TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues

Changes from September 29, 2020 to October 1, 2020

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with ~~red strikethrough~~ and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues
~~September 29~~October 1, 2020 , 2020
TikTok is a globally popular video-sharing smartphone application (app) owned by ByteDance TikTok is a globally popular video-sharing smartphone application (app) owned by ByteDance
Ltd., a privately held company headquartered in Beijing, China. It is under increasing scrutiny by Ltd., a privately held company headquartered in Beijing, China. It is under increasing scrutiny by
Patricia Moloney Figliola
the U.S. government as a potential privacy and security risk to U.S. citizens. This is because the U.S. government as a potential privacy and security risk to U.S. citizens. This is because
Specialist in Internet and Specialist in Internet and
ByteDance, like all technology companies doing business in China, is subject to Chinese laws ByteDance, like all technology companies doing business in China, is subject to Chinese laws
Telecommunications Telecommunications
that require companies operating in the country to turn over user data when asked to by the that require companies operating in the country to turn over user data when asked to by the
Policy Policy
government. Researchers differ over how TikTok’s collection of user data compares with other government. Researchers differ over how TikTok’s collection of user data compares with other

social media apps and whether TikTok poses a unique threat to the privacy and security of its social media apps and whether TikTok poses a unique threat to the privacy and security of its
U.S. users. U.S. users.

TikTok launched in the United States in August 2018. The app is available in over 155 countries in 39 languages and has TikTok launched in the United States in August 2018. The app is available in over 155 countries in 39 languages and has
approximately 800 million monthly active users. In the United States, the app has approximately 49 million monthly active approximately 800 million monthly active users. In the United States, the app has approximately 49 million monthly active
users. TikTok’s appeal lies heavily on what has been called its “addictive” video feed, For You. The app builds this feed users. TikTok’s appeal lies heavily on what has been called its “addictive” video feed, For You. The app builds this feed
through a “recommendation engine” algorithm built on artificial intelligence (AI) technologies and data mining practices. through a “recommendation engine” algorithm built on artificial intelligence (AI) technologies and data mining practices.
According to the company, the recommendation engine relies on a complex set of weighted factors to recommend content, According to the company, the recommendation engine relies on a complex set of weighted factors to recommend content,
including hashtags and videos watched previously, as well as the kind of device a person is using. TikTok critics cite including hashtags and videos watched previously, as well as the kind of device a person is using. TikTok critics cite
problems with how much data TikTok collects from and about its users and with how that data is stored—and could be problems with how much data TikTok collects from and about its users and with how that data is stored—and could be
shared. shared.
On August 6, 2020, President Trump signed an Executive Order aimed at stopping TikTok from doing business in the United On August 6, 2020, President Trump signed an Executive Order aimed at stopping TikTok from doing business in the United
States. Once in effect on September 27, 2020 (an extension from the original date of September 20), the order will prohibit States. Once in effect on September 27, 2020 (an extension from the original date of September 20), the order will prohibit
any U.S. company or person from “transacting” with ByteDance. On August 14, 2020, the President issued a second any U.S. company or person from “transacting” with ByteDance. On August 14, 2020, the President issued a second
Executive Order stating that ByteDance, its subsidiaries, and partners must divest from all assets that support TikTok’s Executive Order stating that ByteDance, its subsidiaries, and partners must divest from all assets that support TikTok’s
operations in the United States and destroy all previously collected U.S. user data. Divestiture may be accomplished by operations in the United States and destroy all previously collected U.S. user data. Divestiture may be accomplished by
finding a U.S. buyer for TikTok. The requirements are designed to limit the Chinese government’s access to current and finding a U.S. buyer for TikTok. The requirements are designed to limit the Chinese government’s access to current and
future data from U.S. TikTok users. ByteDance does not want to divest from TikTok and has sued the Trump Administration.future data from U.S. TikTok users. ByteDance does not want to divest from TikTok and has sued the Trump Administration.
~~On September 27, 2020, Judge Carl J. Nichols of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia granted a~~
~~preliminary injunction against the Trump administration order.~~
On September 14, 2020, Oracle announced that it had reached an agreement with ByteDance to “serve as [the company’s] On September 14, 2020, Oracle announced that it had reached an agreement with ByteDance to “serve as [the company’s]
trusted technology provider” in the United States. Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin announced that he had received the trusted technology provider” in the United States. Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin announced that he had received the
proposal. From the terminology used, it appears that the deal may involve a partnership between the two companies rather proposal. From the terminology used, it appears that the deal may involve a partnership between the two companies rather
than a sale. This arrangement would keep the source code of the For You recommendation engine in the hands of ByteDance. than a sale. This arrangement would keep the source code of the For You recommendation engine in the hands of ByteDance.
It is unclear if this deal satisfies the conditions in President Trump’s Executive Orders. Secretary Mnuchin said that the It is unclear if this deal satisfies the conditions in President Trump’s Executive Orders. Secretary Mnuchin said that the
Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States will review the proposal and present President Trump with its opinion. Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States will review the proposal and present President Trump with its opinion.
On September 19, 2020, Oracle announced that Walmart would be joining the TikTok acquisition. On September 19, 2020, Oracle announced that Walmart would be joining the TikTok acquisition.
On September 27, 2020, Judge Carl J. Nichols of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia granted a preliminary injunction against the Trump administration order. He stated that while President Trump has broad authority to prohibit business transactions with foreign entities that are deemed to pose a national security risk, TikTok appears to be exempt from such a prohibition because it is a personal communication service, which is protected by the International Emergency Economic Powers Act. The ruling does not affect the November 12, 2020, deadline that ByteDance divest from TikTok in the United States. Some believe TikTok and other Chinese-owned apps pose a serious security risk to the United States because Chinese Some believe TikTok and other Chinese-owned apps pose a serious security risk to the United States because Chinese
companies are subject to China’s laws that require compliance with government requests for data. Others believe that TikTok companies are subject to China’s laws that require compliance with government requests for data. Others believe that TikTok
has fallen into “the crosshairs of a global technology battle” based on technology trade protectionism (this concept, also has fallen into “the crosshairs of a global technology battle” based on technology trade protectionism (this concept, also
called “techno-nationalism,” refers to a country’s refusal or reluctance to import other countries’ advanced technology, as called “techno-nationalism,” refers to a country’s refusal or reluctance to import other countries’ advanced technology, as
well as to export, or to allow other nations to benefit from, its own advanced technology). well as to export, or to allow other nations to benefit from, its own advanced technology).
Similar situations may arise in the future with other apps created by foreign companies. Options that Congress may consider Similar situations may arise in the future with other apps created by foreign companies. Options that Congress may consider
include (1) developing an overarching legal and regulatory framework to protect the security and privacy of U.S. citizens’ include (1) developing an overarching legal and regulatory framework to protect the security and privacy of U.S. citizens’
data and communications, and (2) developing a uniform, transparent process to assess and mediate risks posed by foreign data and communications, and (2) developing a uniform, transparent process to assess and mediate risks posed by foreign
apps. apps.

