html. , at https://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html.
24 Personal correspondence between CRS24 Personal correspondence between CRS and NASAand NASA on July 8, 2020. on July 8, 2020.
25 An overall life-cycle cost commitment is the not25 An overall life-cycle cost commitment is the not -to-exceed amount NASA committed to when formulating the -to-exceed amount NASA committed to when formulating the
mission. Personal correspondence between CRSmission. Personal correspondence between CRS and NASAand NASA on July 8, 2020, on July 8, 2020, ~~and September 9, 2020.~~
~~26 Personal correspondence between CRS and NASA on July 8, 2020.~~
27September 9, 2020, and October 21, 2021. 26 Personal correspondence between CRS Personal correspondence between CRS and NASAand NASA on July 8, 2020 and October 21, 2021. NASA, FY2022 Budget Congressional Justification NASA Budget Request, 2021, at https://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html. 27 Personal correspondence between CRS and NASA on July 8, 2020~~on July 8, 2020.~~
~~28 USGS, “ MOU - Sustainable Land Imaging Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at~~
~~https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-development -and-operations~~. .
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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program U.S. Geological Survey Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, DOI, through the USGS, is responsible for, among other things,28  defining the needs of national and international users for a land imaging system and providing technical, managerial, and scientific support to NASA related to those needs throughout the space system development life cycle;  supporting, under NASA leadership, the overall land imaging system architecture design and development; ~~of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program~~

 leading and managing ground system development, including  leading and managing ground system development, including ~~al pre~~all pre- and and
postlaunch activities related to development of the ground-based component of postlaunch activities related to development of the ground-based component of
the land imagingthe land imaging system; system;
 leading and managing the calibration, validation, and characterization of the  leading and managing the calibration, validation, and characterization of the
instruments after reaching orbit; instruments after reaching orbit;
 operating Landsat, as  operating Landsat, as ~~wel~~ well as the downlink, archiving, processing, and as the downlink, archiving, processing, and
distributing Landsat data; distributing Landsat data;
 establishing cooperation in land imaging system data acquisition, data sharing,  establishing cooperation in land imaging system data acquisition, data sharing,
product development, and distribution with potential external partners; product development, and distribution with potential external partners;
 defining and representing to NASA the needs and desires of user communities, as  defining and representing to NASA the needs and desires of user communities, as
~~wel~~ well as providing unique expertise and guidance in the design of spacecraft and as providing unique expertise and guidance in the design of spacecraft and
data operations, processing, and distribution methodologies and management data operations, processing, and distribution methodologies and management
approaches; approaches;
 developing a common set of land imaging data products and data dissemination;  developing a common set of land imaging data products and data dissemination;
and and
 maintaining the national archive of land imaging system data.  maintaining the national archive of land imaging system data.
In addition, the USGS supports a Landsat Science Team consisting of USGS and NASA scientists In addition, the USGS supports a Landsat Science Team consisting of USGS and NASA scientists
and engineers, external scientists, engineers, and application specialists, representing industry and and engineers, external scientists, engineers, and application specialists, representing industry and
university research initiatives.29 Landsat Science Teams (e.g., the 2018-2023 Landsat Science university research initiatives.29 Landsat Science Teams (e.g., the 2018-2023 Landsat Science
Team) consider technological design issues and evolution, changes to algorithms for data Team) consider technological design issues and evolution, changes to algorithms for data
processing and distribution, and the design of standard data products to enable easier use of the processing and distribution, and the design of standard data products to enable easier use of the
data, among other objectives. data, among other objectives.
USGS Landsat activities are funded under the National Land Imaging Program in the USGS Landsat activities are funded under the National Land Imaging Program in the ~~Land~~
~~Resources~~Core Science Systems Mission Area.30 The National Land Imaging Program, funded at $ Mission Area.30 The National Land Imaging Program, funded at $~~98.9 mil ion in~~
~~FY2020, has two~~106.9 million in FY2021, has three main budget areas: main budget areas: ~~Satel ite Operations and~~Satellite Operations; Science, Research, and 28 USGS, “MOU - Sustainable Land Imaging Research, Development, and Operations,” September 27, 2016, at https://www.usgs.gov/media/files/mou-sustainable-land-imaging-research-development-and-operations. 29 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat Science Teams ~~Science, Research, and~~
~~Investigations.31 Satel ite Operations, funded at $84.3 mil ion in FY2020, supports Landsat 9~~
~~ground system development ($32.0 mil ion in FY2020) and satel ite operations activities other~~
~~than the Landsat 9 ground system development ($52.3 mil ion in FY2020).32 The President’s~~
~~FY2021 budget request proposes to move the National Land Imaging Program to the Core~~
~~Science Systems Mission Area.33~~

~~29 USGS, Landsat Missions, “ Landsat Science T eams~~,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-
science-teams. science-teams.
30 USGS, 30 USGS, “ “National Land Imaging Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/National Land Imaging Program,” at https://www.usgs.gov/~~land-resources~~core-science-systems/national-land-imaging-/national-land-imaging-program. Congress transferred the National Land Imaging Program to the Core Science Mission Area and eliminated the Land Resources Mission Area as requested by the Trump Administration in the USGS FY2021 budget request. Explanatory Statement accompanying Division G of P.L. 116-260, at https://www.congress.gov/117/cprt/HPRT43750/CPRT-117HPRT43750.pdf. USGS, ~~program.~~
~~31 Science, Research, and Investigations funding supports classified data activity operations, non -satellite archive~~
~~operations and data distribution, product development and improvement, remote sensing technology investigations, and~~
~~education and outreach grants. In FY2020, the funding for Science, Research, and Investigations totaled $14.6 million;~~
~~the FY2021 budget request is $5.8 million. Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020.~~
~~32 Satellite Operations funds the USGS to (1) keep pace with NASA’s build and launch of the satellite, sensors, and~~
~~launch vehicle; (2) support the flight and ground system operations and maintenance of Landsats 7 and 8; (3) continue~~
~~the EROS national satellite archive operations and maintenance and data distribution; and (4) continue Landsat product~~
~~development and improvement. Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020. USGS,~~
FY2021 USGS Budget Justification (Greenbook), 2020, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-support/
~~budget/usgs-fy2021-budget.~~
~~33 USGS,~~ FY2021 USGS Budget Justification (Greenbook), 2020, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-, 2020, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-
support/budget/usgs-fy2021-budget.support/budget/usgs-fy2021-budget.
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link to page 10 link to page 10 Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program Investigations; and Land Cover Monitoring and Assessments.31 Satellite Operations, funded at $84.3 million in FY2021, supports Landsat 9 ground system development, satellite operations activities other than the Landsat 9 ground system development, and continues to develop sustainable land imaging with Landsat Next.32 ~~of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program~~

The USGS spent $180 The USGS spent $180 ~~mil ion~~ million through FY2013 on its responsibilities for Landsat 8.through FY2013 on its responsibilities for Landsat 8.3433 Through Through
FY2020, the USGS has spent FY2020, the USGS has spent ~~approximately $120 mil ion~~ over $120 million on Landsat 9 for ground system on Landsat 9 for ground system
development to operate the spacecraft in orbit; to collect the data and return it to the EROS development to operate the spacecraft in orbit; to collect the data and return it to the EROS
ground station; and to calibrate, validate, archive, process, and distribute the data at EROS.ground station; and to calibrate, validate, archive, process, and distribute the data at EROS.~~35 Out~~
~~of $73.4 mil ion for Satel ite~~34 The request for $84.8 million for Satellite Operations in the President’s Operations in the President’s ~~FY2021~~FY2022 budget request would support Landsat 7, 8, and 9 and would continue to develop sustainable land imaging with Landsat Next.35 Landsat Satellites and Instruments36 ~~budget request, $32.0 mil ion~~
~~is for the remaining development activities for Landsat 9 and the initiation of Landsat Next~~
~~mission pre-formulation activities with NASA.36~~
~~Landsat Satellites and Instruments37~~
Landsat sensors record reflected and emitted energy from Earth in various wavelengths of the Landsat sensors record reflected and emitted energy from Earth in various wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum includes electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum includes al all forms of radiated energy, forms of radiated energy,
from high frequency, short wavelength gamma rays and x-rays to low frequency, long wavelength from high frequency, short wavelength gamma rays and x-rays to low frequency, long wavelength
radio waves. The human eye is sensitive to the visible wavelengths of this spectrum; humans can radio waves. The human eye is sensitive to the visible wavelengths of this spectrum; humans can
see color ranging from violet to red. Landsat instruments sense and record blue, green, and red see color ranging from violet to red. Landsat instruments sense and record blue, green, and red
light in the visible spectrum as light in the visible spectrum as ~~wel~~ well as near-infrared, shortwave-infrared, and thermal-infrared as near-infrared, shortwave-infrared, and thermal-infrared
light that human eyes cannot perceive (although humans can feel the thermal-infrared light as light that human eyes cannot perceive (although humans can feel the thermal-infrared light as
heat). Landsat records this information heat). Landsat records this information ~~digital y~~digitally and transmits it to ground stations, where it is and transmits it to ground stations, where it is
processed and stored in a data archive. processed and stored in a data archive.
Since 1972, Landsat Since 1972, Landsat ~~satel ites~~satellites have continuously gathered land imagery from space using several have continuously gathered land imagery from space using several
instruments mounted on the instruments mounted on the ~~satel ite~~satellite. The instruments . The instruments ~~general y~~generally have improved in capability with have improved in capability with
the launch of each successive mission; the the launch of each successive mission; the ~~satel ites~~satellites, detectors, communications, downlink , detectors, communications, downlink
capacity, and ground system technology likewise have advanced and changed over time.capacity, and ground system technology likewise have advanced and changed over time.3837 For a For a
timeline of Landsat timeline of Landsat ~~satel ites, see Figure 1.~~

~~34 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020.~~
~~35 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020.~~
~~36 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020. USGS,~~ ~~FY2021 USGS~~ satellites, see Figure 1. 31 Science, Research, and Investigations funding supports classified data activity operations, non-satellite archive operations and data distribution, product development and improvement, remote sensing technology investigations, and education and outreach grants. In FY2021, the funding for Science, Research, and Investigations totaled $14.6 million; the FY2022 budget request is $14.6 million. According to the USGS, Land Cover Monitoring and Assessments creates a suite of annual land cover and change products for the United States based on time series data from the Landsat record. In FY2021, funding for Land Cover Monitoring and Assessments totaled $8.0 million; the FY2022 budget request is $17.5 million. USGS, FY2022 USGS Budget Justification (Greenbook), 2021, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-support/office-budget-planning-and-integration-bpi/usgs-fy2022-budget. P.L. 116-260. 32 Satellite Operations funds the USGS to (1) keep pace with NASA’s build and launch of the satellite, sensors, and launch vehicle; (2) support the flight and ground system operations and maintenance of Landsats; (3) continue the EROS national satellite archive operations and maintenance and data distribution; and (4) continue Landsat product development and improvement. Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020, and October 7, 2021. 33 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020. 34 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020. 35 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020, and October 7, 2021. USGS, FY2022 USGS Budget Justification
(Greenbook), , ~~2020~~2021, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-support/, at https://www.usgs.gov/about/organization/science-support/~~budget/usgs-fy2021-budget.~~
37office-budget-planning-and-integration-bpi/usgs-fy2022-budget. 36 Parts of this description are excerpted from NASA, Landsat Science, “Data: Parts of this description are excerpted from NASA, Landsat Science, “Data: ~~T he~~The Numbers Behind Landsat Numbers Behind Landsat ,” at ,” at
http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/. http://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/.
~~38 T he~~37 The Landsat program has met with some failures Landsat program has met with some failures in its history. For example, Landsat 6 failed to achieve orbit and an in its history. For example, Landsat 6 failed to achieve orbit and an
instrument aboard Landsat 7 stopped functioning properlyinstrument aboard Landsat 7 stopped functioning properly —the scan line corrector, which compensates for the forward —the scan line corrector, which compensates for the forward
~~motion of the satellit e to align forward and reverse scans necessary to create an image. Goward et al.,~~ ~~Landsat’s~~
~~Enduring Legacy~~.
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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

Figure 1. Timeline of Landsat Satellites

Source: U.S. Geological U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), “Landsat MissionsSurvey (USGS), “Landsat Missions Timeline,”Timeline,” at https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/at https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/
landsat-missions-timeline. landsat-missions-timeline.
Note: Landsat 6 failed to achieve orbit. Landsat 6 failed to achieve orbit.
Currently, Landsat 7 and 8 orbit the Earth at an altitude of 438 miles and complete 14 full orbits Currently, Landsat 7 and 8 orbit the Earth at an altitude of 438 miles and complete 14 full orbits
each day.each day.3938 Each Each ~~satel ite~~satellite crosses every point on Earth once every 16 days. With Landsat 7 and 8 crosses every point on Earth once every 16 days. With Landsat 7 and 8
both operating, each point on Earth gets complete coverage every eight days, although clouds can both operating, each point on Earth gets complete coverage every eight days, although clouds can
obscure the imagery over parts of the Earth at any given time. Landsat 8 captures approximately obscure the imagery over parts of the Earth at any given time. Landsat 8 captures approximately
750 images a day, an increase from the roughly 450 images a day captured by Landsat 7. Spatial 750 images a day, an increase from the roughly 450 images a day captured by Landsat 7. Spatial
resolution for each resolution for each ~~satel ite~~satellite is 30 x 30 meters for most observations, about the size of a is 30 x 30 meters for most observations, about the size of a ~~basebal~~
baseball diamond.diamond.
Landsat 8 carries two instruments: an operational land imager (OLI), which observes many of the Landsat 8 carries two instruments: an operational land imager (OLI), which observes many of the
same bands of radiation as Landsat 7 but with improvements (see example OLI images isame bands of radiation as Landsat 7 but with improvements (see example OLI images in Figure
2), and a thermal infrared sensor (TIRS) that can measure land surface temperature in two , and a thermal infrared sensor (TIRS) that can measure land surface temperature in two
different thermal infrared bands.different thermal infrared bands.4039 The thermal infrared bands on Landsat 8 provide improved The thermal infrared bands on Landsat 8 provide improved
temperature estimates and estimates of soil moisture compared with earlier Landsat instruments.temperature estimates and estimates of soil moisture compared with earlier Landsat instruments.41

