U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity

Changes from August 26, 2020 to June 25, 2021

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with ~~red strikethrough~~ and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
~~August 26, 2020~~June 25, 2021 and Biodiversity Pervaze A. Sheikh
The United States supports international conservation efforts through foreign assistance The United States supports international conservation efforts through foreign assistance
Specialist in Natural programs, diplomatic engagement, and other tools. Members of Congress have supported such programs, diplomatic engagement, and other tools. Members of Congress have supported such
~~Pervaze A. Sheikh~~Resources Policy
efforts on a bipartisan basis and have debated the level, scope, prioritization, and potential efforts on a bipartisan basis and have debated the level, scope, prioritization, and potential
~~Specialist in Natural~~
unintended consequences of U.S. international conservation activities. International conservation unintended consequences of U.S. international conservation activities. International conservation
~~Resources Policy~~Nick M. Brown
efforts focus on protecting species, restoring habitats, and recovering forests, among other things. efforts focus on protecting species, restoring habitats, and recovering forests, among other things.

Analyst in Foreign Multiple federal departments and agencies administer and implement these initiatives, and Multiple federal departments and agencies administer and implement these initiatives, and
Assistance and Foreign Congress appropriates funding for them via several annual appropriations laws. Congress has Congress appropriates funding for them via several annual appropriations laws. Congress has
~~Nick M. Brown~~
~~Analyst in Foreign~~Policy
shaped U.S. policy on international conservation through its authorization and appropriation of shaped U.S. policy on international conservation through its authorization and appropriation of
~~Assistance and Foreign~~
foreign assistance in part, as well as through its oversight activities. foreign assistance in part, as well as through its oversight activities.
~~Policy~~

Emily M. Morgenstern Congressional interest in international conservation issues stems from a range of factors, Congressional interest in international conservation issues stems from a range of factors,
Analyst in Foreign including concerns about human-caused threats to global biodiversity; constituent engagement; including concerns about human-caused threats to global biodiversity; constituent engagement;
~~Emily M. Morgenstern~~Assistance and Foreign Policy
interest in global biodiversity and protected areas; potential connections between conservation interest in global biodiversity and protected areas; potential connections between conservation
~~Analyst in Foreign~~
and U.S. national security; and concerns about conservationists’ respect for human rights. and U.S. national security; and concerns about conservationists’ respect for human rights.
~~Assistance and Foreign~~
Reports of global biodiversity lossReports of global biodiversity loss ~~due to human interactions and recent~~ , land use degradation, and focus on zoonotic focus on zoonotic
~~Policy~~
diseases in the diseases in the Katarina C. O'Regan context of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have amplified context of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have amplified

~~these concerns for some Members.~~
~~Katarina C. O'Regan~~
~~Analyst in Foreign Policy~~
these concerns Analyst in Foreign Policy for some Members. Richard K. Lattanzio Funding for international conservation issues has steadily increased or has been maintained by Specialist in Environmental Congress over the last several years. The Administration budget request for FY2022 would Policy maintain funding levels in several programs while reducing Biodiversity funding and increasing Sustainable Landscapes Program funding (which addresses deforestation and forest degradation), both under the U.S. Agency for International Development. Congress might consider several issues as it authorizes, appropriates funding for, and continues Congress might consider several issues as it authorizes, appropriates funding for, and continues

oversight of U.S. international conservation activities. Members may debate how much foreign oversight of U.S. international conservation activities. Members may debate how much foreign
~~Richard K. Lattanzio~~
assistance, if any, to provide for international conservation programsassistance, if any, to provide for international conservation programs ; the goals and objectives of ; the goals and objectives of
~~Specialist in Environmental~~
international conservation programsinternational conservation programs ; interagency coordination of international conservation ; interagency coordination of international conservation
~~Policy~~
programs; whether assistance is aligned with host countries’ priorities; and the implications of programs; whether assistance is aligned with host countries’ priorities; and the implications of

international conservation spending for human rights and international conservation spending for human rights and ~~indigenous~~Indigenous peoples. peoples.

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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity

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link to page link to page 67 link to page link to page 67 U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity
Introduction
The United States supports international conservation of wildlife and ecosystems through The United States supports international conservation of wildlife and ecosystems through
diplomatic efforts, foreign assistance, and other activities. At the diplomatic level, the United diplomatic efforts, foreign assistance, and other activities. At the diplomatic level, the United
States works both multilaterally and bilaterally to set international conservation policy. The States works both multilaterally and bilaterally to set international conservation policy. The
United States provides foreign assistance in the form of financial, programmatic, and technical United States provides foreign assistance in the form of financial, programmatic, and technical
support to address international conservation activities, such as species protection, habitat support to address international conservation activities, such as species protection, habitat
restoration, and forest recovery, among other priorities. Several federal departments and agencies restoration, and forest recovery, among other priorities. Several federal departments and agencies
administer these programs, including the U.S. Department of State (State), U.S. Agency for administer these programs, including the U.S. Department of State (State), U.S. Agency for
International Development (USAID), U.S. Department of the Treasury (Treasury), U.S. Fish and International Development (USAID), U.S. Department of the Treasury (Treasury), U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (FWS), and U.S. Forest Service (FS). Wildlife Service (FWS), and U.S. Forest Service (FS).
Congress has shaped U.S. policy and global activities related to conservation through its Congress has shaped U.S. policy and global activities related to conservation through its
authorization and appropriation of foreign assistance resources, as wel as through oversight authorization and appropriation of foreign assistance resources, as wel as through oversight
activities. Several Members activities. Several Members ofin the the ~~116th~~117th Congress have Congress have ~~demonstrated~~expressed interest in international interest in international
conservationconservation issues, especial y with respect to biodiversity, environmental conservation, and il icit, especial y with respect to biodiversity, environmental conservation, and il icit
~~wildlife~~ wildlife trade.1 Some Members also maintain an active interest in internationaltrade.1 Some Members also maintain an active interest in international conservation conservation
treaties in which the United States takes part, such as the Convention on International Trade of treaties in which the United States takes part, such as the Convention on International Trade of
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (see the Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) (see the “Multilateral Treaties,
Conventions, and Initiatives” section, below). section, below).
Congressional concerns over global conservation efforts escalated in the wake of a 2019 Congressional concerns over global conservation efforts escalated in the wake of a 2019
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES)
report asserting a significant loss of biodiversity due to human interactions with natural report asserting a significant loss of biodiversity due to human interactions with natural
resources.2 Reports of human rights violations by U.S. conservation aid implementers have also resources.2 Reports of human rights violations by U.S. conservation aid implementers have also
prompted congressional action. In addition, connections between the wildlife trade, ecosystem prompted congressional action. In addition, connections between the wildlife trade, ecosystem
alterations, and the emergence of zoonotic diseases, such as Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-alterations, and the emergence of zoonotic diseases, such as Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-
19), have stimulated congressional interest in international conservation efforts.3 19), have stimulated congressional interest in international conservation efforts.3
Congress provides international conservation funding through several annual appropriations Congress provides international conservation funding through several annual appropriations
measures, including the following: measures, including the following:
  Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations (e.g., appropriations (e.g.,
U.S. diplomatic activities, foreign assistance programs administered by State and U.S. diplomatic activities, foreign assistance programs administered by State and
USAID, and some programs implemented by Treasury and FWS); USAID, and some programs implemented by Treasury and FWS);
 Department of the Interior (DOI) appropriations (the Multinational Species  Department of the Interior (DOI) appropriations (the Multinational Species
Conservation Fund and the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund); and Conservation Fund and the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund); and
 Department of Agriculture appropriations (FS international programs).  Department of Agriculture appropriations (FS international programs).
~~This report describes selected U.S. international conservation activities. (It does not represent a~~
~~comprehensive list of al programs.) This report also identifies a number of issues for Congress,~~

~~1 Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “President T rump Signs Bipartisan Wildlife Conservation~~
~~Legislation into Law,” press release, March 12, 2019, at https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2019/3/~~
~~president -trump-signs-bipartisan-wildlife-conservation~~ 1 For example, see Senator Rob Portman, “Portman, Bipartisan Colleagues Introduce Conservation Legislation to Protect T ropical Forests & Coral Reef Ecosystems,” press release, February 22, 2021, at https://www.portman.senate.gov/newsroom/press-releases/portman-bipartisan-colleagues-introduce-conservation-legislation-protect -0. .
2 Sandra Díaz et al., 2 Sandra Díaz et al., Global Assessment on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services, Intergovernmental Science-Policy , Intergovernmental Science-Policy
Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 2019, at https://www.ipbes.net/system/tdf/Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 2019, at https://www.ipbes.net/system/tdf/
spm_global_unedited_advance.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=35245. spm_global_unedited_advance.pdf?file=1&type=node&id=35245. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter Díaz et al., Díaz et al., Global Assessm ent on
Biodiversity,, 2019. 2019.
3 For example, see Letter from Senator Cory Booker et al. to Dr. T edros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of the 3 For example, see Letter from Senator Cory Booker et al. to Dr. T edros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of the
World Health Organization (WHO), April 8, 2020, at https://www.booker.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/World Health Organization (WHO), April 8, 2020, at https://www.booker.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/
04.08.20_Booker_Graham_Quigley_McCaul_sblock.pdf04.08.20_Booker_Graham_Quigley_McCaul_sblock.pdf . .
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link to page link to page 25 ~~U.S. Support~~27 link to page 27 U.S. Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity This report describes selected U.S. international conservation activities. (It does not represent a comprehensive list of al programs.) This report also identifies a number of issues for Congress,
including funding levels, objectives and evaluations of international conservation programs, and including funding levels, objectives and evaluations of international conservation programs, and
potential unintended consequences of these programspotential unintended consequences of these programs. Table A-1, in , in ~~the Appendix,~~ the Appendix, provides provides
funding information on the programs discussed in this report. funding information on the programs discussed in this report.
Key Terms in Conservation Programming
This report uses USAID definitions for common conservation terms, as fol ows: This report uses USAID definitions for common conservation terms, as fol ows:
Biodiversity. The variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. The variety and variability of living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
The term The term biodiversity comprises the fol owing three categories: (1) comprises the fol owing three categories: (1) genetic diversity is the combination of different is the combination of different
genes within a species; (2) genes within a species; (2) species diversity is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms that inhabit is the variety and abundance of different types of organisms that inhabit
an area; and (3) an area; and (3) ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems in a given region. is the variety of ecosystems in a given region.
Indigenous Peoples. Rather than having a unified definition, the U.S. Agency for International Development uses Rather than having a unified definition, the U.S. Agency for International Development uses
a set of criteria to identify a set of criteria to identify ~~indigenous~~Indigenous peoples,, only someonly some of which may be applicable to any particular group. These of which may be applicable to any particular group. These
include self-identification as a distinct group; recognition of that group by others; historical continuity with include self-identification as a distinct group; recognition of that group by others; historical continuity with
precolonial or pre-settler societies; attachment to a specific territory, distinct customary institutions, language, precolonial or pre-settler societies; attachment to a specific territory, distinct customary institutions, language,
and/or culture; and/or resolve to maintain a distinctive community.and/or culture; and/or resolve to maintain a distinctive community.
Landscapes and Seascapes. Large areas of diverse and interacting ecosystems embedded within diverse and Large areas of diverse and interacting ecosystems embedded within diverse and
interacting social, cultural, legal, political, and economic systems. (USAID notes that this definition is broader than interacting social, cultural, legal, political, and economic systems. (USAID notes that this definition is broader than
that used within the field of ecology general y.) that used within the field of ecology general y.)
Protected Areas. Clearly defined geographical spaces recognized, dedicated, and managed, through legal or Clearly defined geographical spaces recognized, dedicated, and managed, through legal or
other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and
cultural values. cultural values.
Stakeholders. Those who have widely recognized, though not always legal, rights to a territory, ecosystem, or Those who have widely recognized, though not always legal, rights to a territory, ecosystem, or
resource. Stakeholders may include nearby communities, particularly resource. Stakeholders may include nearby communities, particularly ~~indigenous~~Indigenous peoples, and marginalized peoples, and marginalized groups, groups,
such as women and the very poor, as wel as local, state, and national government, nongovernmental such as women and the very poor, as wel as local, state, and national government, nongovernmental
organizations, and private businesses. organizations, and private businesses.
Wildlife Trafficking. The il egal trade in live wildlife or wildlife products, estimated to be worth $10 bil ion to The il egal trade in live wildlife or wildlife products, estimated to be worth $10 bil ion to
$20 bil ion annual y. It ranges from smal -scale local bartering to international commercial shipments facilitated by $20 bil ion annual y. It ranges from smal -scale local bartering to international commercial shipments facilitated by
transnational criminal organizations. transnational criminal organizations.
Sources: U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), USAID Biodiversity and Development Handbook, ,
October 2015, p. 3. October 2015, p. 3. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter USAID, USAID, Biodiversity Handbook, 2015. USAID, , 2015. USAID, Policy on Promoting the Rights of
Indigenous Peoples, March 2020, p. 8. March 2020, p. 8.
Selected Federal Activities by Department or
Agency
The following section offers information on the various U.S. diplomatic and foreign assistance The following section offers information on the various U.S. diplomatic and foreign assistance
efforts focused on international conservation, organized by department and agency. These include efforts focused on international conservation, organized by department and agency. These include
State’s role in various multilateral fora, USAID’s administration of foreign assistance programs, State’s role in various multilateral fora, USAID’s administration of foreign assistance programs,
Treasury’s financial assistance and loan relief programs, and FWS’s and FS’s international Treasury’s financial assistance and loan relief programs, and FWS’s and FS’s international
programs. programs.
U.S. Department of State
State focuses its conservation efforts at the policy and diplomatic levels. Foreign assistance State focuses its conservation efforts at the policy and diplomatic levels. Foreign assistance
program administration is largely conducted by USAID, except for certain wildlife trafficking program administration is largely conducted by USAID, except for certain wildlife trafficking
programs focused on law enforcement. programs focused on law enforcement.
Congressional Research Service 2 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Multilateral Treaties, Conventions, and Initiatives
State negotiates and participates in, on behalf of the United States, multilateral conservation State negotiates and participates in, on behalf of the United States, multilateral conservation
treaties and conventions to which the United States is a party, including the following: treaties and conventions to which the United States is a party, including the following:
~~Congressional Research Service~~
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~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