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Background
TikTok is a popular video-sharing smartphone application (app) owned by ByteDance Ltd., a TikTok is a popular video-sharing smartphone application (app) owned by ByteDance Ltd., a
privately held company headquartered in Beijing, China. The app is under intense scrutiny by the privately held company headquartered in Beijing, China. The app is under intense scrutiny by the
U.S. government as a potential privacy and security risk to U.S. users. A major concern is that U.S. government as a potential privacy and security risk to U.S. users. A major concern is that
ByteDance is subject to Chinese laws that require companies operating in China to turn over user ByteDance is subject to Chinese laws that require companies operating in China to turn over user
data when asked to by the national government. On August 6 and August 14, 2020, President data when asked to by the national government. On August 6 and August 14, 2020, President
Trump signed Executive Orders aimed at stopping U.S. persons and entities from doing business Trump signed Executive Orders aimed at stopping U.S. persons and entities from doing business
with ByteDance1 and requiring ByteDance to divest from any holding used to support the with ByteDance1 and requiring ByteDance to divest from any holding used to support the
operation of TikTok in the United States.2 Researchers differ over how TikTok’s collection of user operation of TikTok in the United States.2 Researchers differ over how TikTok’s collection of user
data compares with other social media apps and whether TikTok poses a unique threat to the data compares with other social media apps and whether TikTok poses a unique threat to the
privacy and security of its U.S. users, including many minors. privacy and security of its U.S. users, including many minors.
WeChat, another Chinese-owned app, is often mentioned in conjunction with TikTok, but the two WeChat, another Chinese-owned app, is often mentioned in conjunction with TikTok, but the two
apps are quite different. TikTok has a single function—short video—while WeChat has apps are quite different. TikTok has a single function—short video—while WeChat has
multiple—voice and data messaging, social media, and digital payment. WeChat is used in the multiple—voice and data messaging, social media, and digital payment. WeChat is used in the
United States primarily by the Chinese language community, whereas TikTok is used more United States primarily by the Chinese language community, whereas TikTok is used more
widely. On the same day as the TikTok order, President Trump also signed an Executive Order widely. On the same day as the TikTok order, President Trump also signed an Executive Order
prohibiting any U.S. individual or entity from engaging in any transaction related to WeChat and prohibiting any U.S. individual or entity from engaging in any transaction related to WeChat and
its owner, Tencent Holdings Ltd.3 While issues with the two apps are often conflated, their its owner, Tencent Holdings Ltd.3 While issues with the two apps are often conflated, their
functions, technical capabilities, and the data collected from their users are different. Only TikTok functions, technical capabilities, and the data collected from their users are different. Only TikTok
is discussed in this report. Background information about WeChat is iis discussed in this report. Background information about WeChat is in Appendix.
What Is TikTok?
On August 2, 2018, U.S. users of the Musical.ly app, a short video service headquartered in On August 2, 2018, U.S. users of the Musical.ly app, a short video service headquartered in
Shanghai, China, with a U.S. office in Santa Monica, CA, found that it had been merged into Shanghai, China, with a U.S. office in Santa Monica, CA, found that it had been merged into
TikTok. Musical.ly had been acquired by ByteDance, the owner of TikTok, in November 2017 for TikTok. Musical.ly had been acquired by ByteDance, the owner of TikTok, in November 2017 for
$1 billion as a means to enter the U.S. market. The TikTok app is available in over 155 countries $1 billion as a means to enter the U.S. market. The TikTok app is available in over 155 countries
in 39 languages, and has approximately 800 million monthly active users.4 In the United States, in 39 languages, and has approximately 800 million monthly active users.4 In the United States,
TikTok has approximately 49 million monthly active users5 and the company maintains offices in TikTok has approximately 49 million monthly active users5 and the company maintains offices in
Los Angeles and New York. When ByteDance first released the TikTok app in September 2016, Los Angeles and New York. When ByteDance first released the TikTok app in September 2016,
videos could be no longer than 15 seconds, but now users are allowed to link together four 15-videos could be no longer than 15 seconds, but now users are allowed to link together four 15-
second segments.6 Longer videos recorded outside the app can also be uploaded to the platform. second segments.6 Longer videos recorded outside the app can also be uploaded to the platform.

1 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order on Addressing the Threat Posed by TikTok,” August 6, 2020, at 1 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order on Addressing the Threat Posed by TikTok,” August 6, 2020, at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-addressing-threat-posed-tiktok/. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-addressing-threat-posed-tiktok/.
2 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order Regarding the Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,” August 2 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order Regarding the Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,” August
14, 2020, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/EO-on-TikTok-8-14-20.pdf. 14, 2020, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/EO-on-TikTok-8-14-20.pdf.
3 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order on Addressing the Threat Posed by WeChat,” August 6, 2020, at 3 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order on Addressing the Threat Posed by WeChat,” August 6, 2020, at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-addressing-threat-posed-wechat/. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-addressing-threat-posed-wechat/.
4 Katie Brigham, “How TikTok Became the Hottest App of 2020,” 4 Katie Brigham, “How TikTok Became the Hottest App of 2020,” CNBC.com, June 16, 2020, at , June 16, 2020, at
https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/16/tiktok-sees-rapid-growth-amid-quarantines-but-privacy-concerns-linger.html. https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/16/tiktok-sees-rapid-growth-amid-quarantines-but-privacy-concerns-linger.html.
5 Raymond Zhong and Sheera Frenkel, “A Third of TikTok’s U.S. Users May Be 14 or Under, Raising Safety 5 Raymond Zhong and Sheera Frenkel, “A Third of TikTok’s U.S. Users May Be 14 or Under, Raising Safety
Questions,” Questions,” New York Times, September 17, 2020, sec. Technology, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/14/, September 17, 2020, sec. Technology, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/14/
technology/tiktok-underage-users-ftc.html. technology/tiktok-underage-users-ftc.html.
6 This limitation applies only to videos recorded through the app. Videos recorded using other methods or apps can be 6 This limitation applies only to videos recorded through the app. Videos recorded using other methods or apps can be
longer than 60 seconds. TikTok videos are intended for viewing on mobile device screens, rather than on computers or longer than 60 seconds. TikTok videos are intended for viewing on mobile device screens, rather than on computers or
TV, and are formatted for that purpose. TV, and are formatted for that purpose.
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ByteDance is currently estimated to be worth over $100 billion.7 The company’s core product in ByteDance is currently estimated to be worth over $100 billion.7 The company’s core product in
China is Toutiao, which means “Headlines.” Toutiao began as a mobile news recommendation China is Toutiao, which means “Headlines.” Toutiao began as a mobile news recommendation
engine, but has evolved into a platform to deliver content and targeted advertising in other engine, but has evolved into a platform to deliver content and targeted advertising in other
formats as well (e.g., text messages, images, question-and-answer posts, microblogs, videos). formats as well (e.g., text messages, images, question-and-answer posts, microblogs, videos).
TikTok’s Recommendation Engine
TikTok’s appeal relies on what has been called its “addictive” video feed, For You.8 The app TikTok’s appeal relies on what has been called its “addictive” video feed, For You.8 The app
builds this feed through a “recommendation engine” using artificial intelligence (AI) technologies builds this feed through a “recommendation engine” using artificial intelligence (AI) technologies
and data mining practices. How each user’s feed is constructed had been a tightly held secret until and data mining practices. How each user’s feed is constructed had been a tightly held secret until
recently. On June 18, 2020, TikTok published a blog post, “How TikTok Recommends Videos recently. On June 18, 2020, TikTok published a blog post, “How TikTok Recommends Videos
#ForYou.”9 #ForYou.”9
The company says its algorithm relies on a complex set of weighted factors to recommend The company says its algorithm relies on a complex set of weighted factors to recommend
content based on user preferences, including hashtags and videos watched; videos “liked,” shared, content based on user preferences, including hashtags and videos watched; videos “liked,” shared,
and commented on; as well as the kind of device a person is using. Each user’s feed is unique. and commented on; as well as the kind of device a person is using. Each user’s feed is unique.
Table 1 lists the specific factors the company says it uses. lists the specific factors the company says it uses.
Table 1. “For You” Feed Factors and Elements
Factors
Elements
User interactions User interactions
 
Videos liked or shared Videos liked or shared
 
Accounts Accounts ~~fol owed~~followed
 
Comments posted Comments posted
 
Content created Content created
Video information/details Video information/details
 
Captions Captions
 
Sounds Sounds
 
Hashtags Hashtags
Device and account settings Device and account settings
 
Language preference Language preference
 
Country setting Country setting
 
Device type Device type
These factors are included to make sure the system is These factors are included to make sure the system is
optimized for performance, but they receive lower optimized for performance, but they receive lower
weight in the recommendation system relative to other weight in the recommendation system relative to other
data points because users don’t actively express these data points because users don’t actively express these
as preferences. as preferences.
Source: “How TikTok Recommends Videos #ForYou,” TikTok Blog, June 18, 2020, at “How TikTok Recommends Videos #ForYou,” TikTok Blog, June 18, 2020, at
https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/how-tiktok-recommends-videos-for-you. https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/how-tiktok-recommends-videos-for-you.