~~39 USGS, “ What Are the Acquisition Schedules~~ 40 motion of the satellite to align forward and reverse scans necessary to create an image. Goward et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy. 38 USGS, “What Are the Acquisition Schedules for the Landsat Satellites?,” at https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-are-for the Landsat Satellites?,” at https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-are-
acquisition-schedules-landsat-satellites. acquisition-schedules-landsat-satellites.
4039 Early in the Landsat 8 mission, the thermal infrared sensor ( Early in the Landsat 8 mission, the thermal infrared sensor (~~T IRS~~TIRS) experienced stray light problems, and operators ) experienced stray light problems, and operators
performed technical adjustments to stabilize its measurement performance in orbit. NASA, Landsat Science,performed technical adjustments to stabilize its measurement performance in orbit. NASA, Landsat Science, Landsat 8, Landsat 8,
“Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-8/mission-details/. “Mission Details,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-8/mission-details/.
4140 USGS, USGS, “ “What Are the Best Landsat Spectral Bands for UseWhat Are the Best Landsat Spectral Bands for Use in My Research?,” at https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-in My Research?,” at https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-
are-best-landsatare-best-landsat -spectral-bands-use-my-research. -spectral-bands-use-my-research.
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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program

Figure 2. Landsat 8 Images Showing the Effects of Flooding from Dam Failures

Source: National Aeronautics and Space AdministrationNational Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Earth Observatory,(NASA) Earth Observatory, “Muddy Flooding in “Muddy Flooding in
Michigan,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146752/muddy-flooding-in-michigan. Michigan,” at https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/146752/muddy-flooding-in-michigan.
Note: The pair of natural color The pair of natural color images shows flooding acrossimages shows flooding across Midland County, MI, in 2020 (image on the right) Midland County, MI, in 2020 (image on the right)
fol owing two dam failures on the Tittabawassee River as observed by the operational land imagerfol owing two dam failures on the Tittabawassee River as observed by the operational land imager on Landsat 8. on Landsat 8.
The 2020 image shows the impacts of flooding, with light brown colors indicating increased sedimentThe 2020 image shows the impacts of flooding, with light brown colors indicating increased sediment in flood in flood
waters and deposition of sedimentwaters and deposition of sediment downstream of the dams. ~~downstream of the dams. Failure of the Edenvil e Dam also resulted in loss of~~
~~water in the reservoir upstream of the dam.~~
Initiated in March 2015, Landsat 9 (se Initiated in March 2015, Landsat 9 (see Figure 3) has a design very similar to that of Landsat 8, ) has a design very similar to that of Landsat 8,
in order to shorten the development time and reduce the risk of a Landsat data gap when Landsat in order to shorten the development time and reduce the risk of a Landsat data gap when Landsat
7 ceases to operate.7 ceases to operate.4241 The instruments on board Landsat 9 are similar to but are improvements The instruments on board Landsat 9 are similar to but are improvements
over those currently over those currently ~~col ecting~~collecting data on board Landsat 8; Landsat 9’s instruments include the data on board Landsat 8; Landsat 9’s instruments include the
Operational Land Imager–2 (OLI–2), built by Operational Land Imager–2 (OLI–2), built by ~~Bal~~ Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation, and Aerospace & Technologies Corporation, and
the Thermal Infrared Sensor–2 (TIRS–2), built at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.the Thermal Infrared Sensor–2 (TIRS–2), built at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.43
~~Northrup~~42 Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems Grumman Innovation Systems ~~is building~~built the spacecraft, and General Dynamics the spacecraft, and General Dynamics is
~~building~~built the mission operations element. the mission operations element.43 The Landsat ground system at USGS EROS has The Landsat ground system at USGS EROS has
undergone improvements to support both Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 operations and to increase the undergone improvements to support both Landsat 8 and Landsat 9 operations and to increase the
computational efficiency of data processing, archiving, management, and distribution.44computational efficiency of data processing, archiving, management, and distribution.44

~~42 NASA, Landsat Science,~~ 41 NASA, Landsat Science, “Landsat 9,” https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-9/. Statement of NASA Administrator “Landsat 9,” https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-9/. Statement of NASA Administrator
Charles F. Bolden Jr., in U.S.Charles F. Bolden Jr., in U.S. Congress,Congress, House Committee on Science, Space, and House Committee on Science, Space, and ~~T echnology~~Technology, Subcommittee, Subcommittee on on
Space, Space, An Overview of the Budget Proposal for the National Aeronautics and Space ~~Adm inistration~~Administration for Fiscal Year
2017, 114th Cong., 2nd sess., March 17, 2016, HRG-2016-, 114th Cong., 2nd sess., March 17, 2016, HRG-2016-~~T EC~~TEC-0020. -0020.
~~43 T he~~42 The original Landsat 8 original Landsat 8 ~~T IRS~~TIRS had an optical design had an optical design problem that degradedproblem that degraded the radiometric accuracy of the instrument, the radiometric accuracy of the instrument,
and the encoder for the and the encoder for the ~~T IRS~~TIRS image select mirror stopped operating early in the mission. image select mirror stopped operating early in the mission. ~~T he revised T IRS~~The revised TIRS-2 design -2 design
addressedaddressed these problems. Wulder et al., “these problems. Wulder et al., “ Current Status of Landsat.” Current Status of Landsat.”
43 Earth Observation Portal, “Landsat-9,” at https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/l/landsat-9. 44 Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.” 44 Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.”
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Figure 3. Rendering of the Landsat 9 Design

Source: NASA,NASA, Landsat Science,Landsat Science, Landsat 9, “Landsat 9 Overview,”Landsat 9, “Landsat 9 Overview,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-9/at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/landsat-9/
landsat-9-overview/. landsat-9-overview/.
Landsat 9 Landsat 9 ~~is currently slated for a 2021 launch~~launched on September 27, 2021, from Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, on board a from Vandenberg Air Force Base, CA, on board a
United Launch United Launch ~~Al iance~~Alliance Atlas V 401 rocket.45 Atlas V 401 rocket.45 ~~After launch, Landsat 9 wil move~~ NASA is now positioning Landsat 9 into the current into the current
orbit of Landsat 7, which NASA is expected to decommission orbit of Landsat 7, which NASA is expected to decommission ~~shortly thereafter, when its fuel~~
~~runs out. Landsat 9 wil~~ when Landsat 9 becomes fully operational. Landsat 9 is to image the Earth every 16 days in an 8-day offset with Landsat 8.46 image the Earth every 16 days in an 8-day offset with Landsat 8.46
Landsat 9 Landsat 9 ~~wil~~ is to collect as many as 750 images per day; with Landsat 8, the two collect as many as 750 images per day; with Landsat 8, the two ~~satel ites wil add~~
satellites are to add nearly 1,500 new images a day to the USGS Landsat archive. Both instruments on Landsat 9 have nearly 1,500 new images a day to the USGS Landsat archive. Both instruments on Landsat 9 have
a 5-year mission design life, and the spacecraft has more than 10 years of fuel. Data acquired by a 5-year mission design life, and the spacecraft has more than 10 years of fuel. Data acquired by
Landsat 9 are intended to be consistent with archived data and therefore should Landsat 9 are intended to be consistent with archived data and therefore should ~~al ow~~ allow for long-for long-
term comparisons of changes in the Earth’s land features.term comparisons of changes in the Earth’s land features.
Use of Landsat Data
In response to congressional direction in the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267), the In response to congressional direction in the NASA Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267), the
White House led an assessment of national programs for civil Earth observations in 2014, which White House led an assessment of national programs for civil Earth observations in 2014, which
named Landsat one of the most critical U.S. systems, third only to the named Landsat one of the most critical U.S. systems, third only to the ~~satel ite~~satellite-based Global -based Global
Positioning System and the National Weather Service Positioning System and the National Weather Service ~~satel ites.47 Satel ite~~ satellites.47 Satellite remote sensing data remote sensing data
provide a relatively low-cost alternative to aerial surveys, offering the potential to survey large provide a relatively low-cost alternative to aerial surveys, offering the potential to survey large
areas, albeit with possibly lower resolution.48 Data from Landsat are used widely in the United areas, albeit with possibly lower resolution.48 Data from Landsat are used widely in the United
States and worldwide to support operational decisionmaking and research in areas such as States and worldwide to support operational decisionmaking and research in areas such as
agriculture, forestry and range resources, land use and mapping, geology, hydrology, coastal agriculture, forestry and range resources, land use and mapping, geology, hydrology, coastal
resources, environmental monitoring, disaster response, and national security (resources, environmental monitoring, disaster response, and national security (seesee Figure 4).49 ).49
Landsat data also are used for commercial applications and in derived products, such as Google Landsat data also are used for commercial applications and in derived products, such as Google

~~45 USGS,~~ 45 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat 9,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-9. Landsat Missions, “Landsat 9,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-9.
46 Because46 Because of cloudof cloud cover, the period between clear observations for an application may be longer than the revisit time. cover, the period between clear observations for an application may be longer than the revisit time.
~~T o~~To get seasonal observations, the satellite must acquire several images get seasonal observations, the satellite must acquire several images ~~during~~ during the season to increase the likelihood the season to increase the likelihood ~~tha t~~that
the area willthe area will ~~be cloud~~ be cloud free duringfree during at least one overpass per season. at least one overpass per season.
47 Office of Science and 47 Office of Science and ~~T echnology~~Technology Policy ( Policy (~~OST P~~OSTP), ), National Plan for Civil Earth Observations, July, July 2014, at 2014, at
https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/~~NST C~~NSTC//
2014_national_plan_for_civil_earth_observations.pdf. Hereinafter 2014_national_plan_for_civil_earth_observations.pdf. Hereinafter ~~OST P~~OSTP, , National Plan for Civil Earth Observations. .
48 Ginger48 Ginger Butcher, Linda Owen,Butcher, Linda Owen, and Christopher Barnes, “Landsat: the Cornerstone of Global Land Imaging,” and Christopher Barnes, “Landsat: the Cornerstone of Global Land Imaging,” GIM
International, February 2, 2019, at https://www.gim-international.com/content/article/landsat-the-cornerstone-of-, February 2, 2019, at https://www.gim-international.com/content/article/landsat-the-cornerstone-of-
global-land-imaging.global-land-imaging. Hereinafter Butcher et al., “Hereinafter Butcher et al., “ Landsat the Cornerstone.” Landsat the Cornerstone.”
49 USGS, 49 USGS, Economic Valuation of Landsat Imagery; National Research Council (NRC),; National Research Council (NRC), Landsat and Beyond:
Sustaining and Enhancing the Nation ’s Land ~~Im aging~~Imaging Program , 2013, at https://doi.org/10.17226/18420. Hereinafter , 2013, at https://doi.org/10.17226/18420. Hereinafter
NRC,NRC, Landsat and Beyond. .
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Earth, which themselves have Earth, which themselves have ~~mil ions~~millions of users.50 Studies have noted that users of Landsat data of users.50 Studies have noted that users of Landsat data
are overwhelmingly government agencies, academic institutions, and nongovernmental are overwhelmingly government agencies, academic institutions, and nongovernmental
organizations, with commercial entities constituting a organizations, with commercial entities constituting a ~~smal~~ small fraction of users.51 USGS researchers fraction of users.51 USGS researchers
estimate that Landsat imagery provided U.S. users with $2.06 estimate that Landsat imagery provided U.S. users with $2.06 ~~bil ion~~billion in benefits in 2017, with an in benefits in 2017, with an
additionaladditional $1.39 $1.39 ~~bil ion~~ billion in benefits for international users.52 When those researchers incorporated in benefits for international users.52 When those researchers incorporated
the number of images downloaded from EROS by cloud vendors, the benefits to domestic and the number of images downloaded from EROS by cloud vendors, the benefits to domestic and
international users were estimated at $4.18 international users were estimated at $4.18 ~~bil ion~~billion in 2017. in 2017.
Figure 4. Primary Uses of Landsat Data
(October 1, (October 1, ~~2019-June 30, 2020~~2021-September 30, 2021) )

Source: USGS, Landsat Missions,USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat Project Statistics,” accessed on “Landsat Project Statistics,” accessed on ~~August 10, 2020~~November 3, 2021, at , at
https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-project-statistics. https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-project-statistics.
Notes: Top uses of Landsat data, as indicated by Earth Resources Top uses of Landsat data, as indicated by Earth Resources Observation and ScienceObservation and Science (EROS) registration (EROS) registration
systemsystem user profileuser profile demographics. demographics.

~~50 USGS,~~ 50 USGS, Economic Valuation of Landsat Imagery. .
51 NRC,51 NRC, Landsat and Beyond. .
52 USGS,52 USGS, Economic Valuation of Landsat Imagery. .
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Use of Landsat by the Federal Government
The federal government is a prominent user of Landsat data, in part due to its land management responsibilities. The federal government is a prominent user of Landsat data, in part due to its land management responsibilities.
More than 30 federal agencies and departments use Landsat data. The federal government owns roughly 640 More than 30 federal agencies and departments use Landsat data. The federal government owns roughly 640
mil ionmil ion ~~acres~~ acres of land in the United States, which constitutes 28% of the 2.27 bil ion acres of land in the country. In of land in the United States, which constitutes 28% of the 2.27 bil ion acres of land in the country. In
addition, the Department of Defenseaddition, the Department of Defense (DOD) owns, leases,(DOD) owns, leases, or otherwiseor otherwise ~~possesses~~ possesses 26.9 mil ion26.9 mil ion acres of land acres of land
worldwideworldwide (in the United States and other countries). Landsat data are used (in the United States and other countries). Landsat data are used ~~operational y~~operationally by virtual y every U.S. by virtual y every U.S.
land management agency to define broad land-cover categoriesland management agency to define broad land-cover categories and to monitor changes (e.g., fireand to monitor changes (e.g., fire impacts). The impacts). The
fol owing are somefol owing are some examples of long-term use of Landsat data by the federal government: examples of long-term use of Landsat data by the federal government:
 
In the U.S. In the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), the ForeignDepartment of Agriculture (USDA), the Foreign Agricultural ServiceAgricultural Service uses Landsat data to monitor uses Landsat data to monitor
global crop supplies and stocks to forecast global crop supplies and stocks to forecast ~~shortfal s~~shortfalls or gluts of various crops on the market. or gluts of various crops on the market. The USDA also The USDA also
uses Landsat to assess and quantify flood damage to crops to determineuses Landsat to assess and quantify flood damage to crops to determine crop-insurance payments to farmers. crop-insurance payments to farmers.
 