  CITES. A multilateral treaty established in 1975, CITES seeks to protect A multilateral treaty established in 1975, CITES seeks to protect
endangered and threatened species of animals and plants through the regulation endangered and threatened species of animals and plants through the regulation
of trade in those species. Although CITES is legal y binding upon its parties, it of trade in those species. Although CITES is legal y binding upon its parties, it
does not supersede existing national laws and statutes and does not have does not supersede existing national laws and statutes and does not have
enforcement authority. The United States was the first signatory to CITES and enforcement authority. The United States was the first signatory to CITES and
ratified the treaty in 1974.4 ratified the treaty in 1974.4
  Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar). Established in 1975, Ramsar aims Established in 1975, Ramsar aims
to conserve wetlands using local, national, and international cooperation for to conserve wetlands using local, national, and international cooperation for
sustainable development.5 The United States entered into this treaty in 1986. sustainable development.5 The United States entered into this treaty in 1986.
  International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). Operational in 1987, Operational in 1987,
ITTO promotes the sustainability of tropical forests and the broadening of ITTO promotes the sustainability of tropical forests and the broadening of
international trade in tropical timber harvested from sustainable and legal international trade in tropical timber harvested from sustainable and legal
forests.6 The United States is a party to the organization as a consuming member forests.6 The United States is a party to the organization as a consuming member
(i.e., a member who consumes, and does not produce, tropical timbers). (i.e., a member who consumes, and does not produce, tropical timbers).
  U.N. Forum on Forests (UNFF). Established in 2000 as a subsidiary of the U.N. Established in 2000 as a subsidiary of the U.N.
Economic and Social Council, UNFF is an intergovernmental body that promotes Economic and Social Council, UNFF is an intergovernmental body that promotes
conservation and sustainable development. Among other objectives, it aims to conservation and sustainable development. Among other objectives, it aims to
reverse global forest cover loss through sustainable forest management and reverse global forest cover loss through sustainable forest management and
strengthen the ability for sustainable forest management.7 UNFF is currently strengthen the ability for sustainable forest management.7 UNFF is currently
tasked with overseeing the first U.N. Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030.8 tasked with overseeing the first U.N. Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030.8
State also represents the United States with regard to those treaties and conventions to which the State also represents the United States with regard to those treaties and conventions to which the
United States is not a party but which may affect U.S. activities overseas. For example, many United States is not a party but which may affect U.S. activities overseas. For example, many
foreign assistance programs seek to align activities with strategic plans developed pursuant to the foreign assistance programs seek to align activities with strategic plans developed pursuant to the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).9 The CBD is a multilateral treaty with three main Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).9 The CBD is a multilateral treaty with three main
goals: (1) the conservation of biological diversity, (2) the sustainable use of biodiversity goals: (1) the conservation of biological diversity, (2) the sustainable use of biodiversity
components, and (3) the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. State components, and (3) the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources. State
participates as a nonvoting entity in the Conference of the Parties held by the CBD Secretariat participates as a nonvoting entity in the Conference of the Parties held by the CBD Secretariat
because the United States has signed but not ratified the treaty. because the United States has signed but not ratified the treaty.
~~State Department-Administered Foreign Assistance Programs~~
~~State Department-administered programs aim to strengthen regional and international~~
~~partnerships to address wildlife poaching and trafficking, improve foreign countries’ law~~

4 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CIT ES), “ List of Contracting 4 Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CIT ES), “ List of Contracting
Parties,” at https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php. For further information on the relationship of treaties Parties,” at https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/chronolo.php. For further information on the relationship of treaties
to national law, see CRS Report RL32528, to national law, see CRS Report RL32528, International Law and Agreem ents: Their Effect upon U.S. Law, by Stephen , by Stephen
P. Mulligan. P. Mulligan.
5 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, “ The Convention on Wetlands and Its Mission,” at https://www.ramsar.org/about/5 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, “ The Convention on Wetlands and Its Mission,” at https://www.ramsar.org/about/
the-convention-on-wetlands-and-its-mission. T he official title is “ Convention on wetlands of international importance, the-convention-on-wetlands-and-its-mission. T he official title is “ Convention on wetlands of international importance,
especially as waterfowl habitat.” Department of State (State) Office of T reaty Affairs, especially as waterfowl habitat.” Department of State (State) Office of T reaty Affairs, Multilateral Treaties in Force as
of January 1, 2019, p. 512. , p. 512.
6 International T ropical T imber Organization, “ About IT TO,” at https://www.itto.int/about_itto/. 6 International T ropical T imber Organization, “ About IT TO,” at https://www.itto.int/about_itto/.
7 United Nations, U.N. Forum on the Forests, “ Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Forest ,” fact sheet, at 7 United Nations, U.N. Forum on the Forests, “ Department of Economic and Social Affairs: Forest ,” fact sheet, at
https://www.un.org/esa/forests/wp-content/uploads/bsk-pdf-manager/81_FACT _SHEET _UNFF.PDF. https://www.un.org/esa/forests/wp-content/uploads/bsk-pdf-manager/81_FACT _SHEET _UNFF.PDF.
8 U.N. General Assembly, “71/285. United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030,” A/RES/71/285. 8 U.N. General Assembly, “71/285. United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030,” A/RES/71/285.
9 For example, the United States has funded the Global Environmental Facility, which implements programs of the 9 For example, the United States has funded the Global Environmental Facility, which implements programs of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). U.S. agencies often design their programs to align withConvention on Biological Diversity (CBD). U.S. agencies often design their programs to align with CBD initiatives, CBD initiatives,
such as recipient National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans. such as recipient National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans.
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and Biodiversity State Department-Administered Foreign Assistance Programs State Department-administered programs aim to strengthen regional and international partnerships to address wildlife poaching and trafficking, improve foreign countries’ law
enforcement capabilities, and tighten anti-trafficking legislation in foreign countries.10 State enforcement capabilities, and tighten anti-trafficking legislation in foreign countries.10 State
administers programs to combat wildlife trafficking in foreign countries through its Bureau of administers programs to combat wildlife trafficking in foreign countries through its Bureau of
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL). INL carries out some capacity-International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL). INL carries out some capacity-
building activities through wildlife trafficking courses at its International Law Enforcement building activities through wildlife trafficking courses at its International Law Enforcement
Academies. State’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs also Academies. State’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs also
works to strengthen international cooperation on wildlife trafficking and conducts analyses to works to strengthen international cooperation on wildlife trafficking and conducts analyses to
identify “focus countries” and “countries of concern,” consistent with the Eliminate, Neutralize, identify “focus countries” and “countries of concern,” consistent with the Eliminate, Neutralize,
and Disrupt Wildlife Trafficking Act of 2016 (P.L. 114-231).11 State has also partnered with and Disrupt Wildlife Trafficking Act of 2016 (P.L. 114-231).11 State has also partnered with
multilateral organizations, such as the U.N. Office of Drugs and Crime and the World Bank, as multilateral organizations, such as the U.N. Office of Drugs and Crime and the World Bank, as
wel as numerous bilateral partners. wel as numerous bilateral partners.
U.S. Agency for International Development
USAID administers environmental conservation programs in an effort to curb biodiversity loss, USAID administers environmental conservation programs in an effort to curb biodiversity loss,
strengthen conservation efforts abroad, and combat wildlife trafficking, among other objectives. strengthen conservation efforts abroad, and combat wildlife trafficking, among other objectives.
USAID conservation programs are largely authorized under Section 118 and Section 119 of the USAID conservation programs are largely authorized under Section 118 and Section 119 of the
Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended), which emphasize the importance of Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended), which emphasize the importance of
biodiversity efforts to preserve tropical forests and to protect endangered species, respectively. biodiversity efforts to preserve tropical forests and to protect endangered species, respectively.
Congress provides funds for USAID biodiversity and conservation programs in annual SFOPS Congress provides funds for USAID biodiversity and conservation programs in annual SFOPS
appropriations. Congress directs these funds toward three sectors, which account for the majority appropriations. Congress directs these funds toward three sectors, which account for the majority
of international conservation programming: (1) biodiversity conservation, (2) wildlife poaching of international conservation programming: (1) biodiversity conservation, (2) wildlife poaching
and trafficking, and (3) sustainable landscapes.12 USAID draws on several foreign assistance and trafficking, and (3) sustainable landscapes.12 USAID draws on several foreign assistance
accounts to meet these directives. Since FY2016, Congress has provided either level or increased accounts to meet these directives. Since FY2016, Congress has provided either level or increased
funding for these three sectors each successive year (se funding for these three sectors each successive year (see Table 1).
~~Table 1. SFOPS Appropriations for Conservation Sectors, FY2016-FY2020~~
~~(in mil ions of U.S. current dol ars)~~

~~FY2016~~
~~FY2017~~
~~FY2018~~
~~FY2019~~
~~FY2020~~
~~Biodiversity Conservation~~
~~$265.0~~
~~$265.0~~
~~$269.0~~
~~$285.0~~
~~$315.0~~
~~Of which Wildlife Poaching & Trafficking~~
~~$80.0~~
~~$90.7~~
~~$90.7~~
~~$90.7~~
~~$100.7~~
~~Sustainable Landscapes~~
~~$123.5~~
~~$123.5~~
~~$123.5~~
~~$125.0~~
~~$135.0~~
Sources: P.L. 116-94, P.L. 116-6, P.L. 115-141, P.L. 115-31, and P.L. 114-113.