7 “ByteDance, the Chinese Company Behind Tiktok, Is Now Reportedly Worth over $100 Billion,” 7 “ByteDance, the Chinese Company Behind Tiktok, Is Now Reportedly Worth over $100 Billion,” Business Insider
India, May 20, 2020, at https://www.businessinsider.in/stock-market/news/bytedance-the-chinese-company-behind-, May 20, 2020, at https://www.businessinsider.in/stock-market/news/bytedance-the-chinese-company-behind-
tiktok-is-now-reportedly-worth-over-100-billion/articleshow/75850118.cms. tiktok-is-now-reportedly-worth-over-100-billion/articleshow/75850118.cms.
8 John Hermann, “How TikTok Is Rewriting the World,” 8 John Hermann, “How TikTok Is Rewriting the World,” New York Times, March 10, 2019, at , March 10, 2019, at
https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/10/style/what-is-tik-tok.html. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/10/style/what-is-tik-tok.html.
9 “How TikTok recommends videos #ForYou,” 9 “How TikTok recommends videos #ForYou,” TikTok Blog, June 18, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/how-, June 18, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/how-
tiktok-recommends-videos-for-you. tiktok-recommends-videos-for-you.
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According to TikTok, According to TikTok,
[a]ll these factors are processed by our recommendation system and weighted based on [a]ll these factors are processed by our recommendation system and weighted based on
their value to a user. A strong indicator of interest, such as whether a user finishes watching their value to a user. A strong indicator of interest, such as whether a user finishes watching
a longer video from beginning to end, would receive greater weight than a weak indicator, a longer video from beginning to end, would receive greater weight than a weak indicator,
such as whether the video’s viewer and creator are both in the same country. Videos are such as whether the video’s viewer and creator are both in the same country. Videos are
then ranked to determine the likelihood of a user’s interest in a piece of content, and then ranked to determine the likelihood of a user’s interest in a piece of content, and
delivered to each unique For You feed. delivered to each unique For You feed.
The blog post was seen by most as an effort to provide more transparency to the public as the The blog post was seen by most as an effort to provide more transparency to the public as the
U.S. government was increasing its scrutiny of the company’s practices.10 U.S. government was increasing its scrutiny of the company’s practices.10
Data Collection, Storage, and Sharing by TikTok
Critics, as well as some members of Congress, cite as problematic the amount of data that TikTok Critics, as well as some members of Congress, cite as problematic the amount of data that TikTok
collects from and about its users, how that data is stored, and how it could potentially be shared collects from and about its users, how that data is stored, and how it could potentially be shared
with the Chinese government and used in influence campaigns11 or against U.S. citizens.12 Based with the Chinese government and used in influence campaigns11 or against U.S. citizens.12 Based
on these concerns, both the Democratic and Republican national committees, the Department of on these concerns, both the Democratic and Republican national committees, the Department of
Defense, and some private firms, such as Wells Fargo Inc., have banned or discouraged the use of Defense, and some private firms, such as Wells Fargo Inc., have banned or discouraged the use of
the TikTok app.13 the TikTok app.13
Data Collection
According to its privacy policy,14 TikTok collects a range of user information, including location According to its privacy policy,14 TikTok collects a range of user information, including location
data and internet address, keystroke patterns, and the type of device being used to access the app. data and internet address, keystroke patterns, and the type of device being used to access the app.
The app also collects and stores a user’s browsing and search history within the app, as well as The app also collects and stores a user’s browsing and search history within the app, as well as
the content of any messages exchanged using the app. Additional information can be collected the content of any messages exchanged using the app. Additional information can be collected
based on user permission: phone number, phone book, and social-network contacts; GPS data; based on user permission: phone number, phone book, and social-network contacts; GPS data;
user age; user-generated content (e.g., photos and videos); store payment information; and the user age; user-generated content (e.g., photos and videos); store payment information; and the
videos “liked,” shared, watched all the way through, and re-watched. TikTok states that the app videos “liked,” shared, watched all the way through, and re-watched. TikTok states that the app
collects less personal data than many other apps, such as Facebook and Google, both of which collects less personal data than many other apps, such as Facebook and Google, both of which
track user activity across devices (TikTok claims that it does not).15 The data that TikTok collects track user activity across devices (TikTok claims that it does not).15 The data that TikTok collects
from users appears in many regards to be comparable to what other social media companies from users appears in many regards to be comparable to what other social media companies

10 Louise Matsakis, “TikTok Finally Explains How the ‘For You’ Algorithm Works,” 10 Louise Matsakis, “TikTok Finally Explains How the ‘For You’ Algorithm Works,” Wired.com, June 18, 2020, at , June 18, 2020, at
https://www.wired.com/story/tiktok-finally-explains-for-you-algorithm-works/. https://www.wired.com/story/tiktok-finally-explains-for-you-algorithm-works/.
11 Rebecca Jennings, “What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?” 11 Rebecca Jennings, “What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?” Vox, December 16, 2019, at , December 16, 2019, at
https://www.vox.com/open-sourced/2019/12/16/21013048/tiktok-china-national-security-investigation. (Hereinafter, https://www.vox.com/open-sourced/2019/12/16/21013048/tiktok-china-national-security-investigation. (Hereinafter,
“What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?”) “What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?”)
12 Robert McMillan, Liza Lin, and Shan Li, “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. 12 Robert McMillan, Liza Lin, and Shan Li, “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S.
Authorities Concerned?” Authorities Concerned?” Wall Street Journal, July 7, 2020, at https://www.wsj.com/articles/tiktok-user-data-what-, July 7, 2020, at https://www.wsj.com/articles/tiktok-user-data-what-
does-the-app-collect-and-why-are-u-s-authorities-concerned-11594157084. (Hereinafter, “TikTok User Data: What does-the-app-collect-and-why-are-u-s-authorities-concerned-11594157084. (Hereinafter, “TikTok User Data: What
Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”) Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”)
13 Shelly Banjo, Kartikay Mehrotra, and William Turton, “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security 13 Shelly Banjo, Kartikay Mehrotra, and William Turton, “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security
Concerns,” Concerns,” Bloomberg.com, July 14, 2020, at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-14/tiktok-s-massive-, July 14, 2020, at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-14/tiktok-s-massive-
data-harvesting-prompts-u-s-security-concerns. (Hereinafter, “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security data-harvesting-prompts-u-s-security-concerns. (Hereinafter, “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security
Concerns.”) Concerns.”)
14 The privacy policy is available online at https://www.tiktok.com/legal/privacy-policy?lang=en. 14 The privacy policy is available online at https://www.tiktok.com/legal/privacy-policy?lang=en.
15 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?” 15 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”
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gather and use.16 Some critics have described TikTok’s approach to data mining as aggressive17 gather and use.16 Some critics have described TikTok’s approach to data mining as aggressive17
and that its ability to track user behavior while using the app, as well as access to a user’s photos, and that its ability to track user behavior while using the app, as well as access to a user’s photos,
videos, and phone book and geolocation tracking (based on user permissions), means that it can videos, and phone book and geolocation tracking (based on user permissions), means that it can
build extremely detailed behavioral profiles of its users that could potentially be shared with the build extremely detailed behavioral profiles of its users that could potentially be shared with the
Chinese government.18 On August 11, 2020, the Chinese government.18 On August 11, 2020, the Wall Street Journal reported that TikTok avoided reported that TikTok avoided
privacy safeguards in Google’s Android operating system to collect users’ mobile device MAC privacy safeguards in Google’s Android operating system to collect users’ mobile device MAC
addresses, unique identifiers that allow “the app to track users online,” and concealed this activity addresses, unique identifiers that allow “the app to track users online,” and concealed this activity
with an additional layer of encryption before ending the practice after 15 months in November with an additional layer of encryption before ending the practice after 15 months in November
2019.19 2019.19
Data Storage
TikTok claims to store all content created by U.S. users—as well as data about those users—only TikTok claims to store all content created by U.S. users—as well as data about those users—only
on servers located within the United States and backed up in Singapore. Those servers are owned on servers located within the United States and backed up in Singapore. Those servers are owned
or controlled by TikTok, but the company denies that it shares or would share this data with the or controlled by TikTok, but the company denies that it shares or would share this data with the
Chinese government,20 stating that: Chinese government,20 stating that:
The key personnel responsible for TikTok … are all Americans based in the United The key personnel responsible for TikTok … are all Americans based in the United
States—and therefore are not subject to Chinese law. U.S. content moderation is likewise States—and therefore are not subject to Chinese law. U.S. content moderation is likewise
led by a U.S.-based team and operates independently from China, and, as noted above, the led by a U.S.-based team and operates independently from China, and, as noted above, the
TikTok application stores U.S. user data on servers located in the United States and TikTok application stores U.S. user data on servers located in the United States and
Singapore.21 Singapore.21
Data Sharing
Despite these assertions, TikTok’s website says that information can be shared with its parent Despite these assertions, TikTok’s website says that information can be shared with its parent
company in China or other affiliates (usually advertisers), which operate under Chinese law.22 company in China or other affiliates (usually advertisers), which operate under Chinese law.22
Further, a lawsuit filed in federal court in December 2019 asserted that user data was harvested Further, a lawsuit filed in federal court in December 2019 asserted that user data was harvested
and sent to servers in China.23 and sent to servers in China.23
White House TikTok Executive Orders
President Trump has issued two Executive Orders affecting the future of TikTok in the United President Trump has issued two Executive Orders affecting the future of TikTok in the United
States, one on August 6, 2020, and another on August 14, 2020. States, one on August 6, 2020, and another on August 14, 2020.