Within DOD, Within DOD, the U.S.the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers uses Landsat data mostly for civilian water resource Army Corps of Engineers uses Landsat data mostly for civilian water resource
purposes, such as responding to flood events, whereas other DOD agencies use the data for cartography, purposes, such as responding to flood events, whereas other DOD agencies use the data for cartography,
topographic mapping, and other strategic ends. The U.S. militarytopographic mapping, and other strategic ends. The U.S. military routinely generates uproutinely generates up -to-date image base -to-date image base
maps and three-dimensionalmaps and three-dimensional visualizations of landscapes using Landsat for overseasvisualizations of landscapes using Landsat for overseas deployments. deployments.
 
The United States Global Change Research Program, The United States Global Change Research Program, authorized by the Global Change Research Act of 1990 authorized by the Global Change Research Act of 1990
(P.L. 101-606) and representing 13 federal agencies,(P.L. 101-606) and representing 13 federal agencies, identified Landsat as a criticalidentified Landsat as a critical observatory for climate and observatory for climate and
environmentalenvironmental change research due to the unbroken length of the Landsat record and its ability to monitor change research due to the unbroken length of the Landsat record and its ability to monitor
remoteremote regions with surface features, such as glaciers,regions with surface features, such as glaciers, rainforests,rainforests, permafrost,permafrost, and coral reefs. and coral reefs.
For more For more examples of Landsat use by federal agencies,examples of Landsat use by federal agencies, ~~see~~ see NASA,NASA, Landsat Science,Landsat Science, “How Landsat Helps: Case “How Landsat Helps: Case
Studies,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/how_landsat_helps/case-studies-2/. Studies,” at https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/how_landsat_helps/case-studies-2/.
Sources: National Academies National Academies of Sciences,of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine,Engineering, and Medicine, Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal
Strategy for Earth Observation ~~from~~ from Space, 2018, at https://doi.org/10.17226/24938; CRS Report R42346, , 2018, at https://doi.org/10.17226/24938; CRS Report R42346, Federal
Land Ownership: Overview and Data; Sam N. Goward et al., ; Sam N. Goward et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy: Pioneering Global Land
~~Observations~~ Observations from Space (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD, 2017). (American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing: Bethesda, MD, 2017).
Some stakeholders have referred to Landsat as a Some stakeholders have referred to Landsat as a gold standard for its length of record, for its length of record,
availabilityavailability of data, global coverage, and calibration standards.53 Landsat serves as the central of data, global coverage, and calibration standards.53 Landsat serves as the central
reference comparison point for many moderate- and high-resolution optical reference comparison point for many moderate- and high-resolution optical ~~satel ite~~satellite systems systems
operated by governments or commercial entities.54 The Landsat program’s policies and operated by governments or commercial entities.54 The Landsat program’s policies and
technologies also have influenced programs of foreign governments (e.g., the ESA’s Copernicus technologies also have influenced programs of foreign governments (e.g., the ESA’s Copernicus
Program Sentinel-2 Program Sentinel-2 ~~satel ite constel ation~~satellite constellation; se; see Appendix B) and a new generation of commercial and a new generation of commercial
~~satel ites~~satellites.55 .55
Increased Data Availability and Use Under Changing Policies
In early Landsat missions, the USGS relied on a network of international ground stations, In early Landsat missions, the USGS relied on a network of international ground stations,
operated by cooperating nations, to downlink and store Landsat images.56 In 2006, the USGS operated by cooperating nations, to downlink and store Landsat images.56 In 2006, the USGS
recognized that the volumerecognized that the volume of Landsat data holdings held by international cooperators (an of Landsat data holdings held by international cooperators (an
estimated 4 estimated 4 ~~mil ion~~ million images) far exceeded the holdings in the USGS Landsat archive at EROS (an images) far exceeded the holdings in the USGS Landsat archive at EROS (an
~~estimated 1.9 mil ion images).57 In 2010, the USGS started the U.S. Landsat Global Archive~~

~~53 Wulder et al., “ Current Status of Landsat .”~~
~~54 NGAC, LAG~~, 53 NGAC, LAG, Landsat Data: Community Standard for Data Calibration, October 2020, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/october-2020/ngac-paper-landsat-data-community-standard-for.pdf. 54 NGAC, LAG, Evaluation of a Range of Landsat Data Cost Sharing Models, June, June 2019, at https://www.fgdc.gov/2019, at https://www.fgdc.gov/
ngac/meetings/june-2019/ngac-paper-evaluation-of-a-range-of-landsatngac/meetings/june-2019/ngac-paper-evaluation-of-a-range-of-landsat -data.pdf. Hereinafter LAG, -data.pdf. Hereinafter LAG, Evaluation of
Landsat Data Cost Sharing Models. .
55 LAG,55 LAG, Recommendations Beyond Landsat 9. .
56 Michael Wulder56 Michael Wulder et al., “et al., “~~T he~~The Global Landsat Archive: Status, Consolidation, and Direction,” Global Landsat Archive: Status, Consolidation, and Direction,” Remote Sensing of
~~Environm ent~~Environment, vol. 185 (November 2016), pp. 271-283, at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/, vol. 185 (November 2016), pp. 271-283, at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0034425715302194. Hereinafter Wulder et al., “S0034425715302194. Hereinafter Wulder et al., “ ~~Global Landsat Archive.”~~
~~57 Wulder et al., “~~Global Landsat Archive.” Global Landsat Archive.”
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~~Consolidation~~ estimated 1.9 million images).57 In 2010, the USGS started the U.S. Landsat Global Archive Consolidation program to repatriate unique Landsat data.58 The initiativeprogram to repatriate unique Landsat data.58 The initiative had acquired and had acquired and
reprocessed more than 5 reprocessed more than 5 ~~mil ion~~ million images by December 2019, increasing the Landsat archive’s images by December 2019, increasing the Landsat archive’s
coverage equivalent to the launch of an additional Landsat mission and expanding its historical coverage equivalent to the launch of an additional Landsat mission and expanding its historical
spatial coverage (for more information, sespatial coverage (for more information, see Appendix B).59
.59 In 2008, the USGS announced no-charge electronic access to any Landsat image held in the In 2008, the USGS announced no-charge electronic access to any Landsat image held in the
USGS-managed national archive.60 This decision removed financial barriers for potential users, USGS-managed national archive.60 This decision removed financial barriers for potential users,
resulting in new and expanded Landsat applications.61 The price for a single Landsat image varied resulting in new and expanded Landsat applications.61 The price for a single Landsat image varied
from $20 to $200 from 1972 to 1982, increased to between $3,000 and $4,000 from 1983 to 1998, from $20 to $200 from 1972 to 1982, increased to between $3,000 and $4,000 from 1983 to 1998,
and then decreased to approximately $600 from 1999 to 2008.62 Over these years, no more than and then decreased to approximately $600 from 1999 to 2008.62 Over these years, no more than
3,000 Landsat images were sold in a given month.63 In 2009, the first full year of free and open 3,000 Landsat images were sold in a given month.63 In 2009, the first full year of free and open
access, users downloaded nearly 1 access, users downloaded nearly 1 ~~mil ion~~ million images.64images.64
Since 2008, the use of Landsat data has increased significantly, Since 2008, the use of Landsat data has increased significantly, ~~especial y~~especially in global in global time-series time-series
applications, such as the World Resources Institute Global Forest Watch web application, which applications, such as the World Resources Institute Global Forest Watch web application, which
monitors global forests in near real time.monitors global forests in near real time.6565 Figure 5 shows the cumulative number of Landsat shows the cumulative number of Landsat
images downloaded from the USGS servers since full implementation of the free-access policy images downloaded from the USGS servers since full implementation of the free-access policy
(in the figure, increments are labeled for every 10 (in the figure, increments are labeled for every 10 ~~mil ion~~ million image downloads following the first image downloads following the first
~~mil ion~~ million in 2009).66 USGS statistics do not include data accessed from secondary platforms, such in 2009).66 USGS statistics do not include data accessed from secondary platforms, such
as Google Earth Engine or Amazon Web Services, which started hosting Landsat data after 2008; as Google Earth Engine or Amazon Web Services, which started hosting Landsat data after 2008;
as a result, the actual increases are likely greater than those as a result, the actual increases are likely greater than those ~~il ustrated~~illustrated in in Figure 5.67 For example, 67 For example,
a 2018 report stated that Google Earth delivers approximately 1 a 2018 report stated that Google Earth delivers approximately 1 ~~bil ion~~ billion Landsat images to users Landsat images to users
~~per month.68~~

per month.68 57 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” 58 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” 58 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.”
59 USGS,59 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat Missions, “ Landsat GlobalLandsat Global Archive Consolidation,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/Archive Consolidation,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/
landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation; Wulder et al., “landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation; Wulder et al., “ Global Landsat Archive.” Global Landsat Archive.”
60 USGS,60 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Imagery for Everyone, Landsat Missions, “Imagery for Everyone, ~~T imeline~~Timeline Set to Release Entire USGS Set to Release Entire USGS Landsat Archive at No Landsat Archive at No
Charge,” April 2008, at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/imagery-everyone. Charge,” April 2008, at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/imagery-everyone.
61 USGS,61 USGS, “ “A Landsat Milestone: One HundredA Landsat Milestone: One Hundred Million Downloads,”Million Downloads,” at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/a-landsat-at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/a-landsat-
milestone-one-hundred-million-downloads. milestone-one-hundred-million-downloads.
62 Zhe Zhu et al., “Benefits of the Free and Open Landsat Data Policy,” 62 Zhe Zhu et al., “Benefits of the Free and Open Landsat Data Policy,” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 224 , vol. 224
(April 2019), pp. 382-385, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.016. Hereinafter Zhu et al., “(April 2019), pp. 382-385, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.016. Hereinafter Zhu et al., “ Benefits of Landsat Benefits of Landsat
Data Policy.”Data Policy.”
63 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.” 63 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.”
64 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.” 64 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.”
65 Butcher et al., “Landsat the Cornerstone.” 65 Butcher et al., “Landsat the Cornerstone.”
66 USGS,66 USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat Project Statistics,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-Landsat Missions, “Landsat Project Statistics,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-
projectproject -statistics. -statistics.
67 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.” 67 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy.”
68 National Academies of Sciences,68 National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM),Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM), Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A
Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space, 2018, at https://doi.org/10.17226/24938. Hereinafter NASEM, , 2018, at https://doi.org/10.17226/24938. Hereinafter NASEM,
Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space. .
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Figure 5. Cumulative Landsat Image Downloads from USGS Inventory Since the
2008 Data Policy
~~(January 1, 2008-March 9, 2020~~for No-Charge Access to Landsat Images (December 2008-September 2021) )

Source: U.S. GeologicalU.S. Geological ~~Survey (USGS), Landsat Missions, “Landsat Project Statistics,” at https://www.usgs.gov/~~
~~land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-project-statistics.~~
~~Notes:~~ ~~Jan = January.~~ Survey (USGS), provided to CRS on October 7, 2021. Notes: Number of Landsat images Number of Landsat images downloaded since the entire USGS Landsat archivedownloaded since the entire USGS Landsat archive was made was made
available at no available at no charge to all users~~charge to al users. As of March 31, 2020, Landsat images have been downloaded more than 100~~
~~mil ion times from the Landsat archive~~. .
Anecdotal observations suggest Landsat users have gravitated toward commercial cloud Anecdotal observations suggest Landsat users have gravitated toward commercial cloud
computing vendors to download and process Landsat in the cloud.69 Working under the 2018 computing vendors to download and process Landsat in the cloud.69 Working under the 2018
Federal Cloud Computing Strategy, in 2020, the USGS placed a copy of its consolidated Landsat Federal Cloud Computing Strategy, in 2020, the USGS placed a copy of its consolidated Landsat
global data inventory into a commercial cloud.70 Landsat’s cloud architecture uses a hybrid global data inventory into a commercial cloud.70 Landsat’s cloud architecture uses a hybrid
approach that includes the USGS cloud hosting solutions program and existing EROS center approach that includes the USGS cloud hosting solutions program and existing EROS center
private cloud capabilities. The USGS suggests the commercial cloud may be more convenient and private cloud capabilities. The USGS suggests the commercial cloud may be more convenient and
cost-effective than traditional downloading for some users to reprocess Landsat data. The agency cost-effective than traditional downloading for some users to reprocess Landsat data. The agency
estimates that users following the traditional workflow may spend up to 80% of their Landsat estimates that users following the traditional workflow may spend up to 80% of their Landsat
work time downloading and processing files.71 With cloud computing, users can run algorithms work time downloading and processing files.71 With cloud computing, users can run algorithms
against the entire archive without having to download and against the entire archive without having to download and ~~local y~~locally store and process data. Cloud store and process data. Cloud
computing also computing also ~~al ows~~allows users to access spatial or temporary subsets of data without having to users to access spatial or temporary subsets of data without having to
download the entire image and subset the data download the entire image and subset the data ~~local y~~locally.72 In addition to this cloud architecture, the .72 In addition to this cloud architecture, the