~~10 H.J.Res~~ 10 H.J.Res. 31; and State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law31; and State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, “ Combating Crime and Enforcement Affairs, “ Combating Crime and
Corruption,” November 27, 2018, at https://www.state.gov/combating-crime-and-corruption/. Corruption,” November 27, 2018, at https://www.state.gov/combating-crime-and-corruption/.
11 A “focus country” refers to a foreign country determined by the Secretary of State to be a major source of wildlife 11 A “focus country” refers to a foreign country determined by the Secretary of State to be a major source of wildlife
trafficking products, a major transit point of wildlife trafficking, or a major consumer of wildlife trafficking products. A trafficking products, a major transit point of wildlife trafficking, or a major consumer of wildlife trafficking products. A
“country of concern” is a foreign country with similar characteristics as a focus country but in which the government “country of concern” is a foreign country with similar characteristics as a focus country but in which the government
has actively engaged in or knowingly profited from wildlife trafficking. According to the has actively engaged in or knowingly profited from wildlife trafficking. According to the ~~2019~~2020 END Wildlife END Wildlife
T rafficking Report, focus countries were Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Cambodia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of T rafficking Report, focus countries were Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Cambodia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Gabon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Congo, Gabon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia,
Mexico, Mozambique, Nigeria, People’s Republic of China, Philippines, Republic of Congo, South Africa, T anzania, Mexico, Mozambique, Nigeria, People’s Republic of China, Philippines, Republic of Congo, South Africa, T anzania,
T hailand, T ogo, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe. Countries of T hailand, T ogo, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vietnam, and Zimbabwe. Countries of ~~concern were Democratic~~
~~Republic of Congo, Laos, and Madagascar~~con cern were Cambodia, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Laos, Madagascar, and Nigeria. .
12 Sector allocations are directives contained in State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) General 12 Sector allocations are directives contained in State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) General
Provisions (usually T itle VII of the SFOPS appropriations measure). T hese allocations Provisions (usually T itle VII of the SFOPS appropriations measure). T hese allocations ~~def ine~~define ways in which funds ways in which funds
already appropriated in the legislation shall be used. In addition to the sectors highlighted in this report, FY2020 sector already appropriated in the legislation shall be used. In addition to the sectors highlighted in this report, FY2020 sector
allocations included those for basic education and higher education; development programs; food security and allocations included those for basic education and higher education; development programs; food security and
agricultural development; and programs to combat trafficking in persons; among others. agricultural development; and programs to combat trafficking in persons; among others.
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link to page link to page 89 U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity Table 1. SFOPS Appropriations for Conservation Sectors, FY2016-FY2022 Request (in mil ions of U.S. current dol ars) FY2022 FY2016 FY2017 FY2018 FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 Request Biodiversity Conservation $265.0 $265.0 $269.0 $285.0 $315.0 $320.0 $217.7 Of which Wildlife Poaching & $80.0 $90.7 $90.7 $90.7 $100.7 $100.7 $92.7 Trafficking Sustainable Landscapes $123.5 $123.5 $123.5 $125.0 $135.0 $135.0 $232.3 Sources: P.L. 116-260, P.L. 116-94, P.L. 116-6, P.L. 115-141, P.L. 115-31, and P.L. 114-113. U.S. Department of State, Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs, FY2022 Congressional Budget Justification, U.S. Department of State, 2021, at https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/FY-2022-State_USAID-Congressional-Budget-Justification.pdf.
Notes: SFOPS = State, Foreign Operations, and Related ProgramsSFOPS = State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs. n/a = not available at this time. The U.S. Agency for International . The U.S. Agency for International
Development (USAID) considers wildlife poaching and trafficking a “sub-directive” under the biodiversityDevelopment (USAID) considers wildlife poaching and trafficking a “sub-directive” under the biodiversity
conservation sector; as such, funding for wildlife poaching and trafficking programsconservation sector; as such, funding for wildlife poaching and trafficking programs is also counted toward the is also counted toward the
biodiversity conservation congressionalbiodiversity conservation congressional directive. The majority of funding idirective. The majority of funding in Table 1 is administered by USAID; is administered by USAID;
the rest is administered by the Department of State. the rest is administered by the Department of State.
Many biodiversity conservation and sustainable landscapes activities are similar in practice, even Many biodiversity conservation and sustainable landscapes activities are similar in practice, even
if their stated goals differ. Formal y, sustainable landscapes programs prioritize reducing carbon if their stated goals differ. Formal y, sustainable landscapes programs prioritize reducing carbon
emissions from land degradation, and biodiversity programs must explicitly set biodiversity as a emissions from land degradation, and biodiversity programs must explicitly set biodiversity as a
program objective. USAID often combines objectives across sectors when designing and program objective. USAID often combines objectives across sectors when designing and
implementing its programs (e.g., a single mission may add a sustainable landscapes objective to a implementing its programs (e.g., a single mission may add a sustainable landscapes objective to a
biodiversity effort.) A single program may also have latitude to designate the sector based on biodiversity effort.) A single program may also have latitude to designate the sector based on
funding considerations (e.g., USAID Natural Resource Management projects may be designated funding considerations (e.g., USAID Natural Resource Management projects may be designated
as either sustainable landscapes or biodiversity programs).13 Details about the three sectors are as either sustainable landscapes or biodiversity programs).13 Details about the three sectors are
provided below the text box, which gives an example of a cross-sector USAID program. provided below the text box, which gives an example of a cross-sector USAID program.
Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)
CARPE was established in 1995 as a long-term, multifaceted program to “promote sustainable forest management, CARPE was established in 1995 as a long-term, multifaceted program to “promote sustainable forest management,
biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation in the [Central Africa] region through sustainable natural biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation in the [Central Africa] region through sustainable natural
resource management, and strengthened conservation policy development and implementation.” The program is resource management, and strengthened conservation policy development and implementation.” The program is
the U.S. Agency for International Development’s (USAID’s) largest environmental program (by annual funding) and the U.S. Agency for International Development’s (USAID’s) largest environmental program (by annual funding) and
involves numerous other federal entities as implementing partners, including the Departments of the Interior (U.S. involves numerous other federal entities as implementing partners, including the Departments of the Interior (U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Services [FWS], National Park Service, U.S. Geological Survey), Agriculture (U.S. Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Services [FWS], National Park Service, U.S. Geological Survey), Agriculture (U.S. Forest Service,
Foreign Agricultural Service), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, in Foreign Agricultural Service), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, in ~~add ition~~addition to to
nongovernmental organizations. nongovernmental organizations.
Now in its third stage, referred to as CARPE III and slated to run through the end of FY2020, CARPE comprises Now in its third stage, referred to as CARPE III and slated to run through the end of FY2020, CARPE comprises
two interdependent projects: (1) Central Africa Forest Ecosystems Conservation, which focuses on sustainable two interdependent projects: (1) Central Africa Forest Ecosystems Conservation, which focuses on sustainable
forest management and wildlife conservation, and (2) Environmental Monitoring and Policy Support, which targets forest management and wildlife conservation, and (2) Environmental Monitoring and Policy Support, which targets
improving the region’s policy and regulatory environment. In practice, USAID aims to meet CARPE III objectives improving the region’s policy and regulatory environment. In practice, USAID aims to meet CARPE III objectives
through activities such as establishing public-private partnerships to manage wildlife reserves, tracking key wildlife through activities such as establishing public-private partnerships to manage wildlife reserves, tracking key wildlife
populations through wildlife density and abundance surveys, and developing and/or strengthening community populations through wildlife density and abundance surveys, and developing and/or strengthening community
organizations to protect and monitor local forests, among others. For example, in the Democratic Republic of the organizations to protect and monitor local forests, among others. For example, in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, USAID and its implementing partner Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) helped to broker a partnership Congo, USAID and its implementing partner Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) helped to broker a partnership
with a local organization to better manage the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. With USAID support, WCS worked with a local organization to better manage the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. With USAID support, WCS worked
through the partnership to increase law enforcement activity, train and equip park rangers, develop a law through the partnership to increase law enforcement activity, train and equip park rangers, develop a law
13 U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), Environmental and Natural Resources Framework, July 2019, p. 5. Congressional Research Service 5 link to page 12 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity enforcement strategy, and increase patrol efforts. USAID asserts that these types of activities build on the first enforcement strategy, and increase patrol efforts. USAID asserts that these types of activities build on the first
two phases of CARPE, which made gains in tropical forest management and conservation, and wil help the region two phases of CARPE, which made gains in tropical forest management and conservation, and wil help the region
sustain that management capacity and strengthen governance. sustain that management capacity and strengthen governance.
In addition to these activities, and consistent with congressional priorities first articulated in the Congo Basin In addition to these activities, and consistent with congressional priorities first articulated in the Congo Basin
Forest Partnership Act of 2004 (CBFP; P.L. 108-200), CARPE is the principal mechanism through which the U.S. Forest Partnership Act of 2004 (CBFP; P.L. 108-200), CARPE is the principal mechanism through which the U.S.
government supports the CBFP, a voluntary public-private partnership created to advance the Central African government supports the CBFP, a voluntary public-private partnership created to advance the Central African
Forests Commission priorities of sustainable Central African forest management with donor support. CARPE Forests Commission priorities of sustainable Central African forest management with donor support. CARPE
spans the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Congress has provided funding for spans the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Congress has provided funding for
CARPE through annual State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs appropriations measures. In recent years, CARPE through annual State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs appropriations measures. In recent years,
Congress appropriated CARPE funds to USAID but required USAID to transfer 42% of funds to FWS through an Congress appropriated CARPE funds to USAID but required USAID to transfer 42% of funds to FWS through an
interagency agreement. interagency agreement.
Sources: Information in this section is informed by USAID, “CARPE History Information in this section is informed by USAID, “CARPE History,” at” at https://www.usaid.gov/central-https://www.usaid.gov/central-
africa-regional/central-africa-regional-program-for-the-environment/history, last updated April 1, 2019. Nick africa-regional/central-africa-regional-program-for-the-environment/history, last updated April 1, 2019. Nick
Radford, Radford, Central Africa Regional Operating Unit - CARPE, Wildlife Conservation Society, Final Report, Kinshasa, DRC, , Wildlife Conservation Society, Final Report, Kinshasa, DRC,
March 26, 2020. March 26, 2020.

~~13 USAID, Environmental and Natural Resources Framework, July 2019, p. 5.~~
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~~link to page 12~~ ~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

Biodiversity Conservation
According to USAID, the agency’s biodiversity programs work “to conserve biodiversity, According to USAID, the agency’s biodiversity programs work “to conserve biodiversity,
leverage private sector funds, fight conservation crime, and support sustainable fisheries.”14 leverage private sector funds, fight conservation crime, and support sustainable fisheries.”14
USAID cites five factors that drive its investment in biodiversity programs: USAID cites five factors that drive its investment in biodiversity programs:
 approximately 1.6 bil ion people global y rely on forests for their livelihoods;  approximately 1.6 bil ion people global y rely on forests for their livelihoods;
 biodiversity loss negatively affects global health and nutrition outcomes;  biodiversity loss negatively affects global health and nutrition outcomes;
 industry related to environmental sectors may contribute to women’s economic  industry related to environmental sectors may contribute to women’s economic
empowerment; empowerment;
 biodiversity is critical to agricultural productivity; and  biodiversity is critical to agricultural productivity; and
 environmental crime is linked to corruption, which reduces community safety  environmental crime is linked to corruption, which reduces community safety
and the opportunity for legal livelihoods.15 and the opportunity for legal livelihoods.15
The The USAID Biodiversity Policy, issued in 2015 alongside an implementation handbook, set out a , issued in 2015 alongside an implementation handbook, set out a
tiered list of ecological y significant regions or countries at risk of degradation.16 USAID tiered list of ecological y significant regions or countries at risk of degradation.16 USAID
missions in 14 “Tier One Operating Units” (i.e., priority geographic areas) are required to missions in 14 “Tier One Operating Units” (i.e., priority geographic areas) are required to
integrate biodiversity as a major priority of their development strategies to be considered for integrate biodiversity as a major priority of their development strategies to be considered for
funding funding (Figure 1); Tier Two missions are strongly encouraged, but not required, to undertake Tier Two missions are strongly encouraged, but not required, to undertake
such programming.17 USAID has also developed a such programming.17 USAID has also developed a Biodiversity and Development Research
~~Agenda~~ ~~and a Biodiversity Conservation Gateway. The gateway serves as a repository for the~~
~~agency’s policy and procedural guidance related to international conservation programs.18~~

14 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests,” last updated February 28, 2020, at https://www.usaid.gov/14 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests,” last updated February 28, 2020, at https://www.usaid.gov/
biodiversity. biodiversity. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter USAID, USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.” “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.”
15 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.” 15 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.”
16 USAID, 16 USAID, USAID Biodiversity Policy,, March 2014. T ier One countries are ranked in terms of biological criteria and March 2014. T ier One countries are ranked in terms of biological criteria and
have a preponderance of globally significant ecoregions. T ier T wo countries have a combination of characteristics that have a preponderance of globally significant ecoregions. T ier T wo countries have a combination of characteristics that
include a globally significant ecoregion, critical habitat for threatened or endangered species, and an area where include a globally significant ecoregion, critical habitat for threatened or endangered species, and an area where
USAID has experience. USAID has experience.
17 USAID, 17 USAID, USAID Biodiversity Policy, March 2014, p. 21. USAID based its selections on the Global Environment , March 2014, p. 21. USAID based its selections on the Global Environment
Facility’s (GEF’s) Global Benefits Index for Biodiversity and the World Wildlife Fund’s Global 200 list. Papua New Facility’s (GEF’s) Global Benefits Index for Biodiversity and the World Wildlife Fund’s Global 200 list. Papua New
Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were both identified as T ier One countries, but mission presence Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the Congo were both identified as T ier One countries, but mission presence
currently is limited in Papua New Guinea, and currently is limited in Papua New Guinea, and ~~the~~t he Democratic Republic of the Congo is already Democratic Republic of the Congo is already ~~supp orted~~supported through through
Central Africa funding. Central Africa funding.
~~18 USAID, Biodiversity Conservation Gateway, “About the Gateway,” at https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-~~
~~gateway/about -the-gateway.~~
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity Agenda and a Biodiversity Conservation Gateway. The gateway serves as a repository for the agency’s policy and procedural guidance related to international conservation programs.18
Foreign Assistance Act Sections 118/119 Country Analyses
In addition to dedicated biodiversity programming, Section 118 and Section 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act of In addition to dedicated biodiversity programming, Section 118 and Section 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act of
1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended) require by law that al USAID overseas missions (regardless of biodiversity tier) 1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended) require by law that al USAID overseas missions (regardless of biodiversity tier)
integrate tropical forests (Section 118) and biodiversity (Section 119) in their country or regional strategies. integrate tropical forests (Section 118) and biodiversity (Section 119) in their country or regional strategies.
Missions carry out these Missions carry out these 118/119 Analyses prior to development of a new country strategy, identifying threats to prior to development of a new country strategy, identifying threats to
biodiversity, the actions needed to mitigate such threats, and the extent to which missions’ existing strategies have biodiversity, the actions needed to mitigate such threats, and the extent to which missions’ existing strategies have
addressed those threats. For example, the 118/119 analysis for the 2014-2018 Colombia country strategy made addressed those threats. For example, the 118/119 analysis for the 2014-2018 Colombia country strategy made
several programming recommendations that appear in the resulting strategy, such as establishing an official survey several programming recommendations that appear in the resulting strategy, such as establishing an official survey
of rural land, formalizing artisanal mining activities, and fostering private financing mechanisms for carbon of rural land, formalizing artisanal mining activities, and fostering private financing mechanisms for carbon
sequestration. Similarly, the country strategy adopts the 118/119 analysis view that sustainable resource sequestration. Similarly, the country strategy adopts the 118/119 analysis view that sustainable resource
management is a critical factor in rural conflict reconciliation. management is a critical factor in rural conflict reconciliation.
Sources: Ignacio Gómez, Gloria Sanclemente, Fabián Navarrete, Ramón Laborde, and Simón Vieira, Ignacio Gómez, Gloria Sanclemente, Fabián Navarrete, Ramón Laborde, and Simón Vieira,
USAID/Colombia’s 2014-2018 118/119 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Assessment (Colombia Assessment), USAID, (Colombia Assessment), USAID,
March 2014, p. 6; USAID/Colombia, March 2014, p. 6; USAID/Colombia, Country Development Cooperation Strategy 2014-2020: A Path to Peace
(Colombia Country Strategy), June 13, 2014, pp. 3, 24, 26. (Colombia Country Strategy), June 13, 2014, pp. 3, 24, 26.
Between FY2016 and Between FY2016 and ~~FY2020~~FY2021, funding designated for biodiversity programs in annual SFOPS , funding designated for biodiversity programs in annual SFOPS
appropriations grew by appropriations grew by ~~nearly 19% ($50~~more than 20% ($55 mil ion). More than 50 countries implement mil ion). More than 50 countries implement ~~biodiversity~~
biodiversity programs with USAID support,19 with nearly 61% of funding in FY2018 going to Tier One programs with USAID support,19 with nearly 61% of funding in FY2018 going to Tier One
countries.20 USAID in 2015 estimated that its activities consistently constituted approximately countries.20 USAID in 2015 estimated that its activities consistently constituted approximately
two-thirds of al U.S. foreign assistance for biodiversity.21 USAID also transfers funding to two-thirds of al U.S. foreign assistance for biodiversity.21 USAID also transfers funding to
partner agencies, such as FWS, when those partners can address a programmatic need or at the partner agencies, such as FWS, when those partners can address a programmatic need or at the
direction of Congress. The agency maintains a “Biodiversity Code,” which establishes guidelines direction of Congress. The agency maintains a “Biodiversity Code,” which establishes guidelines
for counting projects toward the congressional biodiversity funding directive, for counting projects toward the congressional biodiversity funding directive, ~~including~~ including that only that only
projects with explicit biodiversity objectives may be counted.22 projects with explicit biodiversity objectives may be counted.22