16 Sherrod DeGrippo, “Understanding the Information TikTok Gathers and Stores,” 16 Sherrod DeGrippo, “Understanding the Information TikTok Gathers and Stores,” Proofpoint, January 8, 2020, at , January 8, 2020, at
https://www.proofpoint.com/us/blog/threat-protection/understanding-information-tiktok-gathers-and-stores. https://www.proofpoint.com/us/blog/threat-protection/understanding-information-tiktok-gathers-and-stores.
17 Ryan Broderick, “Forget the Trade War. TikTok Is China’s Most Important Export Right Now,” 17 Ryan Broderick, “Forget the Trade War. TikTok Is China’s Most Important Export Right Now,” BuzzFeed News, ,
May 16, 2019, at https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanhatesthis/forget-the-trade-war-tiktok-is-chinas-most-May 16, 2019, at https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/ryanhatesthis/forget-the-trade-war-tiktok-is-chinas-most-
important-export. important-export.
18 “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security Concerns.” 18 “TikTok’s Huge Data Harvesting Prompts U.S. Security Concerns.”
19 Kevin Poulsen and Robert McMillan, “TikTok Tracked User Data Using Tactic Banned by Google,” 19 Kevin Poulsen and Robert McMillan, “TikTok Tracked User Data Using Tactic Banned by Google,” Wall Street
Journal, August 11, 2020, sec. Tech, at https://www.wsj.com/articles/tiktok-tracked-user-data-using-tactic-banned-by-, August 11, 2020, sec. Tech, at https://www.wsj.com/articles/tiktok-tracked-user-data-using-tactic-banned-by-
google-11597176738. google-11597176738.
20 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?” 20 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”
21 “Why We Are Suing the Administration,” 21 “Why We Are Suing the Administration,” TikTok Blog, August 24, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/, August 24, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/
tiktok-files-lawsuit. tiktok-files-lawsuit.
22 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?” 22 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”
23 “Tiktok Sent US User Data to China, Lawsuit Claims,” 23 “Tiktok Sent US User Data to China, Lawsuit Claims,” BBC.com, December 3, 2019, at https://www.bbc.com/news/, December 3, 2019, at https://www.bbc.com/news/
business-50640110. business-50640110.
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Prohibiting Transactions with ByteDance
The August 6, 2020, TikTok Executive Order was set to take effect on September 20, 2020, but The August 6, 2020, TikTok Executive Order was set to take effect on September 20, 2020, but
that date has been extended to September 27, 2020. Once in effect, it will prohibit any U.S. that date has been extended to September 27, 2020. Once in effect, it will prohibit any U.S.
company or person from transacting with ByteDance. The order does not state which specific company or person from transacting with ByteDance. The order does not state which specific
transactions are to be prohibited, but it likely means, at least, the TikTok app will no longer transactions are to be prohibited, but it likely means, at least, the TikTok app will no longer
appear on Apple’s App Store or Google’s Play Store in the United States. It might also make it appear on Apple’s App Store or Google’s Play Store in the United States. It might also make it
illegal for U.S. companies to purchase advertising on TikTok. Some U.S. TikTok employees have illegal for U.S. companies to purchase advertising on TikTok. Some U.S. TikTok employees have
speculated that they would no longer be able to be paid. speculated that they would no longer be able to be paid.
Requiring Divestiture of ByteDance from TikTok
On August 14, 2020, President Trump issued an additional Executive Order, “Regarding the On August 14, 2020, President Trump issued an additional Executive Order, “Regarding the
Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,”24 that imposed additional conditions on the ability Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,”24 that imposed additional conditions on the ability
of ByteDance to operate TikTok in the United States. The order requires ByteDance and its of ByteDance to operate TikTok in the United States. The order requires ByteDance and its
“subsidiaries, affiliates, and Chinese shareholders” to divest from “any tangible or intangible “subsidiaries, affiliates, and Chinese shareholders” to divest from “any tangible or intangible
assets or property, wherever located, used to enable or support ByteDance’s operation of the assets or property, wherever located, used to enable or support ByteDance’s operation of the
TikTok application in the United States” as determined by the Committee on Foreign Investment TikTok application in the United States” as determined by the Committee on Foreign Investment
in the United States (CFIUS).25 The order also requires ByteDance to destroy all data obtained or in the United States (CFIUS).25 The order also requires ByteDance to destroy all data obtained or
derived from either the TikTok or Music.ly apps from U.S. users upon divestiture and certify in derived from either the TikTok or Music.ly apps from U.S. users upon divestiture and certify in
writing to CFIUS that it has done so. The order requires these actions within 90 days, rather than writing to CFIUS that it has done so. The order requires these actions within 90 days, rather than
the 45 days included in the first order, giving ByteDance additional time to find a buyer.26 A the 45 days included in the first order, giving ByteDance additional time to find a buyer.26 A
transfer of ownership and operation of TikTok to a U.S. entity not subject to Chinese laws, transfer of ownership and operation of TikTok to a U.S. entity not subject to Chinese laws,
including management of collected user data, appears designed to limit the ability of the Chinese including management of collected user data, appears designed to limit the ability of the Chinese
government to acquire access to future U.S. user data. government to acquire access to future U.S. user data.
ByteDance ~~Reaction to Divestiture Requirement~~Lawsuit Against Order to Divest
ByteDance opposed divestiture from TikTok and, on August 24, 2020, sued the Trump ByteDance opposed divestiture from TikTok and, on August 24, 2020, sued the Trump
Administration.27 In a blog post, TikTok stated that it was “shocked by the recent Executive Administration.27 In a blog post, TikTok stated that it was “shocked by the recent Executive
Order, which was issued without any due process.”28 On September 27, 2020, Judge Carl J. Order, which was issued without any due process.”28 On September 27, 2020, Judge Carl J.
Nichols of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia granted a preliminary Nichols of the United States District Court for the District of Columbia granted a preliminary
injunction against the Trump administration order. injunction against the Trump administration order.

He stated that while President Trump has broad authority to prohibit business transactions with foreign entities that are deemed to pose a national security risk, TikTok appears to be exempt from such a prohibition because it is a personal communication service, which is protected by the International Emergency Economic 24 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order Regarding the Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,” August 24 President Donald J. Trump, “Executive Order Regarding the Acquisition of Musical.ly by ByteDance Ltd.,” August
14, 2020, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/EO-on-TikTok-8-14-20.pdf. 14, 2020, at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/EO-on-TikTok-8-14-20.pdf.
25 CFIUS is an interagency committee that serves the President in overseeing the national security implications of 25 CFIUS is an interagency committee that serves the President in overseeing the national security implications of
foreign investment in the economy. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF10177, foreign investment in the economy. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF10177, The Committee on Foreign
Investment in the United States, by James K. Jackson. , by James K. Jackson.
26 Lora Kolodny, “Trump Orders Bytedance to Divest from Its U.S. Tiktok Business Within 90 Days,” 26 Lora Kolodny, “Trump Orders Bytedance to Divest from Its U.S. Tiktok Business Within 90 Days,” CNBC.com, ,
August 14, 2020, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/14/president-trump-orders-bytedance-to-divest-from-its-us-tiktok-August 14, 2020, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/08/14/president-trump-orders-bytedance-to-divest-from-its-us-tiktok-
business-within-90-days.html. business-within-90-days.html.
27 Rachel Lerman, “TikTok Sues Trump Administration to Fight Impending Ban,” 27 Rachel Lerman, “TikTok Sues Trump Administration to Fight Impending Ban,” Washington Post, August 24, 2020, , August 24, 2020,
at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/08/24/tiktok-lawsuit-trump. The lawsuit complaint is available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/08/24/tiktok-lawsuit-trump. The lawsuit complaint is available
online at https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/7043165/TikTok-Trump-Complaint.pdf. online at https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/7043165/TikTok-Trump-Complaint.pdf.
28 “Statement on the Administration’s Executive Order,” 28 “Statement on the Administration’s Executive Order,” TikTok Blog, August 7, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/, August 7, 2020, at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/
en-us/tiktok-responds. See also “Why We Are Suing the Administration,” en-us/tiktok-responds. See also “Why We Are Suing the Administration,” TikTok Blog, August 24, 2020, at , August 24, 2020, at
https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/tiktok-files-lawsuit. https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/tiktok-files-lawsuit.
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Powers Act. The ruling does not affect the November 12, 2020, deadline that ByteDance divest from TikTok in the United States.29 China’s Cybersecurity Law and Export Rules
The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was passed in November 2016 and The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was passed in November 2016 and
went into effect in June 2017. It was updated in November 2018 by the Regulations on Internet went into effect in June 2017. It was updated in November 2018 by the Regulations on Internet
Security Supervision and Inspection by Public Security Organs. These laws— Security Supervision and Inspection by Public Security Organs. These laws—
 strictly control online activities;  strictly control online activities;
 mandate the local storage of user data and the registration of certain network  mandate the local storage of user data and the registration of certain network
assets; and assets; and
 allow the government to conduct onsite and remote inspection of computer  allow the government to conduct onsite and remote inspection of computer
networks. networks.2930
The law requires Chinese companies to cooperate with government intelligence operations if so The law requires Chinese companies to cooperate with government intelligence operations if so
~~requested30~~requested31 and may allow the Chinese government access to user data collected by any company and may allow the Chinese government access to user data collected by any company
doing business in China. One analyst notes that “by demanding access to any data collected and doing business in China. One analyst notes that “by demanding access to any data collected and
stored in China, the updated regulations force [domestic and] foreign companies based in China stored in China, the updated regulations force [domestic and] foreign companies based in China
to comply with its investigative measures, leaving intellectual property and private information to comply with its investigative measures, leaving intellectual property and private information
vulnerable to government abuse.”vulnerable to government abuse.”3132
On August 31, 2020, China took specific action that could prohibit the sale of TikTok’s On August 31, 2020, China took specific action that could prohibit the sale of TikTok’s
underlying technology and processes. The new export regulations cover such technologies as underlying technology and processes. The new export regulations cover such technologies as
“text analysis, content recommendation, speech modeling, and voice recognition.”“text analysis, content recommendation, speech modeling, and voice recognition.”3233 Since the For Since the For
You feed and algorithmic recommendation engine is considered the key element of TikTok’s You feed and algorithmic recommendation engine is considered the key element of TikTok’s
success, a ban on transferring the technology and processes used to create it could make it more success, a ban on transferring the technology and processes used to create it could make it more
difficult to sell the app or prevent a sale altogether.difficult to sell the app or prevent a sale altogether.3334
Status of Potential Oracle and Walmart Partnership
with TikTok
In response to the TikTok Executive Order, two leading bidders emerged as potential buyers of In response to the TikTok Executive Order, two leading bidders emerged as potential buyers of
the app: Oracle and a partnership between Microsoft and Walmart. Bids were reported to be in the the app: Oracle and a partnership between Microsoft and Walmart. Bids were reported to be in the
~~range of $20 billion to $30 billion.34 Twitter and Google were also rumored to be interested in~~
~~acquiring the app.35~~