~~69 USGS,~~ 69 USGS, Economic Valuation of Landsat Imagery. For an explanation of cloud computing, see CRS. For an explanation of cloud computing, see CRS Report R46119, Report R46119,
Cloud ~~Com puting~~Computing: Background, Status of Adoption by Federal Agencies, and Congressional Action , by Patricia , by Patricia
Moloney Figliola. Moloney Figliola.
70 USGS,70 USGS, “ “Landsat Data Moving to Public CloudLandsat Data Moving to Public Cloud in Early 2020,” at https://www.usgs.gov/news/landsat-data-moving-in Early 2020,” at https://www.usgs.gov/news/landsat-data-moving-
public-cloud-early-2020. public-cloud-early-2020.
71 USGS, 71 USGS, “ “Landsat Data in the Cloud,”Landsat Data in the Cloud,” at https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/landsat-data-cloud. at https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/landsat-data-cloud.
72 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy”; USGS,72 Zhu et al., “Benefits of Landsat Data Policy”; USGS, “ “Landsat Data in the Cloud,”Landsat Data in the Cloud,” at https://www.usgs.gov/media/at https://www.usgs.gov/media/
videos/landsatvideos/landsat -data-cloud. -data-cloud.
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USGS USGS ~~wil~~ will continue to manage the original Landsat global data inventory at EROS, and the continue to manage the original Landsat global data inventory at EROS, and the
inventory inventory ~~wil~~ will be availablebe available from traditional websites on a long-term basis.73from traditional websites on a long-term basis.73
Documenting Landsat data use is important for identifying the needs of users for future missions Documenting Landsat data use is important for identifying the needs of users for future missions
and products. The current metric for data usage is and products. The current metric for data usage is image downloads. This metric may . This metric may
underestimate the use of Landsat images, as other websites host Landsat data. Moving forward, underestimate the use of Landsat images, as other websites host Landsat data. Moving forward,
Congress may want to direct the USGS to consider new ways to document Landsat data use, as Congress may want to direct the USGS to consider new ways to document Landsat data use, as
the metric ofthe metric of image downloads is less relevant when numerous users take advantage of in-the-image downloads is less relevant when numerous users take advantage of in-the-
cloud processing without cloud processing without ~~actual y~~actually downloading images. downloading images.
Landsat After Landsat 9
With the With the ~~pending~~ launch of Landsat 9, Congress may wish to consider the future of the launch of Landsat 9, Congress may wish to consider the future of the
Sustainable Land Imaging Program. More Sustainable Land Imaging Program. More ~~specifical y~~specifically, Congress may want to consider whether to , Congress may want to consider whether to
support the development of another moderate-resolution land imaging support the development of another moderate-resolution land imaging ~~satel ite~~ satellite after Landsat 9, after Landsat 9,
and it may and it may want to investigate potentialinvestigate potential alternatives.alternatives.
A future moderate-resolution mission could differ from previous Landsat A future moderate-resolution mission could differ from previous Landsat ~~satel ites~~satellites in several in several
ways. For example, such a mission could adopt a ways. For example, such a mission could adopt a ~~smal er satel ite~~smaller satellite design, increase image design, increase image
resolution or the number of images captured per day, reduce the time between images of a given resolution or the number of images captured per day, reduce the time between images of a given
location, sense a wider variety of optical and infrared frequencies, or make other design changes. location, sense a wider variety of optical and infrared frequencies, or make other design changes.
There may be ways to acquire data similar to that provided by Landsat without building another There may be ways to acquire data similar to that provided by Landsat without building another
fully fully ~~federal y funded satel ite~~federally funded satellite, like Landsat 8 or Landsat 9. Such arrangements could include , like Landsat 8 or Landsat 9. Such arrangements could include
~~developing~~ developing alternative models for generating sources of multispectral and thermal imaging, such alternative models for generating sources of multispectral and thermal imaging, such
as a public-private partnerships, or procuring data from non-U.S. moderate-resolution as a public-private partnerships, or procuring data from non-U.S. moderate-resolution ~~satel ite~~satellite
systems. These issues are discussed below in the context of the Sustainable Land Imaging systems. These issues are discussed below in the context of the Sustainable Land Imaging
Architecture Study, guidance from the Obama and Trump Administrations for the nation’s Earth Architecture Study, guidance from the Obama and Trump Administrations for the nation’s Earth
observation program, and reports and studies from advising bodies and stakeholders. observation program, and reports and studies from advising bodies and stakeholders.
Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Study
Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, NASA and the USGS work on planning activities, Under the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, NASA and the USGS work on planning activities,
including requirements and technology development, in an effort to reduce cost and risk in future including requirements and technology development, in an effort to reduce cost and risk in future
missions. The USGS partners with federal agencies and others to document the uses of and missions. The USGS partners with federal agencies and others to document the uses of and
requirements for land imaging data.74 For example, the USGS recently released a user-needs requirements for land imaging data.74 For example, the USGS recently released a user-needs
study documenting the needs of federal government civil subject matter experts who rely on study documenting the needs of federal government civil subject matter experts who rely on
moderate-resolution land imaging data across a diverse range of scientific research and moderate-resolution land imaging data across a diverse range of scientific research and
application domains.75 Based on the survey results, federal government civil users seek application domains.75 Based on the survey results, federal government civil users seek
improvement to 10-meter spatial resolution, at least weekly cloud-free observation frequency, and improvement to 10-meter spatial resolution, at least weekly cloud-free observation frequency, and
the addition of spectral bands not currently measured. the addition of spectral bands not currently measured.
Whereas the USGS leads the focus on the uses and requirements for land imaging data, NASA Whereas the USGS leads the focus on the uses and requirements for land imaging data, NASA
leads instrument studies, business model studies, and other technology investigations to reduce leads instrument studies, business model studies, and other technology investigations to reduce
the cost and risk of the cost and risk of ~~satel ite~~satellite missions. For example, NASA missions. For example, NASA ~~cal ed~~called for proposals for sustainable for proposals for sustainable

~~73 USGS, “~~ 73 USGS, “Landsat Data Moving to Public CloudLandsat Data Moving to Public Cloud in Early 2020,” at https://www.usgs.gov/news/landsat-data-moving-in Early 2020,” at https://www.usgs.gov/news/landsat-data-moving-
public-cloud-early-2020. public-cloud-early-2020.
74 USGS, 74 USGS, “ “Requirements CapabilitiesRequirements Capabilities & Analysis for Earth Observations,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/& Analysis for Earth Observations,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/
rca-eo. rca-eo.
75 Wu et al., “User Needs.” 75 Wu et al., “User Needs.”
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land imaging technology development in 2015 to identify and develop key enabling land imaging technology development in 2015 to identify and develop key enabling
technologies.76 technologies.76 ~~Bal~~ Ball Aerospace—one of six companies selected by NASA to receive study Aerospace—one of six companies selected by NASA to receive study
funding—developed, built, and flightfunding—developed, built, and flight tested a multispectral airborne imager with a much tested a multispectral airborne imager with a much ~~smal er~~
smaller volume and a lower cost than Landsat 8.77 volume and a lower cost than Landsat 8.77
The Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Study Team, initiated in 2018 and consisting of The Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Study Team, initiated in 2018 and consisting of
scientists from NASA and the USGS, was created to advance measurement capability for the next scientists from NASA and the USGS, was created to advance measurement capability for the next
mission after Landsat 9, while preserving continuity and constraining program costs.78 The study mission after Landsat 9, while preserving continuity and constraining program costs.78 The study
team was to consider team was to consider al all options, including new, compact imaging technologies; international options, including new, compact imaging technologies; international
partnerships; and commercial-sector involvement. In late 2018, the study team requested public partnerships; and commercial-sector involvement. In late 2018, the study team requested public
comments on draft sustainable land imaging science requirements for use by the study team.79 comments on draft sustainable land imaging science requirements for use by the study team.79
The draft requirements were presented at a threshold level (the The draft requirements were presented at a threshold level (the ~~minimal y~~ minimally acceptable performance acceptable performance
level) and at a goal level (the desired level). For example, one of the draft requirements was that level) and at a goal level (the desired level). For example, one of the draft requirements was that
the Sustainable Land Imaging Program the Sustainable Land Imaging Program ~~shal~~ shall be capable of collecting imagery at the same be capable of collecting imagery at the same
location on Earth every eight days as the threshold level and every three days as the goal level. location on Earth every eight days as the threshold level and every three days as the goal level.
In early 2020, the study team delivered the report to NASA and the USGS; as of October In early 2020, the study team delivered the report to NASA and the USGS; as of October ~~2020~~2021, ,
the report is not publicly available.80 The study was supposed to suggest as many as three viable the report is not publicly available.80 The study was supposed to suggest as many as three viable
architecture concepts and capabilities for deciding future acquisition strategies and approaches architecture concepts and capabilities for deciding future acquisition strategies and approaches
based on the sustainable land imaging requirements. The agencies are further developing details based on the sustainable land imaging requirements. The agencies are further developing details
and options. In September 2020, and options. In September 2020, then-USGS Director James USGS Director James ~~Reil y~~Reilly shared that the agencies looked at shared that the agencies looked at
options other than a single large options other than a single large ~~satel ite~~satellite bus, including acquiring Earth imagery from a number bus, including acquiring Earth imagery from a number
of different platforms that of different platforms that ~~can al~~ could be brought together as a system of systems.81 be brought together as a system of systems.81 InA 2020 request for information (RFI) from NASA described the Landsat Next concept as centered on a “superspectral” dataset featuring both richer spectral information and higher spatial resolution compared to Landsat 8 and 9.82 The RFI stated that NASA and the USGS would aim to begin Landsat Next operations in the late 2020s and that Landsat Next may either be a single satellite observatory or a small satellite constellation (approximately three to five satellites) performing coordinated imaging observations. ~~2020, the~~
~~agencies plan to release a request for information to solicit feedback from the user community on~~
~~the feasibility of instrumentation and platforms to meet science requirements and of requirements~~
~~to meet intended applications.82~~ The agencies anticipate sharing information about the mission, The agencies anticipate sharing information about the mission,
currently termed Landsat Next, currently termed Landsat Next, ~~by the release of the President’s FY2022 budget request.83~~

~~76 NASA called~~ in 2022.83 76 NASA called for additional proposals in 2019, with selection expected in 2020. NASA,for additional proposals in 2019, with selection expected in 2020. NASA, “ “Sustainable Land Imaging Sustainable Land Imaging
~~T echnology~~Technology,” at https://esto.nasa.gov/slit/. ,” at https://esto.nasa.gov/slit/.
77 NASA, 77 NASA, “ “2015 SLI-T2015 SLI-T Projects Awarded,” at https://esto.nasa.gov/2015-sli-t-projects-awarded/; Dennis Nicks et al., Projects Awarded,” at https://esto.nasa.gov/2015-sli-t-projects-awarded/; Dennis Nicks et al.,
“Continuation of the Landsat Mission with Sustained“Continuation of the Landsat Mission with Sustained Land Imaging (SLI)Land Imaging (SLI) and the Reducedand the Reduced Envelope Multispectral Envelope Multispectral
Imager (REMI),” Proceedings of SPIE VolumeImager (REMI),” Proceedings of SPIE Volume 11127, 11127, Earth Observing Systems XXIV, 111270X (September 2019), at, 111270X (September 2019), at
https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2529570. https://doi.org/10.1117/12.2529570.
78 USGS, 78 USGS, “ “Architecture Study Architecture Study ~~T eam~~Team Narrowing Options for Landsat Next Narrowing Options for Landsat Next ,” at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/,” at https://www.usgs.gov/center-news/
architecture-study-team-narrowing-options-landsat-next. architecture-study-team-narrowing-options-landsat-next.
79 The~~79 T he~~ draft requirements were derived draft requirements were derived from assessments of current Landsat and Sentinel-2 continuity and performance, from assessments of current Landsat and Sentinel-2 continuity and performance,
USGSUSGS user needs, input from the Landsat Scienceuser needs, input from the Landsat Science ~~T eam~~ Team, and subject, and subject matter expertisematter expertise . Beta.sam.gov, “. Beta.sam.gov, “ Sustainable Sustainable
Land Imaging (SLI) Program Beyond Landsat 9 Architecture StudyLand Imaging (SLI) Program Beyond Landsat 9 Architecture Study ,” at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/,” at https://beta.sam.gov/opp/
ba6bec027510abc30e1f6fdafa74228c/view?keywords=%22%20NASA-SLI-Beyond-L9.%22&sort=-relevance&index=ba6bec027510abc30e1f6fdafa74228c/view?keywords=%22%20NASA-SLI-Beyond-L9.%22&sort=-relevance&index=
&is_active=true&page=1. &is_active=true&page=1.
80 USGS, 80 USGS, “ “Landsat, Collections Forum Updates Missions, Products, and Future Possibilities,” at https://www.usgs.gov/Landsat, Collections Forum Updates Missions, Products, and Future Possibilities,” at https://www.usgs.gov/
~~cent er~~center-news/landsat-collections-forum-updates-missions-products-and-future-possibilities. -news/landsat-collections-forum-updates-missions-products-and-future-possibilities.
81 Debra Werner, “Landsat Next likely to bear little resemblance to its predecessors,” 81 Debra Werner, “Landsat Next likely to bear little resemblance to its predecessors,” SpaceNews, September 28, 2020, , September 28, 2020,
at https://spacenews.com/landsatat https://spacenews.com/landsat -next-next -likely-to-bear-little-resemblance-to-its-predecessors/. -likely-to-bear-little-resemblance-to-its-predecessors/.
82 82 ~~Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020.~~
~~83 Personal correspondence between CRS and the USGS on July 10, 2020.~~NASA, “Landsat Next,” request for information, October 13, 2020, at https://sam.gov/opp/09a18f980f67449fa10608ecb0924883/view. 83 Congressional briefing from NASA and the USGS on September 14, 2021. The NASA FY2022 Budget Request also states: “the Administration will make key strategic decisions for Landsat Next as part of the FY 2023 budget process.”
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The White House National Plan for Civil Earth Observations
The The National Plan for Civil Earth Observations is intended “to provide strategic guidance for a is intended “to provide strategic guidance for a
balanced portfolio of Earth observations and observing systems.”84 The first plan was published balanced portfolio of Earth observations and observing systems.”84 The first plan was published
in 2014, following direction in Section 702 of the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which tasked in 2014, following direction in Section 702 of the NASA Authorization Act of 2010, which tasked
the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) with developing a mechanism to ensure the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) with developing a mechanism to ensure
greater coordination of research, operations, and activities for civilian Earth observations, greater coordination of research, operations, and activities for civilian Earth observations,
including development of a strategic implementation plan.85 The statute requires OSTP to update including development of a strategic implementation plan.85 The statute requires OSTP to update
the strategic implementation plan every three years. the strategic implementation plan every three years.
In December 2019, the Trump Administration published an updated plan.86 The plan stated that In December 2019, the Trump Administration published an updated plan.86 The plan stated that
the Administration continues to support Landsat 9 via the Sustainable Land Imaging Program to the Administration continues to support Landsat 9 via the Sustainable Land Imaging Program to
continue the (then) 47-year Landsat record of global land imaging measurements. The report also continue the (then) 47-year Landsat record of global land imaging measurements. The report also
reiterated that federal Earth observation data are public goods and that access to these data reiterated that federal Earth observation data are public goods and that access to these data
significantly enhances their value. The plan encouraged agencies to explore how best to leverage significantly enhances their value. The plan encouraged agencies to explore how best to leverage
the growth in commercial Earth observation capabilities, including determining whether a the growth in commercial Earth observation capabilities, including determining whether a
commercial solution is availablecommercial solution is available that might be more appropriate than creation of a new federal that might be more appropriate than creation of a new federal
observing asset, while sustaining the data infrastructure needed by both commercial and observing asset, while sustaining the data infrastructure needed by both commercial and
government sectors. The plan recommended federal agency initiatives take advantage of government sectors. The plan recommended federal agency initiatives take advantage of
technological advancements, such as cloud-based storage, computing, and distribution (the USGS technological advancements, such as cloud-based storage, computing, and distribution (the USGS
is following that guidance by launching its cloud-based data services) and encouraged greater use is following that guidance by launching its cloud-based data services) and encouraged greater use
of modeling and data assimilation, algorithm development, artificial of modeling and data assimilation, algorithm development, artificial ~~intel igence~~intelligence, and high-, and high-
performance and cloud computing. The report also reiterated prior support for enhancing performance and cloud computing. The report also reiterated prior support for enhancing
international cooperation to enable more robust Earth observation architectures and to increase international cooperation to enable more robust Earth observation architectures and to increase
access to data from non-U.S. sources by working through international frameworks. (See access to data from non-U.S. sources by working through international frameworks. (See
Appendix B.) )
Reports by the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine
The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) has produced several The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (NASEM) has produced several
reports on Earth observation from space. A 2013 report on Landsat recommended that “a reports on Earth observation from space. A 2013 report on Landsat recommended that “a
systematic and deliberate program, aimed at continuing to collect vital data within lower, systematic and deliberate program, aimed at continuing to collect vital data within lower, ~~wel~~ well--
defined, manageable budgets, replace the historical pattern of chaotic programmatic support and defined, manageable budgets, replace the historical pattern of chaotic programmatic support and
ad hoc design and implementation of spacecraft and sensors in the Landsat series.”87 Following ad hoc design and implementation of spacecraft and sensors in the Landsat series.”87 Following
that report, NASA and the USGS established the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, which that report, NASA and the USGS established the Sustainable Land Imaging Program, which
mirrored many of the report’s recommendations. The 2013 report also recommended that the mirrored many of the report’s recommendations. The 2013 report also recommended that the
program consider a combination of the following to increase capabilities while reducing costs for program consider a combination of the following to increase capabilities while reducing costs for
land imaging beyond Landsat 8land imaging beyond Landsat 8:
 pursue block buys and fixed-price contracting;  pursue block buys and fixed-price contracting;
 collaborate with commercial and international partners;  collaborate with commercial and international partners;