18 USAID, Biodiversity Conservation Gateway, “About the Gateway,” at https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/about -the-gateway. 19 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.” 19 USAID, “ Conserving Biodiversity and Forests.”
20 FY2018 is the most recent fiscal year reported in the annual report. USAID, 20 FY2018 is the most recent fiscal year reported in the annual report. USAID, Report to Congress on Programs in
Forestry and the Conservation of Biodiversity during Fiscal Year 2018: Results and Funding , March 10, 2020, at , March 10, 2020, at
https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/USAID-Report -to-Congress-on-Forestry-and-https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/USAID-Report -to-Congress-on-Forestry-and-
Biodiversity_FY_2018.pdf. Biodiversity_FY_2018.pdf.
21 USAID, 21 USAID, USAID Biodiversity and Development Handbook, October 2015, p. 6. , October 2015, p. 6. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter USAID, USAID, Biodiversity
Handbook, 2015. , 2015.
22 USAID, Biodiversity and Conservation 22 USAID, Biodiversity and Conservation ~~Gateway~~Gat eway, “ Biodiversity Code,” updated November 8, 2018, at , “ Biodiversity Code,” updated November 8, 2018, at
https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/biodiversity-code. https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/biodiversity-code.
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity
Figure 1. Biodiversity Tier One Areas, by ~~FY2018~~FY2019 Funding

Source: U.S. Agency for International Development, U.S. Agency for International Development, Report to Congress on Programs in Forestry and the
Conservation of Biodiversity during Fiscal Year ~~2018~~2019: Results and Funding, , ~~March 10~~December 6, 2020. “Areas” are a combination , 2020. “Areas” are a combination
of regionsof regions and individual countries.and individual countries. For Papua New Guinea, USAID states that limited missionFor Papua New Guinea, USAID states that limited mission ~~presence makes~~
presence makes investments in the country inadvisable. investments in the country inadvisable.
USAID’s biodiversity program portfolio is organized under two core goals: (1) to conserve USAID’s biodiversity program portfolio is organized under two core goals: (1) to conserve
biodiversity in target areas and (2) to integrate biodiversity as an essential component of human biodiversity in target areas and (2) to integrate biodiversity as an essential component of human
development.23 USAID has stated that its programs reflect this connection between protecting development.23 USAID has stated that its programs reflect this connection between protecting
fragile habitats and promoting economic prosperity by addressing threats to biodiversity and fragile habitats and promoting economic prosperity by addressing threats to biodiversity and
underlying drivers of those threats, such as economic activities of nearby communities and underlying drivers of those threats, such as economic activities of nearby communities and
national land management policies. USAID has linked livelihoods to conservation as a response national land management policies. USAID has linked livelihoods to conservation as a response
to findings that past conservation efforts failed because they did not take into account nearby to findings that past conservation efforts failed because they did not take into account nearby
communities’ livelihoods and priorities in program design.24 USAID targets many of its activities communities’ livelihoods and priorities in program design.24 USAID targets many of its activities
at an expansive, “landscape” or “seascape” scale—such as an entire watershed, a transboundary at an expansive, “landscape” or “seascape” scale—such as an entire watershed, a transboundary
fishery, or a protected area with its surrounding communities.25 Often this expansive scale is fishery, or a protected area with its surrounding communities.25 Often this expansive scale is
meant to connect community stakeholders with vulnerable ecosystems. For example, USAID’s meant to connect community stakeholders with vulnerable ecosystems. For example, USAID’s
Hariyo Ban Program in Nepal not only created new community-based anti-poaching units to Hariyo Ban Program in Nepal not only created new community-based anti-poaching units to
protect biodiversity but also supported the creation of new ecotourism activities to create protect biodiversity but also supported the creation of new ecotourism activities to create
alternative livelihoods within those communities.26 USAID maintains that it seeks input on alternative livelihoods within those communities.26 USAID maintains that it seeks input on
~~program design and implementation from an array of stakeholders, particularly indigenous~~

23 USAID, 23 USAID, USAID Biodiversity Policy, March 2014, p. 10. In addition to these two goals, the policy sets six objectives , March 2014, p. 10. In addition to these two goals, the policy sets six objectives
for programs. for programs.
24 Secretariat of the CBD, Biodiversity Indicators & the 2010 Biodiversity T arget: Outputs, experiences and lessons 24 Secretariat of the CBD, Biodiversity Indicators & the 2010 Biodiversity T arget: Outputs, experiences and lessons
learnt from the 2010 Biodiversity Indicators learnt from the 2010 Biodiversity Indicators ~~Partnership~~P artnership, CBD T echnical Series no. 53, 2010, p. 6, at , CBD T echnical Series no. 53, 2010, p. 6, at
https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-53-en.pdf. For further information on the Aichi Biodiversity T argets and https://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-53-en.pdf. For further information on the Aichi Biodiversity T argets and
countries’ action plans, visit https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/. countries’ action plans, visit https://www.cbd.int/sp/targets/.
25 USAID Ridge to Reef programs, for example, operate along an entire 25 USAID Ridge to Reef programs, for example, operate along an entire ~~watershed~~watersh ed, seeking to facilitate cooperation , seeking to facilitate cooperation
between downstream reef areas often affected by environmental degradation and upstream ridge communities. See, for between downstream reef areas often affected by environmental degradation and upstream ridge communities. See, for
example, WorldFish, World Agroforestry Centre, and Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study example, WorldFish, World Agroforestry Centre, and Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study ~~and~~a nd
Research in Agriculture, Research in Agriculture, From Ridge to Reef: An Ecosystem Based Approach to Biodiversity Conservation in the
Philippines Final Program Perform ance Report, May 31, 2013. , May 31, 2013.
26 World Wildlife Fund, 26 World Wildlife Fund, Biodiversity, People and Climate Change: Final Technical Report of the Hariyo Ban Program,
First Phase, Hariyo Ban Program, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2017, pp. vii-viii. , Hariyo Ban Program, Kathmandu, Nepal, 2017, pp. vii-viii.
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity program design and implementation from an array of stakeholders, particularly Indigenous
communities. USAID support to the Partnership for Conservation of Amazon Biodiversity, for communities. USAID support to the Partnership for Conservation of Amazon Biodiversity, for
instance, includes what it characterizes as significant engagement in instance, includes what it characterizes as significant engagement in ~~indigenous~~Indigenous-controlled lands; -controlled lands;
research has found these lands may be more likely to sustain forest cover as formal y protected research has found these lands may be more likely to sustain forest cover as formal y protected
areas.27 According to some stakeholders, Congress’s addition of coral reefs to USAID’s areas.27 According to some stakeholders, Congress’s addition of coral reefs to USAID’s
legislative mandate for conserving biodiversity under the Tropical Forest Conservation legislative mandate for conserving biodiversity under the Tropical Forest Conservation
Reauthorization Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-440) may signal a new priority for biodiversity programs, Reauthorization Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-440) may signal a new priority for biodiversity programs,
as seascapes historical y have received less USAID funding than tropical forests.28 as seascapes historical y have received less USAID funding than tropical forests.28
Wildlife Poaching and Trafficking
USAID considers wildlife poaching and trafficking a “sub-directive” under the biodiversity USAID considers wildlife poaching and trafficking a “sub-directive” under the biodiversity
conservation sector. Further, USAID states that it is an issue for international development, as it conservation sector. Further, USAID states that it is an issue for international development, as it
counteracts efforts to end extreme poverty, impedes the rule of law, and hinders sustainable counteracts efforts to end extreme poverty, impedes the rule of law, and hinders sustainable
development programs that benefit from ecotourism.29 Wildlife trafficking also threatens wildlife development programs that benefit from ecotourism.29 Wildlife trafficking also threatens wildlife
populations and the sustainability of community lands and may contribute to public health risks.30 populations and the sustainability of community lands and may contribute to public health risks.30
U.S. government efforts to combat wildlife poaching and trafficking are broad and U.S. government efforts to combat wildlife poaching and trafficking are broad and
multisectoral.31 SFOPS funds to combat wildlife poaching and trafficking grew by nearly 26% multisectoral.31 SFOPS funds to combat wildlife poaching and trafficking grew by nearly 26%
($20.7 mil ion) between FY2016 and ($20.7 mil ion) between FY2016 and ~~FY2020.~~
FY2021. USAID has noted that it seeks not only to preserve wildlife populations but also to combat USAID has noted that it seeks not only to preserve wildlife populations but also to combat
transnational crime and preserve safe, sustainable ecotourism, among other priorities. USAID transnational crime and preserve safe, sustainable ecotourism, among other priorities. USAID
wildlife poaching and trafficking activities target areas where wildlife are poached, transit hubs, wildlife poaching and trafficking activities target areas where wildlife are poached, transit hubs,
and high-demand markets for trafficked wildlife. and high-demand markets for trafficked wildlife.
 In areas where wildlife are poached, USAID focuses on capacity building to  In areas where wildlife are poached, USAID focuses on capacity building to
enhance policies and processes to end wildlife trafficking and to train local enhance policies and processes to end wildlife trafficking and to train local
rangers and scouts to counter wildlife trafficking with effective enforcement. rangers and scouts to counter wildlife trafficking with effective enforcement.
 Along prominent trafficking routes, USAID funds partnerships that seek to  Along prominent trafficking routes, USAID funds partnerships that seek to
disrupt trafficking supply chains. For instance, the Reducing Opportunities for disrupt trafficking supply chains. For instance, the Reducing Opportunities for
Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species partnership trains workers in the Unlawful Transport of Endangered Species partnership trains workers in the
transport and logistics sector to identify and respond to wildlife trafficking, as transport and logistics sector to identify and respond to wildlife trafficking, as
wel as to work to strengthen law enforcement and data analytics capacities.32 wel as to work to strengthen law enforcement and data analytics capacities.32