29 29 Rachel Lerman, “Judge Suggests Trump Administration Overreached in TikTok Case,” Washington Post, September 28, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/09/28/tiktok-injunction-court-decision/. 30 Generally defined in the Cybersecurity Law as five or more computers connected to the internet, which account for Generally defined in the Cybersecurity Law as five or more computers connected to the internet, which account for
almost every foreign company operating in China. almost every foreign company operating in China.
3031 “What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?” “What’s Going on with TikTok, China, and the US Government?”
3132 Lauren Maranto, “Who Benefits from China’s Cybersecurity Laws?” Center for Strategic and International Studies, Lauren Maranto, “Who Benefits from China’s Cybersecurity Laws?” Center for Strategic and International Studies,
June 25, 2020, at https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/who-benefits-chinas-cybersecurity-laws. June 25, 2020, at https://www.csis.org/blogs/new-perspectives-asia/who-benefits-chinas-cybersecurity-laws.
3233 Timothy B. Lee, “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok,” Timothy B. Lee, “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok,” ArsTechnica.com, ,
August 31, 2020, at https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2020/08/china-announces-new-export-rules-that-could-prevent-August 31, 2020, at https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2020/08/china-announces-new-export-rules-that-could-prevent-
sale-of-tiktok/. (Hereinafter, “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok.”) sale-of-tiktok/. (Hereinafter, “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok.”)
3334 “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok.” “China Announces New Export Rules That Could Prevent Sale of Tiktok.”
~~34 In addition to U.S. companies making a bid for TikTok in the United States, Centricus Asset Management and Triller~~
~~are reported to have made a bid to buy TikTok’s operations in several other countries for $20 billion.~~
~~35 Kim Lyons, “Twitter and TikTok Reportedly Have Had Talks About a Deal,” TheVerge.com, August 8, 2020, at~~
~~https://www.theverge.com/2020/8/8/21360259/twitter-and-tiktok-acquisition-trump-microsoft.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
6

~~TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues~~
Congressional Research Service 6 TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues range of $20 billion to $30 billion.35 Twitter and Google were also rumored to be interested in acquiring the app.36
On September 13, 2020, Microsoft announced that its bid had been rejected by ByteDance. In its On September 13, 2020, Microsoft announced that its bid had been rejected by ByteDance. In its
announcement, the company stated, “We would have made significant changes to ensure the announcement, the company stated, “We would have made significant changes to ensure the
service met the highest standards for security, privacy, online safety, and combating service met the highest standards for security, privacy, online safety, and combating
disinformation.” One expert, Alex Stamos, Director of the Stanford Internet Observatory, disinformation.” One expert, Alex Stamos, Director of the Stanford Internet Observatory,
commented that this statement is “an attempt to poison the well against an Oracle deal where they commented that this statement is “an attempt to poison the well against an Oracle deal where they
only take over hosting. And [Microsoft] is right to do so.”only take over hosting. And [Microsoft] is right to do so.”3637
On September 14, 2020, Oracle announced that it had reached an agreement with ByteDance to On September 14, 2020, Oracle announced that it had reached an agreement with ByteDance to
“serve as [the company’s] trusted technology provider” in the United States. Treasury Secretary “serve as [the company’s] trusted technology provider” in the United States. Treasury Secretary
Steven Mnuchin announced that he had received the proposal.Steven Mnuchin announced that he had received the proposal.3738 From the terminology used, it From the terminology used, it
appears that the deal may involve a partnership rather than a sale, with TikTok using Oracle’s appears that the deal may involve a partnership rather than a sale, with TikTok using Oracle’s
cloud hosting services.cloud hosting services.3839 This arrangement would keep the source code of the For You feed and This arrangement would keep the source code of the For You feed and
algorithmic recommendation engine in the hands of ByteDance. Secretary Mnuchin said that algorithmic recommendation engine in the hands of ByteDance. Secretary Mnuchin said that
CFIUS will review the proposal and present President Trump with its opinion. CFIUS will review the proposal and present President Trump with its opinion.
On September 19, 2020, Oracle announced that Walmart would join its bid for TikTok, with the On September 19, 2020, Oracle announced that Walmart would join its bid for TikTok, with the
two companies acquiring 20% of a newly formed company, TikTok Global,two companies acquiring 20% of a newly formed company, TikTok Global,3940 with the remaining with the remaining
80% owned by ByteDance. According to announcements made by the companies, 40% of 80% owned by ByteDance. According to announcements made by the companies, 40% of
ByteDance is owned by U.S. investors, which is meant to indicate that the new company would ByteDance is owned by U.S. investors, which is meant to indicate that the new company would
be under majority U.S. ownership.be under majority U.S. ownership.4041 However, this arrangement, along with TikTok keeping the However, this arrangement, along with TikTok keeping the
For You recommendation engine algorithm,For You recommendation engine algorithm,4142 would not appear to satisfy conditions in President would not appear to satisfy conditions in President
Trump’s Executive Orders. In addition to U.S. approval of the proposal being uncertain given its Trump’s Executive Orders. In addition to U.S. approval of the proposal being uncertain given its
provisions, Chinese approval of the proposal is also uncertain. China’s new export regulations provisions, Chinese approval of the proposal is also uncertain. China’s new export regulations
~~appear to forbid transfer of the For You algorithm, but the United States appears to require such a~~
~~transfer. So, the legal requirements of each country are at odds with each other.~~
~~On September 23, 2020, TikTok filed for an injunction in federal court to stop a ban on the app~~
~~that is set to take effect on September 27, 2020.~~

36 35 In addition to U.S. companies making a bid for TikTok in the United States, Centricus Asset Management and Triller are reported to have made a bid to buy TikTok’s operations in several other countries for $20 billion. 36 Kim Lyons, “Twitter and TikTok Reportedly Have Had Talks About a Deal,” TheVerge.com, August 8, 2020, at https://www.theverge.com/2020/8/8/21360259/twitter-and-tiktok-acquisition-trump-microsoft. 37 The Stanford Internet Observatory, a program of the Cyber Policy Center of the Freeman Spogli Institute for The Stanford Internet Observatory, a program of the Cyber Policy Center of the Freeman Spogli Institute for
International Studies, is a cross-disciplinary program of research, teaching, and policy engagement for the study of International Studies, is a cross-disciplinary program of research, teaching, and policy engagement for the study of
abuse in current information technologies, with a focus on social media. Prior to his current position, Mr. Stamos abuse in current information technologies, with a focus on social media. Prior to his current position, Mr. Stamos
served as Chief Security Officer of Facebook and Chief Information Security Officer at Yahoo. He has also been served as Chief Security Officer of Facebook and Chief Information Security Officer at Yahoo. He has also been
involved with securing the U.S. election system as a contributor to Harvard University’s Defending Digital Democracy involved with securing the U.S. election system as a contributor to Harvard University’s Defending Digital Democracy
Project. Project.
3738 Jordan Novet, “Oracle Confirms Deal with Tiktok-Owner Bytedance to Become ‘Trusted Technology Provider’,” Jordan Novet, “Oracle Confirms Deal with Tiktok-Owner Bytedance to Become ‘Trusted Technology Provider’,”
CNBC.com, September 14, 2020, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/14/oracle-confirms-deal-with-tiktok-owner-, September 14, 2020, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/14/oracle-confirms-deal-with-tiktok-owner-
bytedance-to-become-trusted-technology-provider.html. bytedance-to-become-trusted-technology-provider.html.
3839 Larry Dignan, “With TikTok, Oracle Hopes Its Cloud Infrastructure Business Goes Viral,” Larry Dignan, “With TikTok, Oracle Hopes Its Cloud Infrastructure Business Goes Viral,” ZDNet.com, September , September
21, 2020, at https://www.zdnet.com/article/with-tiktok-oracle-hopes-its-cloud-infrastructure-business-goes-viral/. 21, 2020, at https://www.zdnet.com/article/with-tiktok-oracle-hopes-its-cloud-infrastructure-business-goes-viral/.
3940 “Walmart Statement About Potential Investment in and Commercial Agreements with TikTok Global,” Walmart, “Walmart Statement About Potential Investment in and Commercial Agreements with TikTok Global,” Walmart,
September 19, 2020, at https://corporate.walmart.com/newsroom/2020/09/19/walmart-statement-about-potential-September 19, 2020, at https://corporate.walmart.com/newsroom/2020/09/19/walmart-statement-about-potential-
investment-in-and-commercial-agreements-with-tiktok-global. investment-in-and-commercial-agreements-with-tiktok-global.
4041 Jordan Novet, Spencer Kimball, and Alex Sherman, “Trump Agrees to Tiktok Deal with Oracle and Walmart, Jordan Novet, Spencer Kimball, and Alex Sherman, “Trump Agrees to Tiktok Deal with Oracle and Walmart,
Allowing App’s U.S. Operations to Continue,” September 22, 2020, Allowing App’s U.S. Operations to Continue,” September 22, 2020, CNBC.com, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/19/, at https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/19/
trump-says-he-has-approved-tiktok-oracle-deal-in-concept.html. trump-says-he-has-approved-tiktok-oracle-deal-in-concept.html.
4142 Isobel Asher Hamilton, “TikTok’s Deal with Oracle and Walmart Lets It Cling on to Its Most Valuable Asset—Its Isobel Asher Hamilton, “TikTok’s Deal with Oracle and Walmart Lets It Cling on to Its Most Valuable Asset—Its
Algorithm,” Algorithm,” BusinessInsider.com, September 21, 2020, at https://www.businessinsider.com/tiktok-deal-lets-it-hold-, September 21, 2020, at https://www.businessinsider.com/tiktok-deal-lets-it-hold-
onto-algorithm-2020-9. onto-algorithm-2020-9.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
7 7