~~84 OST P, National Plan for Civil Earth Observations.~~
~~85 OST P,~~ ~~National Plan for Civil~~ NASA, FY2022 Budget Congressional Justification NASA Budget Request, 2021, at https://www.nasa.gov/news/budget/index.html. 84 OSTP, National Plan for Civil Earth Observations. 85 OSTP, National Plan for Civil Earth Observations. .
86 National Science and 86 National Science and ~~T echnology~~Technology Council, Council, 2019 National Plan for Civil Earth Observations, 2019, at , 2019, at
https://https://~~www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/12~~usgeo.gov/uploads/Natl-Plan-for-Civil-Earth-Obs.pdf. /Natl-Plan-for-Civil-Earth-Obs.pdf.
87 NRC,87 NRC, Landsat and Beyond. .
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 streamline the design, construction, and launch process by using a single  streamline the design, construction, and launch process by using a single
organizational unit approach consisting of both government employees and organizational unit approach consisting of both government employees and
contractors working together as a fully integrated team; contractors working together as a fully integrated team;
 identify foreign sources of land imaging data complementary to land imaging  identify foreign sources of land imaging data complementary to land imaging
requirements and seek formal data-sharing agreements with them; requirements and seek formal data-sharing agreements with them;
 consider technological innovations, such as increasing the width of each scan and  consider technological innovations, such as increasing the width of each scan and
employing constellations of employing constellations of ~~smal satel ites;~~
~~ incremental y~~small satellites;  incrementally incorporate new technologies that leverage industry, international, incorporate new technologies that leverage industry, international,
and other technology development activities but do not compromise core and other technology development activities but do not compromise core
operational capabilities; operational capabilities;
 accommodate candidates for improved or new instruments on a  accommodate candidates for improved or new instruments on a ~~smal satel ite~~small satellite for for
the purpose of demonstrating new technologies; and the purpose of demonstrating new technologies; and
 take advantage of opportunities to fly as an additional mission on a launch  take advantage of opportunities to fly as an additional mission on a launch
vehicle that is launching other missions. vehicle that is launching other missions.
At Congress’s direction, NASA and the USGS designed Landsat 9 At Congress’s direction, NASA and the USGS designed Landsat 9 ~~essential y~~essentially as a copy of as a copy of
Landsat 8; therefore, the government did not incorporate many of these recommendations (e.g., Landsat 8; therefore, the government did not incorporate many of these recommendations (e.g.,
incorporating new technologies, launching as a secondary payload, or employing incorporating new technologies, launching as a secondary payload, or employing ~~constel ations of~~
~~smal er satel ites~~constellations of smaller satellites). Congress may consider revisiting the 2013 report’s findings for future Landsat ). Congress may consider revisiting the 2013 report’s findings for future Landsat
missions beyond Landsat 9. missions beyond Landsat 9.
NASEM also produces decadal strategies for Earth observations from space; the most recent NASEM also produces decadal strategies for Earth observations from space; the most recent
decadal report was published in 2018.88 That report noted that the Sustainable Land Imaging decadal report was published in 2018.88 That report noted that the Sustainable Land Imaging
Program “transformed the Landsat program” by operating Landsat with consistency, connecting Program “transformed the Landsat program” by operating Landsat with consistency, connecting
user communities and the developers of new measurement technologies, and archiving and user communities and the developers of new measurement technologies, and archiving and
distributing data products. The report also highlighted the success of extending Landsat’s distributing data products. The report also highlighted the success of extending Landsat’s
capability through cross-calibration and data sharing with ESA’s Sentinel-2 (secapability through cross-calibration and data sharing with ESA’s Sentinel-2 (see Appendix B).
. The report recommended that NASA constrain cost growth in the development portion of the The report recommended that NASA constrain cost growth in the development portion of the
Sustainable Land Imaging Program and Sustainable Land Imaging Program and ~~ideal y~~ideally reduce cost from one generation to the next. It reduce cost from one generation to the next. It
also recommended that the USGS ensure budget growth is minimal to avoid strain on the also recommended that the USGS ensure budget growth is minimal to avoid strain on the ~~overal~~
overall USGS budget. In addition, the report recommended sustaining and expanding partnerships and USGS budget. In addition, the report recommended sustaining and expanding partnerships and
user communities associated with the Sustainable Land Imaging Program. user communities associated with the Sustainable Land Imaging Program.
National Geospatial Advisory Committee’s Landsat Advisory
Group
Each year, the USGS requests that the Landsat Advisory Group (LAG), a subcommittee of the Each year, the USGS requests that the Landsat Advisory Group (LAG), a subcommittee of the
National Geospatial Advisory Committee (authorized under the Geospatial Data Act of 2018, P.L. National Geospatial Advisory Committee (authorized under the Geospatial Data Act of 2018, P.L.
115-254), provide specific advice on the Landsat program’s requirements, objectives, and 115-254), provide specific advice on the Landsat program’s requirements, objectives, and
actions.89 LAG membership includes representation from federal and nonfederal government, actions.89 LAG membership includes representation from federal and nonfederal government,
industry, academia, and the nonprofit sector. In recent years, the LAG has provided reports on its industry, academia, and the nonprofit sector. In recent years, the LAG has provided reports on its
recommendations for future missions following Landsat 9, analysis of nonfederal Landsat user recommendations for future missions following Landsat 9, analysis of nonfederal Landsat user
requirements, and evaluation of Landsat data cost-sharing models, among other topics.requirements, and evaluation of Landsat data cost-sharing models, among other topics.

~~88 NASEM,~~ 88 NASEM, Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space. .
89 For more information on the National Geospatial Advisory Committee and the Geospatial Data Act of 2018, see CRS 89 For more information on the National Geospatial Advisory Committee and the Geospatial Data Act of 2018, see CRS
Report R45348, Report R45348, The Geospatial Data Act of 2018, by Peter Folger. , by Peter Folger.
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In April In April 2018, the LAG provided the USGS with recommendations for future missions following 2018, the LAG provided the USGS with recommendations for future missions following
Landsat 9 to support the Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Study.90 The LAG recommended Landsat 9 to support the Sustainable Land Imaging Architecture Study.90 The LAG recommended
the Sustainable Land Imaging Program pursue enhanced capabilities for future Landsat missions the Sustainable Land Imaging Program pursue enhanced capabilities for future Landsat missions
while maintaining continuity and current Landsat capabilities by investigating the followingwhile maintaining continuity and current Landsat capabilities by investigating the following:
 the adoption of newer technologies,  the adoption of newer technologies, ~~especial y~~especially in sensors and in sensors and ~~overal~~ overall spacecraft spacecraft
electronics, that would result in substantial size, weight, power, and cost savings; electronics, that would result in substantial size, weight, power, and cost savings;
 an approach (similar to the approach of ESA’s Copernicus  an approach (similar to the approach of ESA’s Copernicus ~~constel ations~~constellations) of ) of
building multiple building multiple ~~satel ite constel ations~~ satellite constellations at once and launching them over time to at once and launching them over time to
reduce development and acquisition costs per reduce development and acquisition costs per ~~satel ite~~satellite (e.g., Sentinel-2 costs are (e.g., Sentinel-2 costs are
estimated at $250-$300 estimated at $250-$300 ~~mil ion per satel ite~~million per satellite versus Landsat 8’s $857 versus Landsat 8’s $857 ~~mil ion~~million
cost);91 and cost);91 and
 the benefits and costs of changing future Landsats’ ground sample distance to 10  the benefits and costs of changing future Landsats’ ground sample distance to 10
meters or meters or ~~smal er~~smaller (to increase compatibility with Sentinel-2 sensors, increase the (to increase compatibility with Sentinel-2 sensors, increase the
width of each scan, increase coverage, and reduce overlap with commercial width of each scan, increase coverage, and reduce overlap with commercial
providers) and improving Landsat spectral resolution.92 providers) and improving Landsat spectral resolution.92
In the 2018 report, the LAG also recommended a market study to determine if sufficient demand In the 2018 report, the LAG also recommended a market study to determine if sufficient demand
existed to explore the creation of a public-private partnership where the private contractor would existed to explore the creation of a public-private partnership where the private contractor would
provide two or more tiers of data—one meeting Landsat technical requirements for open and free provide two or more tiers of data—one meeting Landsat technical requirements for open and free
distribution and others that provide superior data that is sold to users—thereby creating a revenue distribution and others that provide superior data that is sold to users—thereby creating a revenue
stream sufficient to offset at least some of the system’s building and operating costs. The LAG stream sufficient to offset at least some of the system’s building and operating costs. The LAG
noted that any pursuit of a public-private partnership model must ensure an equitable balance of noted that any pursuit of a public-private partnership model must ensure an equitable balance of
risk between the federal government and the private-sector partner. risk between the federal government and the private-sector partner.
In 2019, the LAG, charged by the USGS to consider a range of possible Landsat data cost-sharing In 2019, the LAG, charged by the USGS to consider a range of possible Landsat data cost-sharing
approaches, further analyzed the public-private partnership and other models.93 The report first approaches, further analyzed the public-private partnership and other models.93 The report first
recommended not charging any fees for Landsat data with the characteristics of Landsat 8 and 9. recommended not charging any fees for Landsat data with the characteristics of Landsat 8 and 9.
The LAGThe LAG predicted that a fee for these data would generate little revenue, cost the USGS to predicted that a fee for these data would generate little revenue, cost the USGS to ~~sel~~
sell the data, cost other federal agencies to buy the data, stifle remote-sensing and value-added the data, cost other federal agencies to buy the data, stifle remote-sensing and value-added
industries, and require changes to current laws and regulations. The LAG recommended further industries, and require changes to current laws and regulations. The LAG recommended further
investigation of three other approaches to further determine feasibility, cost, benefits, and risks: investigation of three other approaches to further determine feasibility, cost, benefits, and risks:
 generating revenue by  generating revenue by ~~sel ing~~selling enhanced imagery products and tailored image- imagery products and tailored image-
collection requests from sensors on board Landsat collection requests from sensors on board Landsat ~~satel ites~~satellites, while keeping , while keeping
standard Landsat 8 and 9 imagery data free and openly available; standard Landsat 8 and 9 imagery data free and openly available;
 moving EROS from the current government-owned, contractor-operated business  moving EROS from the current government-owned, contractor-operated business
model to a contractor-owned, contractor-operated business model that may more model to a contractor-owned, contractor-operated business model that may more
efficiently deliver Landsat data and data-management services at lower costs; and efficiently deliver Landsat data and data-management services at lower costs; and