27 USAID,27 USAID, Biodiversity Handbook, 2015, p. 82; and USAID, “ Bilateral Biodiversity Conservation,” last updated , 2015, p. 82; and USAID, “ Bilateral Biodiversity Conservation,” last updated
September 6, 2019, at https://www.usaid.gov/brazil/our-work/environmental-partnerships. September 6, 2019, at https://www.usaid.gov/brazil/our-work/environmental-partnerships.
28 USAID, 28 USAID, Biodiversity Handbook, 2015, p. 92. , 2015, p. 92.
29 USAID, “ Combating Wildlife T rafficking,” last updated March 29 USAID, “ Combating Wildlife T rafficking,” last updated March ~~12, 2020~~8, 2021, at https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/, at https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/
wildlife-trafficking. wildlife-trafficking.
30 Wildlife trade—both legal and illegal—often involves placing live wildlife in close proximity to each other and 30 Wildlife trade—both legal and illegal—often involves placing live wildlife in close proximity to each other and
people, potentially increasing risks of transmitting zoonotic diseases. Some Members of Congress have proposed people, potentially increasing risks of transmitting zoonotic diseases. Some Members of Congress have proposed
restrictions and increased enforcement on wildlife trade and associated markets. See Letter from Senator Cory Booker restrictions and increased enforcement on wildlife trade and associated markets. See Letter from Senator Cory Booker
et al. to Dr. T edros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of WHO, Monique Eloit, director-general of the World et al. to Dr. T edros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, director-general of WHO, Monique Eloit, director-general of the World
Organisation for Animal Health, and Qu Dongyu, director -general of the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, Organisation for Animal Health, and Qu Dongyu, director -general of the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization,
April 8, 2020, at https://www.booker.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/April 8, 2020, at https://www.booker.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/
04.08.20_Booker_Graham_Quigley_McCaul_sblock.pdf04.08.20_Booker_Graham_Quigley_McCaul_sblock.pdf . .
31 For more information on wildlife trafficking, 31 For more information on wildlife trafficking, ~~part icularly~~particularly as it relates to transnational crime as it relates to transnational crime and law enforcement, see , see CRS In Focus IF11605, Wildlife Trafficking: International Law Enforcem ent Responses, by Katarina C. O'Regan ~~CRS In Focus~~
~~IF10601, Transnational Crim e Issues: Global Trends Overview, by Liana W. Rosen.~~
32 Recent Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful T ransport of Endangered Species (ROUT ES) publications have focused 32 Recent Reducing Opportunities for Unlawful T ransport of Endangered Species (ROUT ES) publications have focused
on air transport of illegal wildlife products. See, for example, ROUT ES Partnership, on air transport of illegal wildlife products. See, for example, ROUT ES Partnership, Runway to Extinction, 2019, at
~~https://routespartnership.org/.~~Shared Skies, 2021 and ROUT ES Partnership, Anim al Sm uggling in Air Transport and Preventing Zoonotic Disease, 2020, at
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity
 In high-demand markets for trafficked goods, USAID works to reduce demand  In high-demand markets for trafficked goods, USAID works to reduce demand
through behavior change and community outreach campaigns. For example, through behavior change and community outreach campaigns. For example,
USAID developed and published the USAID developed and published the Wildlife Consumer Behavior Change Toolkit
with the wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC.33 USAID has also with the wildlife trade monitoring network TRAFFIC.33 USAID has also
launched specific campaigns, such as the “Beautiful Without Ivory” campaign in launched specific campaigns, such as the “Beautiful Without Ivory” campaign in
Thailand, which sought to reduce the acceptability of ivory accessories among Thailand, which sought to reduce the acceptability of ivory accessories among
female consumers.34 female consumers.34
Some USAID projects also seek to monitor and track the global wildlife trafficking trade. The Some USAID projects also seek to monitor and track the global wildlife trafficking trade. The
Wildlife Trafficking Response, Assessment, and Priority Setting Project produces analyses of the Wildlife Trafficking Response, Assessment, and Priority Setting Project produces analyses of the
wildlife trafficking trade by identifying trends to educate policymakers and strengthen their wildlife trafficking trade by identifying trends to educate policymakers and strengthen their
enforcement and investigation capabilities, including through increased forensic analysis of enforcement and investigation capabilities, including through increased forensic analysis of
wildlife products.35 wildlife products.35
Congress has addressed wildlife trafficking and poaching through appropriations. Under the FY2021 appropriation, P.L. 116-260, Congress mandated that no funds from Title IV of Division K (Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs, International Security Assistance) can be used for training or other assistance for military units or personnel that the “Secretary of State determines has been credibly al eged to have participated in wildlife poaching or trafficking, unless the Secretary reports to the appropriate congressional committees that to do so is in the national security interest of the United States.”36 Sustainable Landscapes
USAID sustainable landscapes programming addresses the “sound management of land and USAID sustainable landscapes programming addresses the “sound management of land and
forests [that] sustains livelihoods and strengthens resilience to natural hazards, protects water forests [that] sustains livelihoods and strengthens resilience to natural hazards, protects water
resources, and biodiversity, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and land resources, and biodiversity, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and land
management.”management.”3637 According to USAID, it supports 13 bilateral programs, 5 regional programs, and According to USAID, it supports 13 bilateral programs, 5 regional programs, and
numerous global programs that address sustainable landscapes.numerous global programs that address sustainable landscapes.3738 The programs are diverse in The programs are diverse in
their objectives, but many address deforestation, seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and their objectives, but many address deforestation, seek to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and
promote public-private partnerships. promote public-private partnerships.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)
The body of policy and approaches to address deforestation and forest degradation as they pertain to emissions, The body of policy and approaches to address deforestation and forest degradation as they pertain to emissions,
forest conservation, sustainable development, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks has been termed REDD+. forest conservation, sustainable development, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks has been termed REDD+.
REDD+ policies attempt to create financial value for carbon stored in forests by using market approaches to REDD+ policies attempt to create financial value for carbon stored in forests by using market approaches to
compensate landowners for not deforesting their lands. This new approach to financing forest conservation compensate landowners for not deforesting their lands. This new approach to financing forest conservation
~~projects is intended to reward landholders for preserving biodiverse landscapes that absorb large quantities of~~
~~carbon, such as tropical forests and peat bogs. USAID REDD+ projects support countries’ efforts to calculate~~
~~total carbon stocks stored in their national forests and may support countries’ marketing of carbon credits for~~
~~continued preservation of their carbon stocks. The SilvaCarbon project, for example, is an interagency initiative~~
~~funded primarily by USAID and the State Department to provide technical assistance to countries in measuring~~
~~and monitoring their forest and terrestrial carbon stocks.~~
Sources: U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), USAID Biodiversity and Development Handbook,
~~October 2015, p. 6. USAID, SilvaCarbon Performance Evaluation Final Report, March 13, 2015, p. ix.~~

https://routespartnership.org/. 33 Users can search information by species (e.g., elephants, tigers, and rhinoceroses), target audience (e.g., government 33 Users can search information by species (e.g., elephants, tigers, and rhinoceroses), target audience (e.g., government
or consumers), or consumer actions (e.g., consumption trends). See Change Wildlife Consumers, at or consumers), or consumer actions (e.g., consumption trends). See Change Wildlife Consumers, at
https://www.changewildlifeconsumers.org/. https://www.changewildlifeconsumers.org/.
34 USAID, “ T op Fashion Influencers Join USAID’s ‘Beautiful Without Ivory’ Campaign,” press release, September 20, 34 USAID, “ T op Fashion Influencers Join USAID’s ‘Beautiful Without Ivory’ Campaign,” press release, September 20,
2019, at https://www.usaid.gov/asia-regional/press-releases/sep-20-2019-top-fashion-influencers-join-usaid-beautiful-2019, at https://www.usaid.gov/asia-regional/press-releases/sep-20-2019-top-fashion-influencers-join-usaid-beautiful-
without -ivory-campaign. without -ivory-campaign.
35 USAID, “ Wildlife T rafficking Response Assessment and Priority Setting (Wildlife T RAPS),” 2018, at 35 USAID, “ Wildlife T rafficking Response Assessment and Priority Setting (Wildlife T RAPS),” 2018, at
https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/resources/projects/w-traps-wildlife-trafficking-response-https://rmportal.net/biodiversityconservation-gateway/resources/projects/w-traps-wildlife-trafficking-response-
assessment -and-priority-setting. assessment -and-priority-setting.
36 36 P.L. 116-260, §7060(c)(1)(C). 37 USAID, “ Sustainable Landscapes,” last updated April 29, 2020, at USAID, “ Sustainable Landscapes,” last updated April 29, 2020, at https://www.usaid.gov/climate/sustainable-https://www.usaid.gov/climate/sustainable-
landscapes. landscapes.
3738 USAID has supported these programs as of November 2019. USAID has supported these programs as of November 2019.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity projects is intended to reward landholders for preserving biodiverse landscapes that absorb large quantities of carbon, such as tropical forests and peat bogs. USAID REDD+ projects support countries’ efforts to calculate total carbon stocks stored in their national forests and may support countries’ marketing of carbon credits for continued preservation of their carbon stocks. The SilvaCarbon project, for example, is an interagency initiative funded primarily by USAID and the State Department to provide technical assistance to countries in measuring and monitoring their forest and terrestrial carbon stocks. Sources: U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), USAID Biodiversity and Development Handbook, October 2015, p. 6. USAID, SilvaCarbon Performance Evaluation Final Report, March 13, 2015, p. ix.
U.S. Department of the Treasury
Treasury addresses international biodiversity conservation through lending programs and Treasury addresses international biodiversity conservation through lending programs and
technical assistance. Treasury works with intergovernmental organizations and foreign technical assistance. Treasury works with intergovernmental organizations and foreign
governments to provide financial assistance for a wide range of activities, including international governments to provide financial assistance for a wide range of activities, including international
conservation activities.conservation activities.3839 Treasury also works with other agencies, such as State, to implement Treasury also works with other agencies, such as State, to implement
some international conservation programs. some international conservation programs.
Global Environment Facility
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a multilateral environmental trust fund supporting The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a multilateral environmental trust fund supporting
projects with global environmental benefits. Treasury administers U.S. participation in the GEF, projects with global environmental benefits. Treasury administers U.S. participation in the GEF,
but, as a multilateral assistance program, it is funded by Congress through annual SFOPS but, as a multilateral assistance program, it is funded by Congress through annual SFOPS
appropriations.appropriations.~~39 In FY2020~~40 For FY2021, Congress provided $139.6 mil ion for the trust fund under the , Congress provided $139.6 mil ion for the trust fund under the
~~Further~~ Consolidated Appropriations Act, Consolidated Appropriations Act, ~~2020~~FY2021 (P.L. 116- (P.L. 116-94260). The GEF provides grants and other ). The GEF provides grants and other
financing programs that support a variety of projects, such as Safeguarding Biodiversity from financing programs that support a variety of projects, such as Safeguarding Biodiversity from
Invasive Alien Species in the Federated States of Micronesia,Invasive Alien Species in the Federated States of Micronesia,4041 the restoration of degraded forests the restoration of degraded forests
in Vanuatu,in Vanuatu,4142 and efforts to conserve coastal wetlands in Chile. and efforts to conserve coastal wetlands in Chile.4243 The GEF states that its programs The GEF states that its programs
are approved by consensus of a council comprised of developed and developing member are approved by consensus of a council comprised of developed and developing member
countries. countries.4344
Tropical Forest Conservation Act
The Tropical Forest Conservation Act authorizes The Tropical Forest Conservation Act authorizes debt-for-nature transactions,,4445 where a where a
developingdeveloping country’s debt is exchanged for local funds to conserve tropical forests. Brazil, for country’s debt is exchanged for local funds to conserve tropical forests. Brazil, for
~~example, committed to develop and fund programs intended to protect the country’s tropical~~
~~forests; in exchange, the United States canceled an equivalent level of debt and deposited interest~~
~~from a portion of the debt into a Tropical Forest Fund for conservation grants to address forest~~
~~conservation in Brazil.45 Fourteen countries were beneficiaries of such agreements from 2000 to~~
~~2013.46 Congress did not appropriate funding for debt-for-nature transactions from FY2014 to~~
~~FY2019. In 2019, President Trump signed into law a new version of the act, entitled the Tropical~~

38 39 U.S. Department of the T reasury, “ International Programs,” 2019, at https://www.treasury.gov/about/budget- U.S. Department of the T reasury, “ International Programs,” 2019, at https://www.treasury.gov/about/budget-
performance/budget-in-brief/BIB19/24.%20International%20Programs.pdf. For more information on sanctions use, see performance/budget-in-brief/BIB19/24.%20International%20Programs.pdf. For more information on sanctions use, see
State, “2019 END Wildlife T rafficking Strategic Review,” November 7, 2019, at https://www.state.gov/2019-end-State, “2019 END Wildlife T rafficking Strategic Review,” November 7, 2019, at https://www.state.gov/2019-end-
wildlife-trafficking-strategic-review/. wildlife-trafficking-strategic-review/.
39 40 State, State, Congressional Budget Justification: Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Fiscal
Year 2020, 2019, at https://www.state.gov/fy-2020-international-affairs-budget/. , 2019, at https://www.state.gov/fy-2020-international-affairs-budget/.
4041 Global Environment Facility (GEF), “ Safeguarding Biodiversity from Invasive Alien Species in the Federated States Global Environment Facility (GEF), “ Safeguarding Biodiversity from Invasive Alien Species in the Federated States
of Micronesia,” at https://www.thegef.org/project/safeguarding-biodiversity-invasive-alien-species-federated-states-of Micronesia,” at https://www.thegef.org/project/safeguarding-biodiversity-invasive-alien-species-federated-states-
micronesia. micronesia.
41 42 GEF, “ Ecosystem Restoration and Sustainable Land Management in T ongoa Island,” at https://www.thegef.org/ GEF, “ Ecosystem Restoration and Sustainable Land Management in T ongoa Island,” at https://www.thegef.org/
project/ecosystem-restoration-and-sustainable-land-management -tongoa-island. project/ecosystem-restoration-and-sustainable-land-management -tongoa-island.
4243 GEF, “ Mainstreaming Conservation of Coastal Wetlands of Chile’s South Center Biodiversity Hotspot through GEF, “ Mainstreaming Conservation of Coastal Wetlands of Chile’s South Center Biodiversity Hotspot through
Adaptive Management of Coastal Area Ecosystems,” at https://www.thegef.org/project/mainstreaming-conservation-Adaptive Management of Coastal Area Ecosystems,” at https://www.thegef.org/project/mainstreaming-conservation-
coastal-wetlands-chile%E2%80%99s-south-center-biodiversity-hotspot. coastal-wetlands-chile%E2%80%99s-south-center-biodiversity-hotspot.
4344 GEF, “Organization,” at https://www.thegef.org/about/organization. GEF, “Organization,” at https://www.thegef.org/about/organization.
~~44 22 U.S.C. §2431.~~
~~45 USAID, “ Countries with T FCA Programs,” at https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/T FCA/programs-by-country.~~
~~46 For more information on the T ropical Forest Conservation Act, see CRS Report RL31286,~~ ~~Debt-for-Nature~~
~~Initiatives and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA): Status and Im plem entation, by Pervaze A. Sheikh.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
15