link to page 7 link to page 7 TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues

appear to forbid transfer of the For You algorithm, but the United States appears to require such a transfer. So, the legal requirements of each country are at odds with each other. On September 23, 2020, TikTok filed for an injunction in federal court to stop a ban on the app that is set to take effect on September 27, 2020. Discussion
Some believe TikTok and other apps developed and owned by Chinese companies pose a serious Some believe TikTok and other apps developed and owned by Chinese companies pose a serious
security risk to the United States because Chinese companies are governed by China’s security risk to the United States because Chinese companies are governed by China’s
Cybersecurity Law. Others believe that TikTok is caught up in increasing trade tensions between Cybersecurity Law. Others believe that TikTok is caught up in increasing trade tensions between
China and the United States.China and the United States.4243
Threat to Security
Although TikTok forcefully states that it does not share U.S. user data with the Chinese Although TikTok forcefully states that it does not share U.S. user data with the Chinese
government, many security and privacy advocates are skeptical. For example, in addition to the government, many security and privacy advocates are skeptical. For example, in addition to the
lawsuit cited above (see lawsuit cited above (see “Data Sharing”), the American Civil Liberties Union argues that ), the American Civil Liberties Union argues that
“Chinese apps in particular have a reputation for grabbing more data than required to provide “Chinese apps in particular have a reputation for grabbing more data than required to provide
their services, often sending information to advertising networks … [they] are frequently far more their services, often sending information to advertising networks … [they] are frequently far more
abusive than others….”abusive than others….”4344 The Chinese government obtains data about and created by The Chinese government obtains data about and created by its own
citizens, for purposes that range from censorship to mass surveillance.citizens, for purposes that range from censorship to mass surveillance.4445
Other countries have also taken action against TikTok on the grounds of security. India banned Other countries have also taken action against TikTok on the grounds of security. India banned
TikTok and 50 other Chinese apps in June 2020, calling them a “threat to sovereignty and TikTok and 50 other Chinese apps in June 2020, calling them a “threat to sovereignty and
integrity.”integrity.”4546 Also in June 2020, the European Union opened an investigation into TikTok to Also in June 2020, the European Union opened an investigation into TikTok to
examine possible violations of its General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).examine possible violations of its General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).4647 Australia had Australia had
threatened to ban the app, but on August 4, 2020, the country’s Prime Minister indicated that threatened to ban the app, but on August 4, 2020, the country’s Prime Minister indicated that
TikTok would not be banned; however, he warned Australians against the app, saying it “connects TikTok would not be banned; however, he warned Australians against the app, saying it “connects
right back to China.”right back to China.”4748 Japan, Turkey, and Pakistan have also taken various measures to protect Japan, Turkey, and Pakistan have also taken various measures to protect
their countries’ users from possibly security risks.their countries’ users from possibly security risks.48
~~Technology Trade Protectionism~~
~~Other observers argue that TikTok is caught in “the crosshairs of a global technology battle,”49~~
~~and that a unilateral U.S. ban on any app may be comparable to China’s “Great Firewall.”50 One~~49

4243 Kent Calder, “Opening Japan,” Kent Calder, “Opening Japan,” Foreign Policy, vol. 47 (Summer 1982 1982), pp. 82-97, at http://www.jstor.com/, vol. 47 (Summer 1982 1982), pp. 82-97, at http://www.jstor.com/
stable/1148443. (Hereinafter, “Opening Japan.”) stable/1148443. (Hereinafter, “Opening Japan.”)
4344 “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?” “TikTok User Data: What Does the App Collect and Why Are U.S. Authorities Concerned?”
4445 Isobel Cockerell, “Inside China’s Massive Surveillance Operation,” Isobel Cockerell, “Inside China’s Massive Surveillance Operation,” Wired.com, May 9, 2019, at , May 9, 2019, at
https://www.wired.com/story/inside-chinas-massive-surveillance-operation/. https://www.wired.com/story/inside-chinas-massive-surveillance-operation/.
4546 Kari Paul, “Should You Delete Tiktok? Here’s What Experts Say About the App Trump Wants to Ban,” Kari Paul, “Should You Delete Tiktok? Here’s What Experts Say About the App Trump Wants to Ban,” The
Guardian, July 16, 2020, at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jul/16/tiktok-video-sharing-app-should-, July 16, 2020, at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/jul/16/tiktok-video-sharing-app-should-
you-delete-it. you-delete-it.
4647 Stephanie Bodoni, “TikTok Faces Scrutiny from Eu Watchdogs over Data Practices,” Stephanie Bodoni, “TikTok Faces Scrutiny from Eu Watchdogs over Data Practices,” Bloomberg.com, June 10, 2020 , June 10, 2020
(updated June 11, 2020), at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-10/tiktok-faces-scrutiny-from-eu-(updated June 11, 2020), at https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-10/tiktok-faces-scrutiny-from-eu-
watchdogs-over-privacy-practices. For more information on the GDPR, see CRS In Focus IF10896, watchdogs-over-privacy-practices. For more information on the GDPR, see CRS In Focus IF10896, EU Data
Protection Rules and U.S. Implications, by Rachel F. Fefer and Kristin Archick. , by Rachel F. Fefer and Kristin Archick.
4748 Stephen Dziedzic, “TikTok Ban ‘Not Necessary’ but Prime Minister Scott Morrison Urges Caution over App’s Stephen Dziedzic, “TikTok Ban ‘Not Necessary’ but Prime Minister Scott Morrison Urges Caution over App’s
China Connection,” China Connection,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation News, August 4, 2020, at https://www.abc.net.au/news/, August 4, 2020, at https://www.abc.net.au/news/
2020-08-05/prime-minister-scott-morrison-says-government-wont-ban-tiktok/12526246. 2020-08-05/prime-minister-scott-morrison-says-government-wont-ban-tiktok/12526246.
4849 Jennifer Hassan and Ruby Mellen, “It’s Not Just the United States: These Governments See Tiktok as a Growing Jennifer Hassan and Ruby Mellen, “It’s Not Just the United States: These Governments See Tiktok as a Growing
Problem,” Problem,” Washington Post, August 3, 2020, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/08/03/its-not-just-united-, August 3, 2020, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2020/08/03/its-not-just-united-
states-these-governments-see-tiktok-growing-problem/. states-these-governments-see-tiktok-growing-problem/.
~~49 “Is It Time to Delete Tiktok? A Guide to the Rumors and the Real Privacy Risks.”~~
~~50 Kevin Roose, “Don’t Ban TikTok. Make an Example of It.” New York Times, July 26, 2020, at~~
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Congressional Research Service 8 TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues Technology Trade Protectionism Other observers argue that TikTok is caught in “the crosshairs of a global technology battle,”50 and that a unilateral U.S. ban on any app may be comparable to China’s “Great Firewall.”51 One way to potentially understand U.S. and Chinese government actions in this dispute may be way to potentially understand U.S. and Chinese government actions in this dispute may be
through the concept of techno-nationalism,through the concept of techno-nationalism,5152 which refers to a country’s refusal or reluctance to which refers to a country’s refusal or reluctance to
import other countries’ advanced technology, as well as to export, or to allow other nations to import other countries’ advanced technology, as well as to export, or to allow other nations to
benefit from, its own advanced technology. Within this framework, technology is considered a benefit from, its own advanced technology. Within this framework, technology is considered a
central pillar of a country’s wellbeing: central pillar of a country’s wellbeing:
Techno-nationalism … links technological innovation and capabilities directly to a nation’s Techno-nationalism … links technological innovation and capabilities directly to a nation’s
national security, economic prosperity, and social stability.… [It] seeks to attain national security, economic prosperity, and social stability.… [It] seeks to attain
competitive advantage for its stakeholders, both locally and globally, and leverage these competitive advantage for its stakeholders, both locally and globally, and leverage these
advantages for geopolitical gain.advantages for geopolitical gain.5253
One policy mechanism that nations use to protect what they view as important or sensitive One policy mechanism that nations use to protect what they view as important or sensitive
technologies are export controls, rules which limit to which foreign entities and under what technologies are export controls, rules which limit to which foreign entities and under what
circumstances or conditions specific technologies may be sold or licensed.circumstances or conditions specific technologies may be sold or licensed.5354 For example, in For example, in
August 2020, the Bureau of Industry and Security at the Department of Commerce announced August 2020, the Bureau of Industry and Security at the Department of Commerce announced
sanctions that restrict foreign semiconductor companies from selling chips developed or produced sanctions that restrict foreign semiconductor companies from selling chips developed or produced
using U.S. software or technology to Huawei, another Chinese company, without first obtaining a using U.S. software or technology to Huawei, another Chinese company, without first obtaining a
license to do so.license to do so.5455 This restriction has been called a “lethal blow” This restriction has been called a “lethal blow”5556 to the company. to the company.
Another mechanism is the use of protectionist practices that privilege domestic entities’ access to Another mechanism is the use of protectionist practices that privilege domestic entities’ access to
domestic markets. For example, China requires U.S. telecommunications companies to enter into domestic markets. For example, China requires U.S. telecommunications companies to enter into
a partnership with a Chinese company to provide services in that country. In June 2020, the a partnership with a Chinese company to provide services in that country. In June 2020, the
Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Permanent Subcommittee on
Investigations issued a report, “Threats to US Networks: Oversight of Chinese Government Investigations issued a report, “Threats to US Networks: Oversight of Chinese Government
Owned Carriers.” The report notes that while China has access to the U.S. telecommunications Owned Carriers.” The report notes that while China has access to the U.S. telecommunications
market, U.S. companies do not have that same level of access in China. market, U.S. companies do not have that same level of access in China.
China does not provide US telecommunications companies reciprocal access to the Chinese China does not provide US telecommunications companies reciprocal access to the Chinese
market and requires foreign carriers seeking to operate in China to enter into joint ventures market and requires foreign carriers seeking to operate in China to enter into joint ventures
~~with Chinese companies. These joint ventures often require U.S. companies to give their~~
~~technology, proprietary know-how, and intellectual property to their Chinese partners.~~
~~Since China was allowed to join the World Trade Organization in 2001, the report notes that “not~~
~~a single foreign firm has succeeded in establishing a new joint venture” to provide basic~~
~~telecommunications services in China.”~~