~~90 LAG,~~ 90 LAG, Recommendations Beyond Landsat 9. .
91 Sentinel-2 was91 Sentinel-2 was ~~designed~~ designed as a four-satellite acquisition (e.g., a four-satellite buy with two satellites in orbit at any one as a four-satellite acquisition (e.g., a four-satellite buy with two satellites in orbit at any one
time), thereby reducing development and acquisition costs per satellite. time), thereby reducing development and acquisition costs per satellite.
92 In the 2016 LAG study, nonfederal Landsat users 92 In the 2016 LAG study, nonfederal Landsat users identified improved spatial and temporal resolution as the most identified improved spatial and temporal resolution as the most
important improvements needed for Landsat 10. NAGC,important improvements needed for Landsat 10. NAGC, LAG,LAG, Analysis of Non-Federal Landsat User ~~Requirem ents~~ Requirements, ,
2016, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/april-2016/landsat2016, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/april-2016/landsat -user-requirements-analysis-ngac-june-2016.pdf. -user-requirements-analysis-ngac-june-2016.pdf.
93 LAG, 93 LAG, Evaluation of Landsat Data Cost Sharing Models. .
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 creating public-private partnership(s) for the federal government to benefit from  creating public-private partnership(s) for the federal government to benefit from
some of private industry’s efficiencies, while maintaining Landsat continuity and some of private industry’s efficiencies, while maintaining Landsat continuity and
preserving public availabilitypreserving public availability of Landsat 8 and 9 quality data.94of Landsat 8 and 9 quality data.94
The LAG report concluded that, considering the 2019 report’s findings, a more impactful study The LAG report concluded that, considering the 2019 report’s findings, a more impactful study
on how to reduce public expenditures would analyze how the government could reduce the costs on how to reduce public expenditures would analyze how the government could reduce the costs
of building and launching Landsat sensors, as discussed in the 2018 report, rather than focusing of building and launching Landsat sensors, as discussed in the 2018 report, rather than focusing
on the cost sharing of operations.on the cost sharing of operations.
In 2020, the USGS tasked the LAG to provide a modernized interpretation of the Land Remote In 2020, the USGS tasked the LAG to provide a modernized interpretation of the Land Remote
Sensing Policy Act of 1992 that would inform future land remote sensing policy formulation and Sensing Policy Act of 1992 that would inform future land remote sensing policy formulation and
remain consistent with the spirit of the existing language.95 remain consistent with the spirit of the existing language.95 ~~For the analysis, the LAG is to~~
~~consider technology trends in space and ground mission segments, public-private partnering~~
~~opportunities, and evolving needs across a broad range of applications.~~
The report’s conclusions were not prescriptive; instead, the discussion outlined several questions for the agencies to consider on how to achieve the objectives of the law in a modern context.  How should the Landsat program approach and accomplish data continuity?  In the interest of meeting the act’s broad goals, should the Landsat program expand its objectives beyond medium resolution land imaging to include the collection of water and atmospheric data?  What role does Landsat play in global leadership as other nations expand their satellite programs, and how can or should the Landsat program leverage partnerships with programs like Copernicus?  What principles for a new national land remote sensing policy would best serve to inform and maintain global leadership for the United States? Congressional Deliberation
Since FY2015, Congress has supported the development of Landsat 9 by appropriating funding Since FY2015, Congress has supported the development of Landsat 9 by appropriating funding
for what is for what is ~~essential y~~essentially a rebuild of Landsat 8.96 Congress has deliberated future missions and a rebuild of Landsat 8.96 Congress has deliberated future missions and
alternative options through hearings and legislation.97 In 2015 and 2016, the Space Subcommittee alternative options through hearings and legislation.97 In 2015 and 2016, the Space Subcommittee
of the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology discussed alternatives for Landsat of the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology discussed alternatives for Landsat
missions during hearings on commercial opportunities for Earth science and remote sensing.98 missions during hearings on commercial opportunities for Earth science and remote sensing.98
The subcommittee discussed the possibility of The subcommittee discussed the possibility of ~~smal er~~smaller, less expensive , less expensive ~~satel ites; satel ites~~ satellites; satellites as a as a
payload on another launch platform; alternative business models, including public-private payload on another launch platform; alternative business models, including public-private
partnerships; the possibility of leveraging the ESA’s Sentinel-2 partnerships; the possibility of leveraging the ESA’s Sentinel-2 ~~constel ation while augmenting~~
~~the data with a thermal infrared sensor; and reforms to the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of~~
~~1992.~~
~~Congress may consider revisiting these discussions, in addition to examining the stakeholder~~
~~reports discussed above. For example, many of these reports recommend further exploring~~
~~technological improvements, cost savings opportunities, public-private partnerships, and~~
~~international cooperation and data sharing. In addition, these reports underscore the importance of~~
~~appraising users and uses of Landsat data so that the program can continue to meet user needs,~~
~~including a wide range of required federal government activities. Congress also may reexamine,~~
~~for example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2018 (H.R.~~
~~5503, 115th Congress). That bil would have limited the obligation of funds for Landsat 11 (the~~

constellation while augmenting 94 According to the LAG, this approach depends upon the ability of private industry to develop and implement a 94 According to the LAG, this approach depends upon the ability of private industry to develop and implement a
successfulsuccessful ~~business~~ business model and upon any legalmodel and upon any legal changes required,changes required, ~~including amending~~ including amending the Land Remote Sensingthe Land Remote Sensing Policy Policy
Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555). Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555).
95 95 ~~Frank Avila and Roberta Lenczowski, “Landsat Advisory Group (LAG) Overview,” June 10, 2020, at~~
NGAC, LAG, Revisiting the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992, April 2021, at https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/https://www.fgdc.gov/ngac/meetings/april-2021/ngac-paper-revisiting-the-land-remote-sensing.pdf. 96 Since ~~meetings/june-2020/landsat -advisory-group-update-ngac-june-2020.pdf.~~
~~96 Since~~ FY2015, Congress has provided appropriations for Landsat 9 in Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related FY2015, Congress has provided appropriations for Landsat 9 in Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related
AgenciesAgencies appropriations bills and in Interior, Environment, and Related Agenciesappropriations bills and in Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies appropriations bills. appropriations bills.
97 In the 115th Congress, the Senate passed97 In the 115th Congress, the Senate passed and the House rejected the Spaceand the House rejected the Space Frontier Act of 2019 (S. 3277), which Frontier Act of 2019 (S. 3277), which
includedincluded a provision providing technical changes to 51 U.S.C. §60147 relating to agency consultation for the Landsat a provision providing technical changes to 51 U.S.C. §60147 relating to agency consultation for the Landsat
program. In the 116th Congress, the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and program. In the 116th Congress, the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and ~~T ransportation~~Transportation reported the Space reported the Space
Frontier Act of 2019 (S. 919), which includedFrontier Act of 2019 (S. 919), which included the same provision. the same provision.
98 U.S. 98 U.S. Congress, HouseCongress, House Committee on Science, Space,Committee on Science, Space, ~~and T echnology~~ and Technology, Subcommittee on Space, , Subcommittee on Space, Exploring
~~Com m ercial~~Commercial Opportunities to ~~Maxim ize~~Maximize Earth Science ~~Investm ents~~Investments, 114th Cong., 1st sess.,, 114th Cong., 1st sess., November 17, 2015; U.S. November 17, 2015; U.S.
Congress, HouseCongress, House Committee on Science, Space, and Committee on Science, Space, and ~~T echnology~~Technology, Subcommittee on Space,, Subcommittee on Space, ~~Com m ercial Rem ote~~ Commercial Remote
Sensing: Facilitating Innovation and Leadership , 114th Cong., 2nd sess., September 7, 2016. , 114th Cong., 2nd sess., September 7, 2016.
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Landsat 9 and the Future of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program the data with a thermal infrared sensor; and reforms to the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992. Congress may consider revisiting these discussions, in addition to examining the stakeholder reports discussed above. For example, many of these reports recommend further exploring technological improvements, cost savings opportunities, public-private partnerships, and international cooperation and data sharing. In addition, these reports underscore the importance of appraising users and uses of Landsat data so that the program can continue to meet user needs, including a wide range of required federal government activities. Congress also may reexamine, for example, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2018 (H.R. 5503, 115th Congress). That bill would have limited the obligation of funds for Landsat 11 (the ~~of the Sustainable Land Imaging Program~~

mission following Landsat Next) or any other subsequent Landsat system until NASA completes mission following Landsat Next) or any other subsequent Landsat system until NASA completes
a study assessing which aspects of Landsat system observations and associated science a study assessing which aspects of Landsat system observations and associated science
requirements can be provided by purchasing data from the private sector or through publicrequirements can be provided by purchasing data from the private sector or through public -
-private partnerships.99private partnerships.99
In addition, development of new approaches to operating In addition, development of new approaches to operating ~~satel ite~~satellite missions may alter planning for missions may alter planning for
future missions. For example, Congress directed NASA (in report language accompanying future missions. For example, Congress directed NASA (in report language accompanying
appropriations legislationappropriations legislation in FY2019 and FY2020) to launch a robotic spacecraft to refuel Landsat-7 before its fuel supply ) to launch a robotic spacecraft to refuel Landsat-7 before its fuel supply
runs out as a demonstration of runs out as a demonstration of ~~satel ite~~satellite-servicing technologies.100 Due to delays, the Restore-L -servicing technologies.100 Due to delays, the Restore-L
mission is now working toward a launch readiness date of December 2023, years after Landsat-7 mission is now working toward a launch readiness date of December 2023, years after Landsat-7
is projected to run out of fuel.101 Nonetheless, the outcomes of the Restore-L mission may have is projected to run out of fuel.101 Nonetheless, the outcomes of the Restore-L mission may have
implications for future Landsat and other government and commercial space missions.102implications for future Landsat and other government and commercial space missions.102

~~99 T he~~ 99 The House Committee on Science, Space, House Committee on Science, Space, ~~and T echnology~~ and Technology reported the National Aeronautics and Space reported the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration Authorization Act of 2018Administration Authorization Act of 2018 (H.R. 5503, 115th Congress), but the House did(H.R. 5503, 115th Congress), but the House did not vote on the provision not vote on the provision
before the end of the 115th Congress. before the end of the 115th Congress.
100 100 ~~T he~~The Senate reports accompanying the Commerce, Justice, and Science Senate reports accompanying the Commerce, Justice, and Science appropriations bills for FY2019 (appropriations bills for FY2019 ( S.Rept. S.Rept.
115-275) and FY2020 (S.Rept. 116-127), which are incorporated in conference reports accompanying enacted 115-275) and FY2020 (S.Rept. 116-127), which are incorporated in conference reports accompanying enacted
appropriations, directed NASA to launch Restore-L before Landsatappropriations, directed NASA to launch Restore-L before Landsat -7’s fuel supply runs out-7’s fuel supply runs out . Section 607 of the . Section 607 of the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2020 (H.R. 5666) would direct the NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration Authorization Act of 2020 (H.R. 5666) would direct the NASA
Administrator to continue development of Restore-L technologies and capabilities for a planned onAdministrator to continue development of Restore-L technologies and capabilities for a planned on -orbit demonstration -orbit demonstration
to refuel the Landsat 7 spacecraftto refuel the Landsat 7 spacecraft and to produce an assessment of in-space assembly andand to produce an assessment of in-space assembly and servicing technologies, the servicing technologies, the
potential uses of those technologies, and related issues.potential uses of those technologies, and related issues.
101 U.S. 101 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Government Accountability Office, NASA, Assessments of Major Projects, GAO-20-405, April 2020, pp. 43-, GAO-20-405, April 2020, pp. 43-
44, at https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/706505.pdf. 44, at https://www.gao.gov/assets/710/706505.pdf.
102 102 ~~T he~~The FY2021 House Commerce, Justice, FY2021 House Commerce, Justice, and Science appropriations report (and Science appropriations report ( H.Rept. 116-455) directs NASA to H.Rept. 116-455) directs NASA to
conductconduct an orbital refueling mission in 2022 but doesan orbital refueling mission in 2022 but does not mention Landsatnot mention Landsat -7 as the target satellite to refuel. -7 as the target satellite to refuel. ~~T he~~The report report
also encourages the development of satellite-servicing technologies to benefit not only NASA but also other also encourages the development of satellite-servicing technologies to benefit not only NASA but also other
government entities (e.g., the Department of Defense) and the private sector. For more information about this mission, government entities (e.g., the Department of Defense) and the private sector. For more information about this mission,
see NASA,see NASA, “NASA’s“NASA’s Restore-L Mission to Refuel Landsat 7, Demonstrate Crosscutting Restore-L Mission to Refuel Landsat 7, Demonstrate Crosscutting ~~T echnologies~~Technologies,” ,” Space Tech, ,
AugustAugust 6, 2017, at https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-restore-l-mission-to-refuel-landsat6, 2017, at https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-restore-l-mission-to-refuel-landsat -7-demonstrate-crosscutting--7-demonstrate-crosscutting-
technologies. technologies.
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Appendix A. Privatizing Landsat: A Brief History
Almost since the beginning of Almost since the beginning of ~~satel ite~~satellite launches, including both land imaging and weather launches, including both land imaging and weather
~~satel ites~~satellites, privatization of , privatization of ~~satel ite~~satellite systems has been discussed. Efforts to privatize Landsat began systems has been discussed. Efforts to privatize Landsat began
during the Carter Administration and accelerated during the Reagan Administration. The Carter during the Carter Administration and accelerated during the Reagan Administration. The Carter
Administration initiated the move toward privatization when it released Presidential Directive 54 Administration initiated the move toward privatization when it released Presidential Directive 54
in 1979, which recommended transfer of Landsat operations from a research land remote sensing in 1979, which recommended transfer of Landsat operations from a research land remote sensing
system under the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to an operational system under the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to an operational
system under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).103 The Carter system under the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).103 The Carter
Administration asserted that Landsat was mature enough to move from a research system to an Administration asserted that Landsat was mature enough to move from a research system to an
operational system and that the user base for Landsat data operational system and that the user base for Landsat data ~~eventual y~~eventually would grow under NOAA would grow under NOAA
management. The directive also recommended development of a plan for eventual transition of management. The directive also recommended development of a plan for eventual transition of
Landsat to private-sector operation. Private companies would assume responsibility for their own Landsat to private-sector operation. Private companies would assume responsibility for their own
remote sensing systems and would provide data for government and private customers.104remote sensing systems and would provide data for government and private customers.104
In a policy shift to more rapid privatization of operational In a policy shift to more rapid privatization of operational ~~satel ite~~satellite systems, the Reagan systems, the Reagan
~~Administration~~ Administration in March 1983 proposed to move both Landsat and NOAA weather in March 1983 proposed to move both Landsat and NOAA weather ~~satel ite~~satellite
system operations, as system operations, as ~~wel~~ well as future ocean-observing as future ocean-observing ~~satel ite~~satellite systems, from the federal systems, from the federal
government to the private sector.105 Congress raised concerns that the Reagan Administration was government to the private sector.105 Congress raised concerns that the Reagan Administration was
moving too quickly toward privatizing weather moving too quickly toward privatizing weather ~~satel ites~~satellites without congressional involvement. The without congressional involvement. The
opposition from Congress and other stakeholders to privatizing NOAA weather opposition from Congress and other stakeholders to privatizing NOAA weather ~~satel ites~~satellites led to led to
Congress enacting language prohibiting their sale in the FY1984 appropriations act funding the Congress enacting language prohibiting their sale in the FY1984 appropriations act funding the
Department of Commerce (P.L. 98-166).106 In deliberations leading up to that prohibition, the Department of Commerce (P.L. 98-166).106 In deliberations leading up to that prohibition, the
House Science and Technology Committee suggested that pursuing the sale of the weather House Science and Technology Committee suggested that pursuing the sale of the weather
~~satel ites~~satellites distracted from the more important issue—maintaining global leadership in land remote distracted from the more important issue—maintaining global leadership in land remote
sensing (i.e., Landsat). In contrast to its opposition to the privatization of NOAA weather sensing (i.e., Landsat). In contrast to its opposition to the privatization of NOAA weather
~~satel ites~~satellites, Congress did not oppose Reagan Administration efforts to transition Landsat to the , Congress did not oppose Reagan Administration efforts to transition Landsat to the
private sector. In fact, the committee urged that the debate shift back to its original track—private sector. In fact, the committee urged that the debate shift back to its original track—
namely, how best to accomplish a transfer of land remote sensing capability to the U.S. private namely, how best to accomplish a transfer of land remote sensing capability to the U.S. private
~~sector.107~~