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

45 22 U.S.C. §2431. Congressional Research Service 11 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity example, committed to develop and fund programs intended to protect the country’s tropical forests; in exchange, the United States canceled an equivalent level of debt and deposited interest from a portion of the debt into a Tropical Forest Fund for conservation grants to address forest conservation in Brazil.46 Fourteen countries were beneficiaries of such agreements from 2000 to 2013.47 Congress did not appropriate funding for debt-for-nature transactions from FY2014 to FY2019. In 2019, the act was amended by the Tropical Forest Conservation Reauthorization Act ~~Forest Conservation Reauthorization Act~~ of 2018 (P.L. 115-440), which of 2018 (P.L. 115-440), which ~~adds~~added coral reef coral reef
ecosystems to the ecosystems to the ~~protection of~~protections under the act and the act and ~~authorizes activities~~authorized $20.0 mil ion in appropriations for FY2019 and FY2020. for FY2019 and FY2020.
Congress appropriated $15 mil ionCongress appropriated $15 mil ion to debt-for-nature exchanges in FY2020 to debt-for-nature exchanges in FY2020 ~~(P.L. 116-94).47~~and FY2021.48 Reauthorization to extend the authorization for funding transactions under the act through FY2026 is under consideration by the 117th Congress in both chambers (S. 335; H.R. 241).
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior)
FWS administers international conservation funding through programs that focus on species and FWS administers international conservation funding through programs that focus on species and
habitat conservation, both domestical y and international y, and has been authorized to administer habitat conservation, both domestical y and international y, and has been authorized to administer
a variety of funds for foreign conservation efforts.a variety of funds for foreign conservation efforts.4849 Examples include the Multinational Species Examples include the Multinational Species
Conservation Fund (MSCF) and the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund. The FWS Conservation Fund (MSCF) and the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund. The FWS
International Affairs program addresses international wildlife conservation and international International Affairs program addresses international wildlife conservation and international
wildlife trade. Various other programs address specific species or groups of species that are found wildlife trade. Various other programs address specific species or groups of species that are found
international y, as discussed below. Congress provides funding for FWS international international y, as discussed below. Congress provides funding for FWS international
conservation activities largely through annual Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Acts. conservation activities largely through annual Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Acts.
FWS also receives a funding transfer from USAID for biodiversity programming overseas (see FWS also receives a funding transfer from USAID for biodiversity programming overseas (see
text box entitled “Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE),” above). text box entitled “Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE),” above).
International Affairs
FWS’s International Affairs program is split into two subprograms: International Conservation FWS’s International Affairs program is split into two subprograms: International Conservation
and International Wildlife Trade. These subprograms provide technical and financial assistance to and International Wildlife Trade. These subprograms provide technical and financial assistance to
partner countries and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to address habitat partner countries and local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to address habitat
conservation, species conservation, and wildlife trafficking. These programs are implemented in conservation, species conservation, and wildlife trafficking. These programs are implemented in
partnership with nonfederal stakeholders. FWS reports that from 1989 through 2018, it provided partnership with nonfederal stakeholders. FWS reports that from 1989 through 2018, it provided
more than 4,200 grants for international conservation, totaling more than $322 mil ion. This work more than 4,200 grants for international conservation, totaling more than $322 mil ion. This work
was done with more than 700 partners (e.g., other donors, NGOs, and foundations) in developing was done with more than 700 partners (e.g., other donors, NGOs, and foundations) in developing
countries, which, according to FWS, contributed more than $470 mil ion in matching funds for countries, which, according to FWS, contributed more than $470 mil ion in matching funds for
grant projects. grant projects.4950
The International Conservation subprogram focuses on regional and species conservation The International Conservation subprogram focuses on regional and species conservation
activities in foreign countries that are of importance to the United States.activities in foreign countries that are of importance to the United States.~~50 For example, the~~
~~Wildlife Conservation Capacity Development in Central Africa program aims to develop and~~
~~implement training and workforce capacity in Central Africa.51 Further, in a partnership with~~
~~Gabon’s National Parks Agency, FWS aims to create safeguards for multiple species, some~~
~~endangered, by supporting efforts to guard and protect parks in Gabon.52~~
~~FWS’s International Wildlife Trade program is responsible for implementing CITES for the~~
~~United States, issuing permits for listed species, and implementing other U.S. laws that address~~
~~wildlife trade and wildlife trafficking, including the END Wildlife Trafficking Act (P.L. 114-231)~~

4751 For example, the 46 USAID, “ Countries with T FCA Programs,” at https://www.usaid.gov/biodiversity/T FCA/programs-by-country. 47 For more information on the T ropical Forest Conservation Act, see CRS Report RL31286, Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA): Sta tus and Im plem entation, by Pervaze A. Sheikh. 48 USAID, “ Financing Forest Conservation: An Overview of the T ropical Forest and Coral Reef Conservation Act ,” at USAID, “ Financing Forest Conservation: An Overview of the T ropical Forest and Coral Reef Conservation Act ,” at
https://www.usaid.gov/tropical-forest -conservation-act. https://www.usaid.gov/tropical-forest -conservation-act.
4849 16 U.S.C. §742j. 16 U.S.C. §742j.
4950 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), Budget Justification and Performance Information Fiscal Year 2021 , p. IA-3, , p. IA-3,
at https://www.fws.gov/budget/2021/FY2021-FWS-Budget -Justification.pdf. at https://www.fws.gov/budget/2021/FY2021-FWS-Budget -Justification.pdf. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter FWS, FWS, FY2021 Budget
Justification. .
50 51 FWS, FY2021 Budget Justification, p. IA-2. Congressional Research Service 12 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Wildlife Conservation Capacity Development in Central Africa program aims to develop and implement training and workforce capacity in Central Africa.52 Further, in a partnership with Gabon’s National Parks Agency, FWS aims to create safeguards for multiple species, some endangered, by supporting efforts to guard and protect parks in Gabon.53 FWS’s International Wildlife Trade program is responsible for implementing CITES for the United States, issuing permits for listed species, and implementing other U.S. laws that address wildlife trade and wildlife trafficking, including the END Wildlife Trafficking Act (P.L. 114-231) ~~FWS, FY2021 Budget Justification, p. IA-2.~~
~~51 FWS, “ Wildlife Conservation Capacity Development in Central Africa,” fact sheet, at https://www.fws.gov/~~
~~international/pdf/factsheet-capacity-development.pdf.~~
~~52 FWS, Budget Justification and Performance Information Fiscal Year 2020 , at https://www.fws.gov/budget/2020/~~
~~FY2020-FWS-Budget-Justification.pdf.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
16

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

and Executive Order 13773 on preventing international trafficking.and Executive Order 13773 on preventing international trafficking.5354 The United States is one of The United States is one of
the world’s largest importers of the world’s largest importers of legally traded wildlife products. traded wildlife products.5455 FWS facilitates the legal wildlife trade, valued at more than $675.0 mil ion per year, through issuing permits, conducting inspections, and monitoring. Further, FWS compiles and maintains trade records for U.S. imports and exports of wildlife.56
FWS also works with governmental and nongovernmental entities in foreign countries through FWS also works with governmental and nongovernmental entities in foreign countries through
technical and financial assistance to prevent poaching, lower wildlife trafficking, and reduce technical and financial assistance to prevent poaching, lower wildlife trafficking, and reduce
demand for wildlife contraband. In 2016, FWS implemented the Combating Wildlife Trafficking demand for wildlife contraband. In 2016, FWS implemented the Combating Wildlife Trafficking
grants program to address trafficking in species that might not otherwise receive the same level of grants program to address trafficking in species that might not otherwise receive the same level of
attention as others. For example, FWS initiated a project in Sumatra to address wildlife attention as others. For example, FWS initiated a project in Sumatra to address wildlife
trafficking and to conserve species such as the Sumatran tiger, helmeted hornbil , and Malay trafficking and to conserve species such as the Sumatran tiger, helmeted hornbil , and Malay
pangolin—according to some scientists, pangolins are the world’s most trafficked species.pangolin—according to some scientists, pangolins are the world’s most trafficked species.5557 This This
project is significant, according to FWS, because these species are often poached and trafficked project is significant, according to FWS, because these species are often poached and trafficked
by the same criminal syndicates in the region.by the same criminal syndicates in the region.5658 FWS enforces laws that guard against wildlife FWS enforces laws that guard against wildlife
trafficking through its Office of Law Enforcement, which is funded separately from these trafficking through its Office of Law Enforcement, which is funded separately from these
programs. programs.5759
Multinational Species Conservation Fund
The MSCF provides technical and financial assistance to local communities, wildlife authorities, The MSCF provides technical and financial assistance to local communities, wildlife authorities,
and NGOs in developing countries for conserving specific species, including African and Asian and NGOs in developing countries for conserving specific species, including African and Asian
elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, great apes, and marine turtles. The MSCF is separated into several elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, great apes, and marine turtles. The MSCF is separated into several
sub-funds that support conservation efforts benefitting certain species, often in conjunction with sub-funds that support conservation efforts benefitting certain species, often in conjunction with
efforts under CITES. The sub-funds provide grants to address habitat conservation, law efforts under CITES. The sub-funds provide grants to address habitat conservation, law
enforcement, and technical assistance for conserving species under the MSCF. A summary of the enforcement, and technical assistance for conserving species under the MSCF. A summary of the
funds is below. funds is below.
 The African and Asian Elephant Conservation Fund provides funding for projects  The African and Asian Elephant Conservation Fund provides funding for projects
for research, conservation, and the management and protection of African and for research, conservation, and the management and protection of African and
~~Asian elephants and their habitats. Appropriations are authorized for $5.0 mil ion~~
~~annual y from FY2019 to FY2023.~~
~~ The Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund approves grants for other nations~~
~~and to CITES for programs assisting in direct and indirect conservation of~~
~~rhinoceroses and tigers in Asia and Africa. Further, it prohibits the sale, import,~~
~~and export of products derived from any rhinoceros and tiger species.~~
~~Appropriations are authorized for $10.0 mil ion annual y from FY2019 to~~
~~FY2023.~~
~~ The Great Ape Conservation Fund provides grants to foreign governments, the~~
~~CITES Secretariat, and NGOs for the conservation of great apes and their~~
~~habitats. Appropriations are authorized for $5.0 mil ion annual y from FY2019 to~~
~~FY2023.~~

53 52 FWS, “ Wildlife Conservation Capacity Development in Central Africa,” fact sheet, at https://www.fws.gov/international/pdf/factsheet-capacity-development.pdf. 53 FWS, Budget Justification and Performance Information Fiscal Year 2020 , at https://www.fws.gov/budget/2020/FY2020-FWS-Budget-Justification.pdf. 54 Executive Order 13773, “Executive Order on Enforcing Federal Law with Respect to T ransnational Criminal Executive Order 13773, “Executive Order on Enforcing Federal Law with Respect to T ransnational Criminal
Organizations and Preventing International T rafficking,” 82Organizations and Preventing International T rafficking,” 82 Federal Register 10691, February 14, 2017. 10691, February 14, 2017.
54 55 FWS, FWS, FY2021 Budget Justification. .
5556 FWS, FY2021 Budget Justification. 57 Smriti Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations to focus on wildlife trade,” Smriti Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations to focus on wildlife trade,” Nature, vol. 583, no. 344 , vol. 583, no. 344
(July 10, 2020). (July 10, 2020). ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations,” Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations,” ~~202 0.~~
562020. 58 Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations,” 2020 Mallapaty, “Scientists call for pandemic investigations,” 2020 .
5759 For more on FWS and other agency law enforcement efforts to counter wildlife crimes, see For more on FWS and other agency law enforcement efforts to counter wildlife crimes, see CRS In Focus IF11605, CRS In Focus IF11605,
Wildlife Trafficking: International Law Enforcem ent Responses, by Katarina C. O'Regan. , by Katarina C. O'Regan.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity Asian elephants and their habitats. Appropriations are authorized for $5.0 mil ion annual y from FY2019 to FY2023.  The Rhinoceros and Tiger Conservation Fund approves grants for other nations and to CITES for programs assisting in direct and indirect conservation of rhinoceroses and tigers in Asia and Africa. Further, it prohibits the sale, import, and export of products derived from any rhinoceros and tiger species. Appropriations are authorized for $10.0 mil ion annual y from FY2019 to FY2023.  The Great Ape Conservation Fund provides grants to foreign governments, the CITES Secretariat, and NGOs for the conservation of great apes and their habitats. Appropriations are authorized for $5.0 mil ion annual y from FY2019 to FY2023.
 The Marine Turtle Conservation Fund provides grants for the conservation of  The Marine Turtle Conservation Fund provides grants for the conservation of
marine turtles and their nesting habitats. It is authorized to receive $5.0 mil ion in marine turtles and their nesting habitats. It is authorized to receive $5.0 mil ion in
annual appropriations from FY2019 to FY2023 for conservation efforts. annual appropriations from FY2019 to FY2023 for conservation efforts.
Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund
The Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund (NMBCF) provides grants for the The Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Fund (NMBCF) provides grants for the
conservation of hundreds of bird species that migrate among North America, South America, and conservation of hundreds of bird species that migrate among North America, South America, and
the Caribbean.the Caribbean.5860 The goal of the NMBCF is to foster and support initiatives that bolster The goal of the NMBCF is to foster and support initiatives that bolster
cooperation international y for the conservation of bird populations. The program provides cooperation international y for the conservation of bird populations. The program provides
matching grants for neotropical migratory bird conservation projects throughout the Western matching grants for neotropical migratory bird conservation projects throughout the Western
Hemisphere,Hemisphere,5961 with at least 75% of funding going to projects in foreign countries. Since 2002, the with at least 75% of funding going to projects in foreign countries. Since 2002, the
NMBCA has provided nearly $75.0 mil ion in grants to support 628 projects in 36 countries. NMBCA has provided nearly $75.0 mil ion in grants to support 628 projects in 36 countries.
These projects have addressed 5 mil ion acres of bird habitat and leveraged an additional $286.0 These projects have addressed 5 mil ion acres of bird habitat and leveraged an additional $286.0
mil ion for conservation, according to FWS. mil ion for conservation, according to FWS.6062
U.S. Forest Service (Department of Agriculture)
The FS International Programs office promotes sustainable forest management and biodiversity The FS International Programs office promotes sustainable forest management and biodiversity
conservation international y. The office has three main units: (1) Technical Cooperation, (2) conservation international y. The office has three main units: (1) Technical Cooperation, (2)
Policy, and (3) Disaster Assistance Response. The office supports specific activities, including Policy, and (3) Disaster Assistance Response. The office supports specific activities, including
managing protected areas; protecting migratory species; engaging in landscape-level forest managing protected areas; protecting migratory species; engaging in landscape-level forest
planning; providing fire management training; curbing invasive species; preventing il egal planning; providing fire management training; curbing invasive species; preventing il egal
logging; promoting forest certification; reducing the impacts of forest use; and developing logging; promoting forest certification; reducing the impacts of forest use; and developing ~~non-~~
~~timber~~nontimber forest products. The office has activities and projects in Latin America, Asia, and Africa. forest products. The office has activities and projects in Latin America, Asia, and Africa.
In addition, USAID occasional y partners with FS under an interagency agreement to In addition, USAID occasional y partners with FS under an interagency agreement to ~~support~~
support sustainable landscape activities. 60~~sustainable landscape activities.~~
~~Issues for Congress~~
~~Congress may consider the following issues as it authorizes, appropriates funding for, and~~
~~continues oversight of U.S. international conservation activities.~~
~~Level of Funding for International Conservation~~
~~A perennial debate about U.S. international conservation assistance is how much, if any, funding~~
~~to provide—and implicitly, how to prioritize international conservation vis-à-vis other U.S.~~
~~foreign aid and policy priorities. Recently, congressional concerns over global conservation~~
~~efforts escalated in the wake of an IPBES report asserting a significant loss in biodiversity due to~~