50 “Is It Time to Delete Tiktok? A Guide to the Rumors and the Real Privacy Risks.” 51 Kevin Roose, “Don’t Ban TikTok. Make an Example of It.” New York Times, July 26, 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/26/technology/tiktok-china-ban-model.html. The “Great Firewall” has been https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/26/technology/tiktok-china-ban-model.html. The “Great Firewall” has been
described as “a system of surveillance and blocking technology that prevents Chinese citizens from viewing websites described as “a system of surveillance and blocking technology that prevents Chinese citizens from viewing websites
outside the country.” Danny O’Brien, “China’s Global Reach: Surveillance and Censorship Beyond the Great outside the country.” Danny O’Brien, “China’s Global Reach: Surveillance and Censorship Beyond the Great
Firewall,” Firewall,” Electronic Frontier Foundation, October 10, 2019, at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2019/10/chinas-global-, October 10, 2019, at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2019/10/chinas-global-
reach-surveillance-and-censorship-beyond-great-firewall. reach-surveillance-and-censorship-beyond-great-firewall.
5152 “Opening Japan.” “Opening Japan.”
5253 Alex Capri, “Techno-Nationalism: What Is It and How Will It Change Global Commerce?” Alex Capri, “Techno-Nationalism: What Is It and How Will It Change Global Commerce?” Forbes.com, December , December
20, 2019, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexcapri/2019/12/20/techno-nationalism-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-change-20, 2019, at https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexcapri/2019/12/20/techno-nationalism-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-change-
global-commerce/#f8e22c0710f7. global-commerce/#f8e22c0710f7.
5354 For more information on U.S. export controls and China, see CRS In Focus IF11627, For more information on U.S. export controls and China, see CRS In Focus IF11627, U.S. Export Control Reforms
and China: Issues for Congress, by Ian F. Fergusson and Karen M. Sutter. For more general information on U.S. export , by Ian F. Fergusson and Karen M. Sutter. For more general information on U.S. export
controls, see CRS Report R41916, controls, see CRS Report R41916, The U.S. Export Control System and the Export Control Reform Initiative, by Ian F. , by Ian F.
Fergusson and Paul K. Kerr. Fergusson and Paul K. Kerr.
5455 “Commerce Department Further Restricts Huawei Access to U.S. Technology and Adds Another 38 Affiliates to the “Commerce Department Further Restricts Huawei Access to U.S. Technology and Adds Another 38 Affiliates to the
Entity List,” U.S. Department of Commerce, August 17, 2020, at https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/Entity List,” U.S. Department of Commerce, August 17, 2020, at https://www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/
2020/08/commerce-department-further-restricts-huawei-access-us-technology-and. 2020/08/commerce-department-further-restricts-huawei-access-us-technology-and.
5556 Sherisse Pham, “New Sanctions Deal ‘Lethal Blow’ to Huawei. China Decries US Bullying,” Sherisse Pham, “New Sanctions Deal ‘Lethal Blow’ to Huawei. China Decries US Bullying,” CNN.com, August 18, , August 18,
2020, at https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/17/tech/huawei-us-sanctions-hnk-intl/index.html. 2020, at https://www.cnn.com/2020/08/17/tech/huawei-us-sanctions-hnk-intl/index.html.
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with Chinese companies. These joint ventures often require U.S. companies to give their technology, proprietary know-how, and intellectual property to their Chinese partners. Since China was allowed to join the World Trade Organization in 2001, the report notes that “not a single foreign firm has succeeded in establishing a new joint venture” to provide basic telecommunications services in China.” Related Congressional Activity
Congress began taking an interest in TikTok as early as October 2019, when Senator Marco Congress began taking an interest in TikTok as early as October 2019, when Senator Marco
Rubio reportedly called for a formal investigation into whether TikTok posed a national security Rubio reportedly called for a formal investigation into whether TikTok posed a national security
risk.risk.5657 Later that month, Senators Charles Schumer and Tom Cotton sent a Later that month, Senators Charles Schumer and Tom Cotton sent a ~~letter57~~letter58 to the Acting to the Acting
Director of National Intelligence, Joseph Maguire, expressing their concerns about TikTok and Director of National Intelligence, Joseph Maguire, expressing their concerns about TikTok and
the national security risks they believe it poses. More formally, Congress has scrutinized TikTok the national security risks they believe it poses. More formally, Congress has scrutinized TikTok
in two hearings, and Members have introduced three related bills. in two hearings, and Members have introduced three related bills.
Hearings
The Senate Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Crime and Terrorism has held two hearings The Senate Judiciary Committee’s Subcommittee on Crime and Terrorism has held two hearings
on, among other topics, the impact of Chinese smartphone apps on U.S. citizens’ privacy: on, among other topics, the impact of Chinese smartphone apps on U.S. citizens’ privacy:
 “How Corporations and Big Tech Leave Our Data Exposed to Criminals, China,  “How Corporations and Big Tech Leave Our Data Exposed to Criminals, China,
and Other Bad Actors” was held on November 5, 2019. and Other Bad Actors” was held on November 5, 2019.5859
 “Dangerous Partners: Big Tech and Beijing” was held on March 4, 2020.  “Dangerous Partners: Big Tech and Beijing” was held on March 4, 2020.5960
TikTok was invited to testify at these hearings, but declined to appear. TikTok was invited to testify at these hearings, but declined to appear.6061
Legislation
Three bills have been introduced that would prohibit the use of TikTok and WeChat on U.S. Three bills have been introduced that would prohibit the use of TikTok and WeChat on U.S.
government devices: government devices:
 S.  S. ~~445261~~445262 is a bill to prohibit federal employees from downloading or using is a bill to prohibit federal employees from downloading or using
WeChat on government devices. It was introduced on August 5, 2020, by Senator WeChat on government devices. It was introduced on August 5, 2020, by Senator
John Kennedy and referred to the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental John Kennedy and referred to the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental
Affairs the same day. Affairs the same day.
~~ S. 3455,62 the No TikTok on Government Devices Act, was introduced on March~~
~~12, 2020, by Senator Josh Hawley. This bill was passed by the Senate on August~~
~~6, 2020, and received in the House the following day. (See S.Rept. 116-25063.)~~