~~103 See~~ sector.107 103 See out-of-print CRS Issueout-of-print CRS Issue Brief IB92092, Brief IB92092, U.S. Civil Earth Observation Programs: Landsat, Mission to Planet
Earth, and the Weather Satellites, by David, by David P. Radzanowski,P. Radzanowski, available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on
request. request.
104 Ray A. Williamson, “ 104 Ray A. Williamson, “~~T he~~The Landsat Legacy: Remote Sensing Landsat Legacy: Remote Sensing Policy and the Development of Commercial Remote Policy and the Development of Commercial Remote
Sensing,”Sensing,” ~~Photogram m etric~~ Photogrammetric Engineering and ~~Rem ote~~Remote Sensing , vol. 63, no. 7 (July 1997), pp. 877-885. Hereinafter , vol. 63, no. 7 (July 1997), pp. 877-885. Hereinafter
Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
105 U.S.105 U.S. Congress, HouseCongress, House Committee on Science and Committee on Science and ~~T echnology~~Technology, Subcommittee on Space Science, Subcommittee on Space Science Applications, Applications,
~~Com m ercialization~~Commercialization of Land and Weather Satellites, committee print, prepared by the Congressional Research Service, , committee print, prepared by the Congressional Research Service,
98th Cong., 1st sess.,98th Cong., 1st sess., June 1983. June 1983.
106 “No funds made available by this act, or any other act, may be used ... by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 106 “No funds made available by this act, or any other act, may be used ... by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
~~Administrat ion~~Administration to transfer the ownership of any meteorological satellite ( to transfer the ownership of any meteorological satellite (~~MET SAT~~ METSAT) or associated ground system to any ) or associated ground system to any
private entity.” Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary,private entity.” Departments of Commerce, Justice, and State, the Judiciary, and Related Agencies Appropriation Act, and Related Agencies Appropriation Act,
1984 (P.L. 98-166). 1984 (P.L. 98-166).
107 U.S. 107 U.S. Congress, HouseCongress, House Committee on Science and Committee on Science and ~~T echnology~~Technology, , Transfer of Civil Meteorological Satellites, report to , report to
accompany H.Con.Res. 168, 98th Cong., 1st sess., November 8, 1983, Report No. 98accompany H.Con.Res. 168, 98th Cong., 1st sess., November 8, 1983, Report No. 98 -509. -509.
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Stakeholder Perspectives on Landsat Privatization in the 1980s
The larger context for the future of Landsat was, in part, a dispute over whether the The larger context for the future of Landsat was, in part, a dispute over whether the ~~satel ite~~satellite served served primarily primarily
public or private interests.public or private interests. Landsat provided the government with data for scientificLandsat provided the government with data for scientific research,research, managing federal managing federal
lands, and carrying out other responsibilities.lands, and carrying out other responsibilities. It also provided data with direct economicIt also provided data with direct economic value for managing private value for managing private
lands, or for exploration for oil,lands, or for exploration for oil, gas, and minerals.gas, and minerals. The argument over Landsat’s future concerned which use was The argument over Landsat’s future concerned which use was
moremore important. important.
SomeSome Landsat proponents supported the move to privatization, in part because of fears that the ReaganLandsat proponents supported the move to privatization, in part because of fears that the Reagan
AdministrationAdministration would cancel the programwould cancel the program altogether. Proponents alsoaltogether. Proponents also were concerned that uncertainty over the were concerned that uncertainty over the
program’sprogram’s future would future would ~~forestal~~ forestall investment in hardware and software necessary to processinvestment in hardware and software necessary to process Landsat data. In Landsat data. In
addition, Landsat supporters argued that privatization would ensure continuity of the data—an important feature addition, Landsat supporters argued that privatization would ensure continuity of the data—an important feature
of time-seriesof time-series observational data from observational data from ~~satel ites general y, al owing~~satellites generally, allowing data users to analyze changes over data users to analyze changes over time. time.
Supporters argued that privatization Supporters argued that privatization ~~eventual y~~eventually would result in a lower would result in a lower price for Landsat data. price for Landsat data.
Sources: Ray A. Wil iamson, Ray A. Wil iamson, “The Landsat Legacy: Remote Sensing Policy and the Development“The Landsat Legacy: Remote Sensing Policy and the Development of Commercial of Commercial
Remote Sensing,” Remote Sensing,” Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing,, vol. 63, no. 7 (July 1997), pp. 877-885. vol. 63, no. 7 (July 1997), pp. 877-885.
It was recognized at the time that the market for Landsat products was It was recognized at the time that the market for Landsat products was ~~smal~~ small and the customer and the customer
base grew base grew ~~smal er~~smaller each time the price of Landsat data rose. The price of a Landsat image rose each time the price of Landsat data rose. The price of a Landsat image rose
300% in 1981, when the Office of Management and Budget directed that operating costs would 300% in 1981, when the Office of Management and Budget directed that operating costs would
be recovered by data sales.108 Sales shrank again when NOAA took over full responsibility for the be recovered by data sales.108 Sales shrank again when NOAA took over full responsibility for the
program in 1983 and raised prices for Landsat data to cover its costs and to prepare customers for program in 1983 and raised prices for Landsat data to cover its costs and to prepare customers for
commercial prices.109commercial prices.109
Despite these indicators that the commercial market for Landsat data was not robust, Congress Despite these indicators that the commercial market for Landsat data was not robust, Congress
gave its support to privatization by passing the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of gave its support to privatization by passing the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of
1984 (P.L. 98-365). The law established broad policy and financial requirements for the transfer 1984 (P.L. 98-365). The law established broad policy and financial requirements for the transfer
and authorized the Department of Commerce to license private remote sensing space systems that and authorized the Department of Commerce to license private remote sensing space systems that
complied with provisions of the act.110 The law required operators to make available unenhanced complied with provisions of the act.110 The law required operators to make available unenhanced
Landsat data to Landsat data to al all users on a nondiscriminatory basis; no preference could be given to one class users on a nondiscriminatory basis; no preference could be given to one class
of data buyers over another. of data buyers over another.
The Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, which sought to privatize and recoup The Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, which sought to privatize and recoup
the costs of the national investment in Landsat, resulted in exponential cost increases for Landsat the costs of the national investment in Landsat, resulted in exponential cost increases for Landsat
data, with images costing up to $4,400 each. Although computing power and the use of data, with images costing up to $4,400 each. Although computing power and the use of
geographic information systems (GIS) were increasing, orders for Landsat imagery were geographic information systems (GIS) were increasing, orders for Landsat imagery were
decreasing—primarily due to the higher costs. These costs prompted some scientists to migrate to decreasing—primarily due to the higher costs. These costs prompted some scientists to migrate to
other, coarser-resolution datasets, such as NOAA’s Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. other, coarser-resolution datasets, such as NOAA’s Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer.
Because the market for remote sensing data was considered underdeveloped in 1984, the federal Because the market for remote sensing data was considered underdeveloped in 1984, the federal
government decided to provide a $250 government decided to provide a $250 ~~mil ion~~ million subsidy to the Earth Observation subsidy to the Earth Observation ~~Satel ite~~Satellite
Company (EOSAT), which NOAA selected to operate the Landsat system. EOSAT would use the Company (EOSAT), which NOAA selected to operate the Landsat system. EOSAT would use the
subsidy, in addition to its capital, to develop two new spacecraft, Landsat 6 and Landsat 7, which subsidy, in addition to its capital, to develop two new spacecraft, Landsat 6 and Landsat 7, which
would replace the then-operating Landsat 4 and Landsat 5. In addition to the $250 would replace the then-operating Landsat 4 and Landsat 5. In addition to the $250 ~~mil ion~~
million subsidy, the federal government would pay launch costs for the two new subsidy, the federal government would pay launch costs for the two new ~~satel ites and would~~

satellites and would 108 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” 108 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
109 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” 109 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
110 See110 See out-of-print CRS Issueout-of-print CRS Issue Brief IB92092, Brief IB92092, U.S. Civil Earth Observation Programs: Landsat, Mission to Planet
Earth, and the Weather Satellites, by David, by David P. Radzanowski,P. Radzanowski, available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on
request. request.
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continue to cover operational costs for the Landsat program through the expected lifetimes of continue to cover operational costs for the Landsat program through the expected lifetimes of
~~Landsats 4 and~~ Landsat 4 and Landsat 5.111 5.111
The Reagan Administration decided not to The Reagan Administration decided not to ~~fulfil~~ fulfill the original funding obligation to EOSAT, and the original funding obligation to EOSAT, and
several years of dispute ensued between the Administration and Congress over Landsat funding. several years of dispute ensued between the Administration and Congress over Landsat funding.
Ultimately,Ultimately, the contract was revised to require the development of only Landsat 6, despite earlier the contract was revised to require the development of only Landsat 6, despite earlier
agreement that two agreement that two ~~satel ites~~satellites would be needed to ensure data continuity.112 The funding dispute would be needed to ensure data continuity.112 The funding dispute
led to further debates over the future of the Landsat program. Complicating the debate were led to further debates over the future of the Landsat program. Complicating the debate were
different views about which launch vehicle should carry the next Landsats into orbit; EOSAT different views about which launch vehicle should carry the next Landsats into orbit; EOSAT
proposed that the proposed that the ~~satel ite~~satellite be designed for the space shuttle, but the Reagan Administration be designed for the space shuttle, but the Reagan Administration
disagreed. NOAA instructed EOSAT to prepare the spacecraft for launch on an expendable disagreed. NOAA instructed EOSAT to prepare the spacecraft for launch on an expendable
rocket.rocket.~~113~~
Outcome and Lessons Learned
The Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555) ultimately resolved the issues of The Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-555) ultimately resolved the issues of
whether and how to privatize the Landsat system, which federal agency should be responsible for whether and how to privatize the Landsat system, which federal agency should be responsible for
the system, and how public and private funding and operations should be combined. The act the system, and how public and private funding and operations should be combined. The act
transferred Landsat program management from the Department of Commerce to NASA and the transferred Landsat program management from the Department of Commerce to NASA and the
Department of the Interior (DOI), which effectively ended nearly a decade of debate over Department of the Interior (DOI), which effectively ended nearly a decade of debate over
privatizing Landsat. privatizing Landsat.
Although the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 reversed the privatization track for Although the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 reversed the privatization track for
Landsat and returned the Landsat and returned the ~~satel ite~~satellite system to the federal government, the act also authorized the system to the federal government, the act also authorized the
Secretary of Commerce to license operators of private remote sensing space systems.Secretary of Commerce to license operators of private remote sensing space systems.~~114 It~~
~~al owed~~113 It allowed the operators to use their data as they wish, including choosing their customers and the operators to use their data as they wish, including choosing their customers and
offering their data at prices that vary by customer. Some analysts regard this licensing provision offering their data at prices that vary by customer. Some analysts regard this licensing provision
under Subtitle VI of the act as perhaps the most important provision for fostering commercial under Subtitle VI of the act as perhaps the most important provision for fostering commercial
remote sensing prospects in the United States.remote sensing prospects in the United States.~~115~~114 Further, the development of technology to Further, the development of technology to
download, store, and distribute remotely sensed data contributed to commercial interests’ ability download, store, and distribute remotely sensed data contributed to commercial interests’ ability
to add value to to add value to ~~satel ite~~satellite data. The advent and rapid growth of GIS have spurred an explosion of data. The advent and rapid growth of GIS have spurred an explosion of
interest in the use of geospatial information, which interest in the use of geospatial information, which ~~typical y~~typically includes land remote sensing data includes land remote sensing data
from space (e.g., Google Earth). from space (e.g., Google Earth).
Recognizing Landsat as a Public Good
Whereas weather Whereas weather ~~satel ites~~satellites were quickly identified as a public good during the 1983 debate, were quickly identified as a public good during the 1983 debate,
Landsat proved more difficult to categorize. One distinction is that NOAA has long had a clear Landsat proved more difficult to categorize. One distinction is that NOAA has long had a clear
mandate to provide mandate to provide ~~satel ite~~satellite data for weather services. In contrast, NOAA was selected to manage data for weather services. In contrast, NOAA was selected to manage
the Landsat program because of the agency’s success with operating the weather the Landsat program because of the agency’s success with operating the weather ~~satel ites~~satellites and as and as
an interim step en route to privatizing Landsat. The relatively unclear mandate for collecting land an interim step en route to privatizing Landsat. The relatively unclear mandate for collecting land

~~111 See out-of-print CRS Issue~~ surface remote sensing data at NOAA also may have eroded customer confidence in the Landsat 111 See out-of-print CRS Issue Brief IB92092, Brief IB92092, U.S. Civil Earth Observation Programs: Landsat, Mission to Planet
Earth, and the Weather Satellites, by David, by David P. Radzanowski,P. Radzanowski, available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on
request. request.
112 See 112 See out-of-print CRS Report 87-477, out-of-print CRS Report 87-477, Privatization of the Landsat Remote Sensing Satellite System: Current Issues, ,
by Marcia S.by Marcia S. Smith, availableSmith, available from Anna Normand to congressional clients on requestfrom Anna Normand to congressional clients on request.
~~113 T he Reagan Administration disagreed that Landsat 6 should be designed for the space shuttle in part because of the~~
~~1986 Challenger accident, which grounded the space shuttle fleet.~~
~~114~~. 113 P.L. 102-555, Subtitle VI. P.L. 102-555, Subtitle VI.
~~115~~114 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
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~~surface remote sensing data at NOAA also may have eroded customer confidence in the Landsat~~
system and in NOAA’s commitment to developing infrastructure, training personnel, and making system and in NOAA’s commitment to developing infrastructure, training personnel, and making
other investments that would have bolstered the market for Landsat products.other investments that would have bolstered the market for Landsat products.~~116~~115
Differing views of the Landsat program’s nature—namely, whether the Differing views of the Landsat program’s nature—namely, whether the ~~satel ites~~satellites served public or served public or
private interests—shaped the outcome of the privatization effort.private interests—shaped the outcome of the privatization effort.~~117~~116 Evolving views over the Evolving views over the
public or private nature of the program were influenced by factors other than funding. One public or private nature of the program were influenced by factors other than funding. One
observer identified four factors:observer identified four factors:~~118~~117
1. Landsat data proved important in planning 1. Landsat data proved important in planning U.S. military operations in the U.S. military operations in the
1992 Gulf War. 1992 Gulf War.
2. Other countries had launched similar land remote sensing 2. Other countries had launched similar land remote sensing ~~satel ites~~satellites, and , and
these spacecraft—particularly the French SPOT these spacecraft—particularly the French SPOT ~~satel ite~~satellite—were —were
perceived as possible perceived as possible ~~chal enges~~challenges to the U.S. stake in the international to the U.S. stake in the international
market for remote sensing data.market for remote sensing data.~~119~~118
3. Growing interest in global 3. Growing interest in global climate change and its effects on the Earth’s climate change and its effects on the Earth’s
surface led scientists to increasingly value time-series data from a surface led scientists to increasingly value time-series data from a
consistent platform in space for identifying environmental changes. consistent platform in space for identifying environmental changes.
4. The difficulties of commercializing the Landsat system became clear, 4. The difficulties of commercializing the Landsat system became clear,
and federal agencies perceived that private companies might not be able and federal agencies perceived that private companies might not be able
to provide equivalent data at the scale the agencies required. to provide equivalent data at the scale the agencies required.
These and other factors led Congress to accept the idea of Landsat as a public good and to enact These and other factors led Congress to accept the idea of Landsat as a public good and to enact
the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992. One other factor, for example, was the cost of the Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992. One other factor, for example, was the cost of
Landsat images. The Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 found that “the cost of Landsat Landsat images. The Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992 found that “the cost of Landsat
data has impeded the use of such data for scientific purposes, such as for global environmental data has impeded the use of such data for scientific purposes, such as for global environmental
change research, as change research, as ~~wel~~ well as for other public-sector applications.” Consequently, the act as for other public-sector applications.” Consequently, the act
established, with some restrictions, that unenhanced data from Landsat should be made available established, with some restrictions, that unenhanced data from Landsat should be made available
“at the cost of “at the cost of ~~fulfil ing~~fulfilling user requests,” or COFUR. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) user requests,” or COFUR. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
extended the COFUR policy to extended the COFUR policy to al all Landsat data products in its Landsat Data Distribution Policy, Landsat data products in its Landsat Data Distribution Policy,
which also stated that pricing would not be based on the recovery of capital costs of which also stated that pricing would not be based on the recovery of capital costs of ~~satel ites~~satellites, ,
ground systems, or other capital assets previously paid for by the U.S. government. The current ground systems, or other capital assets previously paid for by the U.S. government. The current
USGS policy is to make USGS policy is to make al all Landsat imagery and data availableLandsat imagery and data available at no cost and without restriction. at no cost and without restriction.