58 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Leveraging Funds for Effective Conservation in the Americas: The Neotropical
Migratory Bird Conservation Act, September 2018, at https://www.fws.gov/birds/grants/neotropical-migratory-bird-, September 2018, at https://www.fws.gov/birds/grants/neotropical-migratory-bird-
conservation-act.php. conservation-act.php.
5961 T he program benefits approximately 386 bird species that breed in the T he program benefits approximately 386 bird species that breed in the ~~Unit ed~~United States or Canada and spend winter in States or Canada and spend winter in
Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, or South America. Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, or South America.
6062 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act, July 21, 2020, at , July 21, 2020, at
https://www.fws.gov/birds/grants/neotropical-migratory-bird-conservation-act.php. https://www.fws.gov/birds/grants/neotropical-migratory-bird-conservation-act.php.
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U.S. ~~Support~~Funding for International Conservation
and Biodiversity Issues for Congress Congress may consider the following issues as it authorizes, appropriates funding for, and continues oversight of U.S. international conservation activities. Level of Funding for International Conservation A perennial debate about U.S. international conservation assistance is how much, if any, funding to provide—and implicitly, how to prioritize international conservation vis-à-vis other U.S. foreign aid and policy priorities. Recently, congressional concerns over global conservation efforts escalated in the wake of an IPBES report asserting a significant loss in biodiversity due to
human interactions with natural resources.human interactions with natural resources.6163 The decline in biodiversity al eged in the IPBES The decline in biodiversity al eged in the IPBES
report may raise questions about the efficacy and proper funding levels for biodiversity efforts. report may raise questions about the efficacy and proper funding levels for biodiversity efforts.
In FY2019 and FY2020, Congress appropriated funds above the Trump Administration’s request In FY2019 and FY2020, Congress appropriated funds above the Trump Administration’s request
for biodiversity funding for biodiversity funding atfor USAID USAID; in FY2021, Congress appropriated ~~in FY2020,~~ more than more than ~~four~~three times the Administration’s times the Administration’s
request.request.6264 In addition, the Trump Administration proposed to eliminate the FS International In addition, the Trump Administration proposed to eliminate the FS International
Programs office to focus on several domestic forest activities, including improving conditions of Programs office to focus on several domestic forest activities, including improving conditions of
forests and grasslands, enhancing rural economies, and reducing wildland fire risk.forests and grasslands, enhancing rural economies, and reducing wildland fire risk.63 65 Congress did Congress did
not approve the Administration’s request and provided $12.0 mil ionnot approve the Administration’s request and provided $12.0 mil ion for the FS for the FS ~~International~~
International Programs for FY2020Programs for FY2020 and $15.4 mil ion for FY2021. .
Some critics of foreign assistance as a whole have asserted that the United States provides Some critics of foreign assistance as a whole have asserted that the United States provides
overseas development assistance to the detriment of domestic programs, and aid recipients or overseas development assistance to the detriment of domestic programs, and aid recipients or
private entities should do more to advance international assistance goals.private entities should do more to advance international assistance goals.6466 This sentiment has This sentiment has
also been applied to international conservation activities. For example, some observers assert that also been applied to international conservation activities. For example, some observers assert that
the United States should reduce conservation assistance funding and encourage recipient the United States should reduce conservation assistance funding and encourage recipient
countries to increase their contributions to conservation within their countries.countries to increase their contributions to conservation within their countries.6567 Some Some
policymakers propose a different perspective, arguing that recipient countries justifiably focus policymakers propose a different perspective, arguing that recipient countries justifiably focus
their domestic spending on other priorities, such as poverty al eviation, health care, and their domestic spending on other priorities, such as poverty al eviation, health care, and
infrastructure, leaving few resources for conservation. They argue that wealthier countries, such infrastructure, leaving few resources for conservation. They argue that wealthier countries, such
as the United States, could fil in this shortage of funding for conservation—a key justification for as the United States, could fil in this shortage of funding for conservation—a key justification for
debt-for-nature exchanges, which Congress debt-for-nature exchanges, which Congress ~~recently renewed.66~~ has funded for tropical forests and coral reefs.68 Results from a 2013 study Results from a 2013 study
support this position.support this position.6769 The study found that 40 of the most severely The study found that 40 of the most severely underfunded underfunded ~~countries68~~countries70 for for
~~biodiversity conservation contain 32% of al threatened mammalian biodiversity. The authors~~
~~argued that modest increases in international conservation assistance for these countries could~~
~~lead to proportional y larger improvements in biodiversity.69~~
~~Advocates of U.S. international conservation funding often assert that preserving wildlife and~~
~~ecosystems in developing countries benefits the American people by sustaining global public~~
~~goods—for example, by preserving tropical forests that serve as natural carbon sinks; sustaining~~
~~biodiversity resources that sequester zoonotic diseases or provide natural substances for~~
~~pharmaceuticals; or protecting the intrinsic value of diverse species and ecosystems.70 However,~~
biodiversity conservation contain 32% of al threatened mammalian
6163 Díaz et al., Díaz et al., Global Assessment on Biodiversity and Ecosystems Services, 2019. , 2019.
6264 T he Administration’s T he Administration’s ~~FY2020~~FY2021 request for biodiversity funding under USAID was $ request for biodiversity funding under USAID was $~~78.9~~91.1 million; Congress million; Congress
appropriated appropriated ~~“not less than $315~~$320.0 million..0 million.”
63 65 USAID, U.S. Forest Service (FS), USAID, U.S. Forest Service (FS), FY2020 Budget Justification, March 2019, at https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/, March 2019, at https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/
files/media_wysiwyg/usfs-fy-2020-budget -justification.pdf. files/media_wysiwyg/usfs-fy-2020-budget -justification.pdf.
6466 Angus Deaton, “T he U.S. Can No Longer Hide From Its Deep Poverty Problem,” Angus Deaton, “T he U.S. Can No Longer Hide From Its Deep Poverty Problem,” New York Times, January 24, 2018. , January 24, 2018.
6567 James Roberts and Brett Schaefer, James Roberts and Brett Schaefer, An Overhaul of America’s Foreign Assistance Programs Is Long Overdue, T he , T he
Heritage Foundation, September 19, 2017, at https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/overhaul-americas-Heritage Foundation, September 19, 2017, at https://www.heritage.org/global-politics/report/overhaul-americas-
foreign-assistance-programs-long-overdue. foreign-assistance-programs-long-overdue.
6668 Annie Haakenstad et al., “T he Financing Gaps Framework: Using Need, Potential Spending and Expected Spending Annie Haakenstad et al., “T he Financing Gaps Framework: Using Need, Potential Spending and Expected Spending
to Allocate Development Assistance for Health,” to Allocate Development Assistance for Health,” Health Policy Plan, vol. 33, no. 1 (2018). , vol. 33, no. 1 (2018).
6769 Anthony Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding to Limit Immediate Biodiversity Declines,” Anthony Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding to Limit Immediate Biodiversity Declines,”
Proceedings of the National Academ y of Sciences, vol. 110, no. 29 (July 16, 2013), pp. 12144, vol. 110, no. 29 (July 16, 2013), pp. 12144 -12148. -12148. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter
Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding,” 2013. Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding,” 2013.
6870 Underfunded countries are determined by comparing known current levels of spending Underfunded countries are determined by comparing known current levels of spending ~~with~~wit h a model’s expectation of Congressional Research Service 15 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity biodiversity. The authors argued that modest increases in international conservation assistance for these countries could lead to proportional y larger improvements in biodiversity.71 Advocates of U.S. international conservation funding often assert that preserving wildlife and ecosystems in developing countries benefits the American people by sustaining global public goods—for example, by preserving tropical forests that serve as natural carbon sinks; sustaining biodiversity resources that sequester zoonotic diseases or provide natural substances for pharmaceuticals; or protecting the intrinsic value of diverse species and ecosystems.72 However, ~~a model’s expectation of~~
~~spending.~~
~~69 Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding,” 2013, pp. 12144-12148.~~
~~70 For example, see Andrew Balmford et al., “Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature,” Science, vol. 297, no.~~
~~5583 (August 9, 2002), pp. 950-953.~~
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~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

some policymakers who advocate for reducing U.S. international conservation funding contend some policymakers who advocate for reducing U.S. international conservation funding contend
that some recipient countries may reduce their own conservation spending in light of funding that some recipient countries may reduce their own conservation spending in light of funding
gaps fil ed by international aid, resulting in a zero net benefit for conservation. To counter this gaps fil ed by international aid, resulting in a zero net benefit for conservation. To counter this
possibility, some suggest establishing conditions or assurances that countries would not reduce possibility, some suggest establishing conditions or assurances that countries would not reduce
domestic conservation budgets upon receiving conservation aid. These types of assurances are domestic conservation budgets upon receiving conservation aid. These types of assurances are
embedded in some U.S. domestic conservation programs, such as the Great Lakes Restoration embedded in some U.S. domestic conservation programs, such as the Great Lakes Restoration
Initiative. Initiative.7173
Questions about how international conservation might benefit the United States sometimes arise Questions about how international conservation might benefit the United States sometimes arise
in congressional consideration of appropriations. Some policymakers contend there are few—if in congressional consideration of appropriations. Some policymakers contend there are few—if
any—benefits from U.S. international conservation efforts, an assertion that has been supported any—benefits from U.S. international conservation efforts, an assertion that has been supported
by some academic and oversight studies.by some academic and oversight studies.7274 For example, the Government Accountability Office For example, the Government Accountability Office
(GAO) in 2017 conducted an audit of U.S. overseas activities to combat wildlife trafficking and (GAO) in 2017 conducted an audit of U.S. overseas activities to combat wildlife trafficking and
found that the results of such activities were unclear, in part because agencies administering the found that the results of such activities were unclear, in part because agencies administering the
programs had not set performance targets for their respective efforts.programs had not set performance targets for their respective efforts.7375 Other policymakers Other policymakers
counter that U.S. investments may leverage funding from private sector firms and other entities counter that U.S. investments may leverage funding from private sector firms and other entities
within beneficiary countries to expand international conservation programs’ scales, thereby within beneficiary countries to expand international conservation programs’ scales, thereby
increasing the potential benefits.increasing the potential benefits.7476 For example, in FY2018, according to USAID, a partnership For example, in FY2018, according to USAID, a partnership
between USAID and Coca-Cola, Natura, and the NGO Sitawi Finance for Good led to the between USAID and Coca-Cola, Natura, and the NGO Sitawi Finance for Good led to the
conservation of freshwater fish in the Amazon and yielded economic benefits for 6,150 families conservation of freshwater fish in the Amazon and yielded economic benefits for 6,150 families
in protected areas in the Brazilian state of Amazonas. in protected areas in the Brazilian state of Amazonas.7577
Some stakeholders might also contend that foreign assistance for some international conservation Some stakeholders might also contend that foreign assistance for some international conservation
issues could address issues could address ~~U.S. national~~ security or global health concerns.security or global health concerns.78 For example, assistance for addressing spending. 71 Waldron et al., “T argeting Global Conservation Funding,” 2013, pp. 12144 -12148. 72 For example, see Andrew Balmford et al., “Economic Reasons for Conserving Wild Nature,” Science, vol. 297, no. 5583 (August 9, 2002), pp. 950-953. 73 See 33 U.S.C. §1268(c)(7)(F). 74 ~~For example, assistance for~~
~~addressing international wildlife trafficking might deprive foreign armed groups of financing or~~
~~lower imports of il egal y traded wildlife into the United States and thus prevent the entry of~~
~~zoonotic diseases that could be carried by il egal y traded wildlife and wildlife products. Some~~
~~critics may counter that the United States could bolster national security and health in other, more~~
~~direct ways.~~
~~Goals and Objectives of Foreign Conservation Assistance~~
~~Congress appropriates U.S. international conservation assistance funding to multiple federal~~
~~departments and agencies, and funds are spread out over many different programs. There is no~~
~~centralized plan or framework for distributing the funds or evaluating the success of al~~
~~conservation assistance to foreign countries. Certain agencies focus their funding according to~~
~~program goals and priorities, which range from protecting certain species (e.g., rhinoceroses and~~
~~elephants) to restoring landscapes (e.g., tropical forests). In some cases, interagency international~~
~~conservation efforts and criteria might not be aligned. For example, while USAID’s Biodiversity~~