5657 Makena Kelly, “TikTok Should Be Investigated for Censorship, Marco Rubio Says,” Makena Kelly, “TikTok Should Be Investigated for Censorship, Marco Rubio Says,” TheVerge.com, October 9, , October 9,
2019, at https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20906971/tiktok-censorship-china-bytedance-musically-marco-rubio-2019, at https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/9/20906971/tiktok-censorship-china-bytedance-musically-marco-rubio-
senate-mnuchin-cfius-treasury. senate-mnuchin-cfius-treasury.
5758 Senator Tom Cotton, “Cotton, Schumer Request Assessment of National Security Risks Posed by China-Owned Senator Tom Cotton, “Cotton, Schumer Request Assessment of National Security Risks Posed by China-Owned
Video-Sharing Platform, Tiktok, a Potential Counterintelligence Threat with over 110 Million Downloads in U.S., Video-Sharing Platform, Tiktok, a Potential Counterintelligence Threat with over 110 Million Downloads in U.S.,
Alone,” press release, October 24, 2019, at https://www.cotton.senate.gov/?p=press_release&id=1239. Alone,” press release, October 24, 2019, at https://www.cotton.senate.gov/?p=press_release&id=1239.
5859 The hearing page with archived video and other documents is online at https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/ The hearing page with archived video and other documents is online at https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/
how-corporations-and-big-tech-leave-our-data-exposed-to-criminals-china-and-other-bad-actors. how-corporations-and-big-tech-leave-our-data-exposed-to-criminals-china-and-other-bad-actors.
5960 The hearing page with archived video and other documents is online at https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/ The hearing page with archived video and other documents is online at https://www.judiciary.senate.gov/meetings/
dangerous-partners-big-tech-and-beijing. dangerous-partners-big-tech-and-beijing.
6061 Tony Romm, “Apple, TikTok Decline to Testify at Second Congressional Hearing Probing Tech’s Ties to China,” Tony Romm, “Apple, TikTok Decline to Testify at Second Congressional Hearing Probing Tech’s Ties to China,”
Washington Post, February 24, 2020, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/24/apple-tiktok-, February 24, 2020, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/02/24/apple-tiktok-
congress-hearing-china/. congress-hearing-china/.
6162 The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate- The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-
bill/4452. bill/4452.
~~62 The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-~~
~~bill/3455.~~
~~63 The report is available online at https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/116th-congress/senate-report/250/1.~~
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~~ H.R. 6896,64~~Congressional Research Service 10 TikTok: Technology Overview and Issues  S. 3455,63 the No TikTok on Government Devices Act, was introduced on March 12, 2020, by Senator Josh Hawley. This bill was passed by the Senate on August 6, 2020, and received in the House the following day. (See S.Rept. 116-250.64)  H.R. 6896,65 also called the No TikTok on Government Devices Act, is the House also called the No TikTok on Government Devices Act, is the House
companion bill to S. 3455. It was introduced on May 15, 2020, by Representative companion bill to S. 3455. It was introduced on May 15, 2020, by Representative
Ken Buck and referred to the House Committee on Oversight and Reform and Ken Buck and referred to the House Committee on Oversight and Reform and
the House Committee on Administration the same day. the House Committee on Administration the same day.
Conclusion
The variety of apps available to U.S. users is enormous. Situations similar to the case of TikTok The variety of apps available to U.S. users is enormous. Situations similar to the case of TikTok
may arise in the future with other apps created by foreign companies. Congress may consider may arise in the future with other apps created by foreign companies. Congress may consider
taking one or both of two parallel approaches to address such situations: (1) developing an taking one or both of two parallel approaches to address such situations: (1) developing an
overarching legal and regulatory framework to protect the security and privacy of U.S. citizens’ overarching legal and regulatory framework to protect the security and privacy of U.S. citizens’
data and communications, and (2) establishing a uniform, transparent process to assess the risks data and communications, and (2) establishing a uniform, transparent process to assess the risks
posed by foreign apps and establish mechanisms to mediate those risks. posed by foreign apps and establish mechanisms to mediate those risks.

6463 The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/3455. 64 The report is available online at https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/116th-congress/senate-report/250/1. 65 The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house- The latest information on this legislation is available online at https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/house-
bill/6896. bill/6896.
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Appendix. What Is WeChat?
WeChat was released in January 2011 and in 2018 became the world’s most-used standalone WeChat was released in January 2011 and in 2018 became the world’s most-used standalone
mobile app, with over 1 billion monthly active users.mobile app, with over 1 billion monthly active users.6566 WeChat has been described as China’s WeChat has been described as China’s
“app for everything”“app for everything”6667 because of its wide range of functions. Through the app, users can send because of its wide range of functions. Through the app, users can send
messages, make mobile payments for purchases and send money to other users,messages, make mobile payments for purchases and send money to other users,6768 hail a ride, hail a ride,
exchange contact information through Quick Response (QR) codes, share “moments” (similar to exchange contact information through Quick Response (QR) codes, share “moments” (similar to
Facebook’s “Newsfeed”), buy tickets to movies, and book a hotel room—as well as many other Facebook’s “Newsfeed”), buy tickets to movies, and book a hotel room—as well as many other
activities. In the second quarter of 2020, the app had an estimated 1.2 billion monthly active activities. In the second quarter of 2020, the app had an estimated 1.2 billion monthly active
users,users,6869 up from about 889 million monthly active users in 2016. up from about 889 million monthly active users in 2016.
Tencent, the Chinese company that owns WeChat, is the biggest video game company in the Tencent, the Chinese company that owns WeChat, is the biggest video game company in the
world. It was founded in 1998 and is worth about $500 billion as of May 2020.world. It was founded in 1998 and is worth about $500 billion as of May 2020.6970 The company The company
owns the U.S. game studio Riot Games, as well as a large stake in U.S.-based Epic Games, which owns the U.S. game studio Riot Games, as well as a large stake in U.S.-based Epic Games, which
developed the popular game Fortnite. developed the popular game Fortnite.
As with TikTok, researchers have found evidence that WeChat shares user data with the Chinese As with TikTok, researchers have found evidence that WeChat shares user data with the Chinese
government: “Every day, millions of WeChat conversations held inside and outside China are government: “Every day, millions of WeChat conversations held inside and outside China are
flagged, collected, and stored in a database connected to public security agencies in China.”flagged, collected, and stored in a database connected to public security agencies in China.”7071
Some U.S. users have reported that their messages to friends, family, and colleagues in China Some U.S. users have reported that their messages to friends, family, and colleagues in China
stopped being delivered after they shared news articles critical of the Chinese government; once stopped being delivered after they shared news articles critical of the Chinese government; once
they stopped sharing such articles, their access was restored.they stopped sharing such articles, their access was restored.71

72

Author Information

Patricia Moloney Figliola Patricia Moloney Figliola

Specialist in Internet and Telecommunications Specialist in Internet and Telecommunications
Policy Policy

6566 “Number of Monthly Active Wechat Users from 2nd Quarter 2011 to 2nd Quarter 2020,” “Number of Monthly Active Wechat Users from 2nd Quarter 2011 to 2nd Quarter 2020,” Statista, August 20, 2020, at , August 20, 2020, at
https://www.statista.com/statistics/255778/number-of-active-wechat-messenger-accounts/. https://www.statista.com/statistics/255778/number-of-active-wechat-messenger-accounts/.
6667 “How WeChat Became China’s App for Everything,” “How WeChat Became China’s App for Everything,” FastCompany.com, January 2, 2017, at , January 2, 2017, at
https://www.fastcompany.com/3065255/china-wechat-tencent-red-envelopes-and-social-money. (Hereinafter, “How https://www.fastcompany.com/3065255/china-wechat-tencent-red-envelopes-and-social-money. (Hereinafter, “How
WeChat Became China’s App for Everything.”) WeChat Became China’s App for Everything.”)
6768 “How WeChat Became China’s App for Everything.” “How WeChat Became China’s App for Everything.”
6869 “Number of Monthly Active Wechat Users from 2nd Quarter 2011 to 2nd Quarter 2020,” “Number of Monthly Active Wechat Users from 2nd Quarter 2011 to 2nd Quarter 2020,” Statista, August 20, 2020, at , August 20, 2020, at
https://www.statista.com/statistics/255778/number-of-active-wechat-messenger-accounts. https://www.statista.com/statistics/255778/number-of-active-wechat-messenger-accounts.
6970 “WeChat Revenue and Usage Statistics (2020),” “WeChat Revenue and Usage Statistics (2020),” BusinessOfApps.com, July 30, 2020, at , July 30, 2020, at
https://www.businessofapps.com/data/wechat-statistics/#1. https://www.businessofapps.com/data/wechat-statistics/#1.
7071 “China Intercepts WeChat Texts from U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say,” “China Intercepts WeChat Texts from U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say,” NPR.org, August 29, 2019, at , August 29, 2019, at
https://www.npr.org/2019/08/29/751116338/china-intercepts-wechat-texts-from-u-s-and-abroad-researcher-says. https://www.npr.org/2019/08/29/751116338/china-intercepts-wechat-texts-from-u-s-and-abroad-researcher-says.
(Hereinafter, “China Intercepts WeChat Texts from U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say.”) (Hereinafter, “China Intercepts WeChat Texts from U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say.”)
7172 “China Intercepts WeChat Texts From U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say.” “China Intercepts WeChat Texts From U.S. and Abroad, Researchers Say.”
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