~~116~~ 115 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
~~117~~116 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
~~118~~117 Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.” Williamson, “Landsat Legacy.”
~~119~~118 However, images from SPOT However, images from SPOT also werealso were ~~deemed~~ deemed extremely important for coalition forces during the Gulfextremely important for coalition forces during the Gulf War.War.
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Appendix B. International Collaboration
The Landsat program has catalyzed international collaboration in various forms. For example, The Landsat program has catalyzed international collaboration in various forms. For example,
international partners downlink and share Landsat data from their international ground stations, international partners downlink and share Landsat data from their international ground stations,
and NASA and the USGS find areas of compatibility between Landsat and other national and and NASA and the USGS find areas of compatibility between Landsat and other national and
multinationalmultinational observation programs (e.g., the European Space Agency’s [ESA’s] Copernicus observation programs (e.g., the European Space Agency’s [ESA’s] Copernicus
Program Sentinel-2 Program Sentinel-2 ~~constel ation~~constellation) that also provide collected data as free and open access.) that also provide collected data as free and open access.~~120~~119
International Ground Stations
In early Landsat missions, the USGS relied on a network of international ground stations, In early Landsat missions, the USGS relied on a network of international ground stations,
operated by cooperator nations, to downlink and store Landsat images due to inadequate Landsat operated by cooperator nations, to downlink and store Landsat images due to inadequate Landsat
~~satel ite~~ satellite onboard data storage and limitedonboard data storage and limited receiving capacity.receiving capacity.~~121~~120 These international cooperators These international cooperators
partnered with the Landsat program and paid an annual fee for reception and data distribution partnered with the Landsat program and paid an annual fee for reception and data distribution
rights. While the USGS maintained its Landsat data archive at the Earth Resources Observation rights. While the USGS maintained its Landsat data archive at the Earth Resources Observation
and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux and Science (EROS) Center in Sioux ~~Fal s~~Falls, SD, international cooperators simultaneously built , SD, international cooperators simultaneously built
their own regional archives, processing and distributing data according to their own policies.their own regional archives, processing and distributing data according to their own policies.~~122~~121
Over time, more than 50 ground stations received Landsat data.Over time, more than 50 ground stations received Landsat data.~~123~~122 In 2006, the USGS recognized In 2006, the USGS recognized
that the volumethat the volume of Landsat data held by international cooperators (an estimated 4 of Landsat data held by international cooperators (an estimated 4 ~~mil ion~~million images) images)
far exceeded that heldfar exceeded that held by the USGS Landsat archive (an estimated 1.9 by the USGS Landsat archive (an estimated 1.9 ~~mil ion~~ million images).images).~~124~~123 Much Much
of the data held of the data held ~~international y~~internationally are unique, relative to each station’s area of coverage. are unique, relative to each station’s area of coverage.
In 2010, the USGS started the U.S. Landsat Global Archive Consolidation In 2010, the USGS started the U.S. Landsat Global Archive Consolidation program to repatriate program to repatriate
Landsat data missing from the U.S. archive but stored at international cooperator ground Landsat data missing from the U.S. archive but stored at international cooperator ground
stations.stations.~~125~~124 Following repatriation to EROS, the USGS reprocesses the data to current collection Following repatriation to EROS, the USGS reprocesses the data to current collection
standards and provides the processed images at no cost to the international ground stations and standards and provides the processed images at no cost to the international ground stations and
the global user community. The initiative had acquired and reprocessed more than 5 the global user community. The initiative had acquired and reprocessed more than 5 ~~mil ion~~million
images by November 2019, increasing the Landsat archive’s coverage equivalent to the launch of images by November 2019, increasing the Landsat archive’s coverage equivalent to the launch of
an additionalan additional Landsat mission and expanding the historical spatial coverage (seLandsat mission and expanding the historical spatial coverage (see Figure B-1))~~.126~~.125
The initiativeThe initiative continues, as the USGS works with foreign ground stations to retrieve datasets and continues, as the USGS works with foreign ground stations to retrieve datasets and
develops tools and methods to adapt their often-archaic data formats into the archive at EROS. develops tools and methods to adapt their often-archaic data formats into the archive at EROS.

~~120 Sam N. Goward~~ 119 Sam N. Goward et al., et al., Landsat’s Enduring Legacy: Pioneering Global Land Observations from Space (Bethesda, (Bethesda,
MD: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2017). MD: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 2017).
~~121~~120 Michael Wulder Michael Wulder et al., “et al., “~~T he~~The Global Landsat Archive: Status, Consolidation, and Direction,” Global Landsat Archive: Status, Consolidation, and Direction,” Remote Sensing of
~~Environm ent~~Environment, vol. 185 (November 2016), pp. 271-283, at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/, vol. 185 (November 2016), pp. 271-283, at https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S0034425715302194. Hereinafter Wulder et al., “S0034425715302194. Hereinafter Wulder et al., “ Global Landsat Archive.” Global Landsat Archive.”
~~122~~121 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.”
~~123~~122 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.”
~~124~~123 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.”
~~125~~124 Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.” Wulder et al., “Global Landsat Archive.”
~~126~~125 USGS, USGS, Landsat Missions, “Landsat Missions, “ Landsat GlobalLandsat Global Archive Consolidation,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/Archive Consolidation,” at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/
landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation. landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation.
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Figure B-1. Landsat Global Archive Consolidation Images

Source: U.S. GeologicalU.S. Geological Survey (USGS), Landsat Missions,Survey (USGS), Landsat Missions, “Landsat Global Archive Consolidation,” accessed on “Landsat Global Archive Consolidation,” accessed on
~~August 10, 2020~~November 3, 2021, at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation. , at https://www.usgs.gov/land-resources/nli/landsat/landsat-global-archive-consolidation.
Notes: The heat maps show how many images the USGS has repatriated into the Earth Resources Observation The heat maps show how many images the USGS has repatriated into the Earth Resources Observation
and Science (EROS) Center archives fromand Science (EROS) Center archives from international ground stations. international ground stations.
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Sentinel-2 Constellation
ESA’s Copernicus Earth Observation Program launched Sentinel-2A in 2015 and Sentinel-2B in ESA’s Copernicus Earth Observation Program launched Sentinel-2A in 2015 and Sentinel-2B in
2017, which share many of the technical characteristics of Landsat 8.2017, which share many of the technical characteristics of Landsat 8.~~127~~126 The Sentinel-2 The Sentinel-2
~~constel ation~~constellation has a wider swath (covering 290 kilometers) than Landsat 8 (covering 185 has a wider swath (covering 290 kilometers) than Landsat 8 (covering 185
kilometers), thus providing a routine five-day revisit over Earth’s land areas.kilometers), thus providing a routine five-day revisit over Earth’s land areas.~~128~~127 Unlike Landsat 8, Unlike Landsat 8,
Sentinel-2 Sentinel-2 ~~satel ites~~ satellites do not have thermal infrared capability. Sentinel-2 do not have thermal infrared capability. Sentinel-2 ~~satel ites~~satellites provide features provide features
unique from Landsat: red-edge and water vapor spectral bands and higher spatial resolution unique from Landsat: red-edge and water vapor spectral bands and higher spatial resolution
visible to shortwave infrared bands (10-meter and 20-meter bands compared with Landsat’s 30-visible to shortwave infrared bands (10-meter and 20-meter bands compared with Landsat’s 30-
meter bands).meter bands).~~129~~128
Figure B-2. Comparison of Landsat 7 and 8 Bands with Sentinel-2 Bands

Source: USGS, “ComparisonUSGS, “Comparison of Landsat 7 and 8 Bands with Sentinel-2,”of Landsat 7 and 8 Bands with Sentinel-2,” 2015, at https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/ at https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/
comparison-landsat-7-and-8-bands-sentinel-2. comparison-landsat-7-and-8-bands-sentinel-2.
Notes: ETM+ = Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus; MSI = Multispectral Instrument; m = meter; nm = nanometer; ETM+ = Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus; MSI = Multispectral Instrument; m = meter; nm = nanometer;
OLI = Operational Land Imager; TIRS =OLI = Operational Land Imager; TIRS = ~~Thermal~~ Thermal Infrared Sensor. The figure shows the specific placement of the Infrared Sensor. The figure shows the specific placement of the
Sentinel-2A bands, as compared with Landsat 7 and 8 bands. The main visible and near-infrared Sentinel-2A Sentinel-2A bands, as compared with Landsat 7 and 8 bands. The main visible and near-infrared Sentinel-2A
bands have a spatial resolutionbands have a spatial resolution of 10 meters,of 10 meters, and its red-edge (red and near-infrared bands) and two shortwave and its red-edge (red and near-infrared bands) and two shortwave
infrared bands have a 20-meter spatial resolution.infrared bands have a 20-meter spatial resolution. The coastal/aerosol,The coastal/aerosol, water vapor, and cirruswater vapor, and cirrus bands have a bands have a
spatial resolutionspatial resolution of 60 meters.of 60 meters.
NASA, the USGS, and ESA have collaborated to demonstrate areas of compatibility between NASA, the USGS, and ESA have collaborated to demonstrate areas of compatibility between
Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 measurements. The combined coverage of Landsat 8, Sentinel-2A, and Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 measurements. The combined coverage of Landsat 8, Sentinel-2A, and
Sentinel-2B provides a global median average revisit interval of 2.9 days.Sentinel-2B provides a global median average revisit interval of 2.9 days.~~130~~129 This revisit 126 The ~~This revisit~~

~~127 T he~~ European Space Agency conducted a block buy European Space Agency conducted a block buy of four Sentinel-2 imagers and has two imagers in reserve, of four Sentinel-2 imagers and has two imagers in reserve,
ready to be launched when needed.ready to be launched when needed. ~~USGS, “ USGS EROS~~ USGS, “USGS EROS Archive - Sentinel-2,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/Archive - Sentinel-2,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/
science/usgs-eros-archive-sentinel-2. science/usgs-eros-archive-sentinel-2.
~~128~~127 Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.” Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.”
~~129 USGS, “ USGS EROS~~ 128 USGS, “USGS EROS Archive - Sentinel-2,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/usgs-eros-archive-Archive - Sentinel-2,” at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/eros/science/usgs-eros-archive-
sentinel-2. sentinel-2.
~~130~~ 129 Jian Li and David P. Roy, “Global Jian Li and David P. Roy, “Global Analysis of Sentinel-2A, Sentinel-2B and Landsat-8 Data Revisit Intervals and Analysis of Sentinel-2A, Sentinel-2B and Landsat-8 Data Revisit Intervals and
~~Implicat ions for T errestrial~~Implications for Terrestrial Monitoring,” Monitoring,” ~~Rem ote~~Remote Sensing of the ~~Environm ent~~Environment, vol. 9, no. 9 (2017), at https://doi.org/vol. 9, no. 9 (2017), at https://doi.org/
10.3390/rs9090902. 10.3390/rs9090902.
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frequency improves mapping processes that are highly dynamic in time, including vegetation frequency improves mapping processes that are highly dynamic in time, including vegetation
phenology, fire dynamics, and water quality. With the launch of Landsat 9, the combined Landsat phenology, fire dynamics, and water quality. With the launch of Landsat 9, the combined Landsat
and Sentinel-2 and Sentinel-2 ~~constel ation wil~~ constellation will approach a two-day global median average revisit cycle.approach a two-day global median average revisit cycle.~~131~~130 This This
resulting virtual resulting virtual ~~constel ation of satel ites~~constellation of satellites is an example of a system of systems, is an example of a system of systems, ~~cal ed~~called for in the for in the
recent decadal strategy for the Earth observation from space.recent decadal strategy for the Earth observation from space.~~132~~131 The free and open data-sharing The free and open data-sharing
policies of both programs facilitate such a virtual policies of both programs facilitate such a virtual ~~constel ation~~constellation; the Sustainable Land Imaging ; the Sustainable Land Imaging
Program may consider similar collaboration with other international programs as other Program may consider similar collaboration with other international programs as other
governments launch more governments launch more ~~satel ites~~satellites. .

Author Information

Anna E. Normand Anna E. Normand

Analyst in Natural Resources Policy Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

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~~131~~ 130 Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.” Wulder et al., “Current Status of Landsat.”
~~132~~131 Zhe Zhu et al., “Benefits of the Free and Open Landsat Data Policy,” Zhe Zhu et al., “Benefits of the Free and Open Landsat Data Policy,” Remote Sensing of Environment, vol. 224 , vol. 224
(April 2019), pp. 382-385, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.016; National Academies of Sciences,(April 2019), pp. 382-385, at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.02.016; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, Engineering,
and Medicine, and Medicine, Thriving on Our Changing Planet: A Decadal Strategy for Earth Observation from Space, 2018, at , 2018, at
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