~~71 See 33 U.S.C. §1268(c)(7)(F).~~
72 See, for example, one such study conducted using Madagascar as a test case. Patrick O. Waeber et al., “How See, for example, one such study conducted using Madagascar as a test case. Patrick O. Waeber et al., “How
Effective Have T hirty Years of Internationally Driven Conservation and Development Efforts Been in Effective Have T hirty Years of Internationally Driven Conservation and Development Efforts Been in ~~Madagascar?~~ Mada gascar?” ”
PLoS ONE vol. 11, no. 8 (August 2016). PLoS ONE vol. 11, no. 8 (August 2016).
73 75 U.S. Government Accountability Office U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), , Combating Wildlife Trafficking: Agencies Are Taking a Range of Actions,
But Task Force Lacks Perform ance Targets for Assessing Progress,, GAO 16-717, September 2016. GAO 16-717, September 2016.
7476 Efforts to create investment models for private investment to deliver returns and conservation outcomes are the Efforts to create investment models for private investment to deliver returns and conservation outcomes are the
objective of some conservation organizations. For example, see “objective of some conservation organizations. For example, see “ Meeting Global Conservation Challenges,”Meeting Global Conservation Challenges,” Nature
Clim ate Change, vol. 6, no. 891 (September 28, 2016). , vol. 6, no. 891 (September 28, 2016).
7577 USAID, USAID, U.S. Agency for International Development Report to Congress on Programs in Forestry and the
Conservation of Biodiversity During Fiscal Year 2018: Results and Funding , at https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/, at https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/
files/documents/1865/USAID-Report -to-Congress-on-Forestry-and-Biodiversity_FY_2018.pdf. files/documents/1865/USAID-Report -to-Congress-on-Forestry-and-Biodiversity_FY_2018.pdf.
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~~link to page 15~~ ~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~
78 For example, see Francis Masse and Jared D. Margulies, “T he Geopolitical Ecology of Conservation: T he Emergence of Illegal Wildlife T rade as National Security Interest and the Re-shaping of US Foreign Conservation Assistance,” World Development, vol. 132 (August 2020), pp. 1-15. Congressional Research Service 16 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity international wildlife trafficking might deprive foreign armed groups of financing or lower imports of il egal y traded wildlife into the United States and thus prevent the entry of zoonotic diseases that could be carried by il egal y traded wildlife and wildlife products.79 Some critics may counter that the United States could bolster national security and health in other, more direct ways. Goals and Objectives of Foreign Conservation Assistance Congress appropriates U.S. international conservation assistance funding to multiple federal departments and agencies, and funds are spread out over many different programs. There is no centralized plan or framework for distributing the funds or evaluating the success of al conservation assistance to foreign countries. Certain agencies focus their funding according to program goals and priorities, which range from protecting certain species (e.g., rhinoceroses and elephants) to restoring landscapes (e.g., tropical forests). In some cases, interagency international conservation efforts and criteria might not be aligned. For example, while USAID’s Biodiversity
Code establishes a set of criteria for implementing biodiversity programs, the sustainable Code establishes a set of criteria for implementing biodiversity programs, the sustainable
landscapes sector under USAID programming does not appear to operate under similar criteria. In landscapes sector under USAID programming does not appear to operate under similar criteria. In
the absence of a holistic program or initiative, agencies might group existing programs or projects the absence of a holistic program or initiative, agencies might group existing programs or projects
together to report progress toward an objective. together to report progress toward an objective.
Some policymakers might contend that if al U.S. international conservation assistance were Some policymakers might contend that if al U.S. international conservation assistance were
organized and spent according to a set of whole-of-government priorities or an overarching organized and spent according to a set of whole-of-government priorities or an overarching
framework, this could lead to the development of conservation goals and focus U.S. funding framework, this could lead to the development of conservation goals and focus U.S. funding
toward achieving those goals. This could enable greater congressional oversight of conservation toward achieving those goals. This could enable greater congressional oversight of conservation
assistance and help measure progress on international conservation initiatives assistance and help measure progress on international conservation initiatives. An initiative under USAID discusses an intra-agency approach with USAID and six nongovernmental organizations. USAID’s Global Conservation Project aims to conserve global y significant areas of biodiversity at multiple scales, from the community level to large landscapes and seascapes that cross political boundaries.80 According to USAID, this is the only global conservation initiative within the agency. Some other policymakers might oppose a holistic.
~~Some other policymakers might oppose this~~ approach and argue that existing agency-led approach and argue that existing agency-led
conservation programs should be guided by their specific legislative authorities. For example, conservation programs should be guided by their specific legislative authorities. For example,
several laws authorize international conservation activities with specific objectives that address several laws authorize international conservation activities with specific objectives that address
certain species or landscapes. Policymakers might argue that these laws and programs reflect the certain species or landscapes. Policymakers might argue that these laws and programs reflect the
wil of constituents and that conservation is too broad to be addressed under one plan. They might wil of constituents and that conservation is too broad to be addressed under one plan. They might
argue that the effectiveness of addressing specific issues, such as wildlife trafficking, might be argue that the effectiveness of addressing specific issues, such as wildlife trafficking, might be
diluted under an overarching plan or agenda. diluted under an overarching plan or agenda.
This issue is exemplified by debates over the scope of the Tropical Forest Conservation Act and This issue is exemplified by debates over the scope of the Tropical Forest Conservation Act and
debt-for-nature swaps. Some policymakers wanted to expand the use of debt-for-nature swaps debt-for-nature swaps. Some policymakers wanted to expand the use of debt-for-nature swaps
under the law to al forest and ocean resources.under the law to al forest and ocean resources.7681 Others argued for keeping the law focused on Others argued for keeping the law focused on
tropical forests, arguing that with limited funds, the most effective use of the law would be tropical forests, arguing that with limited funds, the most effective use of the law would be
79 Vanda Felbab-Brown, The Extinction Market: Wildlife Trafficking and How to Counter It (Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 288. 80 USAID, USAID Global Conservation Program , 2021. 81 Senator Rob Portman, “Portman, Bipartisan Senate Colleagues Introduce Legislation to Promote Conservation and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” press release, May 3, 2017, at https://www.portman.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/press-releases?ID=8E80A0C4-F03C-4420-BB19-44D7A7919875. Congressional Research Service 17 link to page 15 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity conserving tropical forests. Ultimately, the law was amended in 2019 to address tropical forests conserving tropical forests. Ultimately, the law was amended in 2019 to address tropical forests
and coral reef ecosystems (see the and coral reef ecosystems (see the “Tropical Forest Conservation Act” section, above). section, above).
Interagency Coordination
With international conservation assistance largely implemented by individual agencies, some With international conservation assistance largely implemented by individual agencies, some
have questioned whether interagency coordination is possible and effective. For example, in have questioned whether interagency coordination is possible and effective. For example, in
2017, GAO found that although U.S. government efforts to reduce wildlife trafficking in 2017, GAO found that although U.S. government efforts to reduce wildlife trafficking in
Southeast Asia were making some progress, “disagreement on roles and responsibilities” had Southeast Asia were making some progress, “disagreement on roles and responsibilities” had
proved chal enging. To address these chal enges, GAO recommended that State, DOI, and proved chal enging. To address these chal enges, GAO recommended that State, DOI, and
USAID each clarify their respective roles and responsibilities related to wildlife trafficking USAID each clarify their respective roles and responsibilities related to wildlife trafficking
programs in Southeast Asia. Each agency agreed with, and reportedly implemented, the GAO programs in Southeast Asia. Each agency agreed with, and reportedly implemented, the GAO
recommendation. recommendation.7782
Congress may seek to understand how U.S. government entities are coordinating their Congress may seek to understand how U.S. government entities are coordinating their
international conservation efforts and where there might be areas for greater efficiency and international conservation efforts and where there might be areas for greater efficiency and
effectiveness. Some policymakers might propose an interagency task force to coordinate effectiveness. Some policymakers might propose an interagency task force to coordinate
conservation activities in similar landscapes or countries. Further, some might contend that conservation activities in similar landscapes or countries. Further, some might contend that
sharing expertise among agencies or pooling resources and efforts could increase the efficiency sharing expertise among agencies or pooling resources and efforts could increase the efficiency
and effectiveness of implementing conservation programs. Other policymakers might argue that and effectiveness of implementing conservation programs. Other policymakers might argue that
disrupting the status quo may be detrimental. They might point to existing coordination, such as disrupting the status quo may be detrimental. They might point to existing coordination, such as
FWS and State collaboration on addressing wildlife trafficking in foreign countries and the FWS and State collaboration on addressing wildlife trafficking in foreign countries and the

~~76 Senator Rob Portman, “Portman, Bipartisan Senate Colleagues Introduce Legislation to Promote Conservation and~~
~~Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” press release, May 3, 2017, at https://www.portman.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/~~
~~press-releases?ID=8E80A0C4-F03C-4420-BB19-44D7A7919875.~~
~~77 U.S. Government Accountability Office,~~ ~~Combating Wildlife Trafficking: Agencies Are Taking Action to Reduce~~
~~Dem and but Could Im prove Collaboration in Southeast Asia, GAO-18-7, October 12, 2017, at https://www.gao.gov/~~
~~products/GAO-18-7#summary.~~
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~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

presence of FWS officers in certain U.S. embassies abroad to participate in international criminal presence of FWS officers in certain U.S. embassies abroad to participate in international criminal
investigations of wildlife trafficking and wildlife enforcement networks. investigations of wildlife trafficking and wildlife enforcement networks.
The outbreak of COVID-19 and the potential emergence of zoonotic diseases global y have The outbreak of COVID-19 and the potential emergence of zoonotic diseases global y have
stimulated these discussions. Some Members of Congress have introduced bil s that direct stimulated these discussions. Some Members of Congress have introduced bil s that direct
interagency collaboration to identify zoonotic diseases and study factors that contribute to their interagency collaboration to identify zoonotic diseases and study factors that contribute to their
emergence. For example, under emergence. For example, under ~~Section 6 of S. 3759, several federal agencies would coordinate~~
~~with the intention to address global zoonotic diseases and~~S. 37 and H.R. 151 in the 117th Congress, USAID would collaborate with other federal agencies to implement programs aimed at reducing the risks of emerging infectious diseases. These programs may include efforts to conserve biodiversity, improve food security, and biodiversity, improve food security, and
minimize the human-wildlife interface by preventing the degradation minimize the human-wildlife interface by preventing the degradation and fragmentation of and fragmentation of
ecosystems, among other ecosystems, among other ~~actions~~activities. .
Alignment with Host Country Priorities and Length of
Commitment
Congressional oversight of international conservation activities may include questions about Congressional oversight of international conservation activities may include questions about
whether federal programs and activities align with recipient countries’ conservation priorities. whether federal programs and activities align with recipient countries’ conservation priorities.
Some stakeholders argue that foreign assistance programs meet their objectives only when they Some stakeholders argue that foreign assistance programs meet their objectives only when they
align with recipient countries’ priorities. align with recipient countries’ priorities.7883 For example, one study found that if the needs of the For example, one study found that if the needs of the
developing country were aligned with those of the conservation projects, then the probability of developing country were aligned with those of the conservation projects, then the probability of
success would increase, as the developing country can implement policies that would support the success would increase, as the developing country can implement policies that would support the
82 GAO, Combating Wildlife Trafficking: Agencies Are Taking Action to Reduce Demand but Could Improve Collaboration in Southeast Asia, GAO-18-7, Oct ober 12, 2017, at https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-18-7#summary. 83 For example, see Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2005, at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264098084-en.pdf?expires=1597420266&id=id&accname=ocid195520&checksum=6416CCB99F17932468962E5EB606C305 . Congressional Research Service 18 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity project.84~~project.~~ The same study argues that biodiversity conservation can have policy and project goals The same study argues that biodiversity conservation can have policy and project goals
that may contradict a nation’s poverty reduction goals. If the nation’s poor were overhunting or that may contradict a nation’s poverty reduction goals. If the nation’s poor were overhunting or
converting larger tracts of biodiverse land to farmland, then biodiversity policies may not converting larger tracts of biodiverse land to farmland, then biodiversity policies may not
succeed, according to the study. succeed, according to the study.7985
Some policymakers contend that successful international conservation initiatives are implemented Some policymakers contend that successful international conservation initiatives are implemented
through long-term rather than short-term efforts, implying that long-term commitments to through long-term rather than short-term efforts, implying that long-term commitments to
conservation aid might be a better approach. For example, some point to long-term aid to Brazil conservation aid might be a better approach. For example, some point to long-term aid to Brazil
for strengthening the structures for monitoring and managing reserves and forests as an effective for strengthening the structures for monitoring and managing reserves and forests as an effective
use of aid. Some stakeholders might counter this approach by suggesting that short-term use of aid. Some stakeholders might counter this approach by suggesting that short-term
conservation actions are more effective when addressing dire environmental issues that emerge conservation actions are more effective when addressing dire environmental issues that emerge
quickly. For example, conservation actions to prevent a species from going extinct or save an quickly. For example, conservation actions to prevent a species from going extinct or save an
ecosystem from burning (e.g., forest fires in Australia) might be more effective if implemented by ecosystem from burning (e.g., forest fires in Australia) might be more effective if implemented by
short-term rather than long-term efforts. short-term rather than long-term efforts.
Congress might consider these findings when deliberating international conservation assistance. Congress might consider these findings when deliberating international conservation assistance.
Members might view a holistic approach to conservation that would take into account Members might view a holistic approach to conservation that would take into account
development goals and aspirations by recipient countries and focus on long-term conservation development goals and aspirations by recipient countries and focus on long-term conservation
initiatives. In contrast, Congress might focus on international conservation priorities that would initiatives. In contrast, Congress might focus on international conservation priorities that would
focus on specific species or ecosystems that have broad constituent support, such as African focus on specific species or ecosystems that have broad constituent support, such as African
elephant conservation or coral reefs. elephant conservation or coral reefs.

~~78 For example, see Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness,~~
~~2005, at https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264098084-en.pdf?expires=1597420266&id=id&accname=~~
~~ocid195520&checksum=6416CCB99F17932468962E5EB606C305 .~~
~~79 Zdenek Oprsal and Jaromir Harmacek, “Is Foreign Aid Responsive to Environmental Needs and Performance of~~
~~Developing Countries? Case Study of the Czech Republic,” Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 401 (2019), p. 10.~~
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Foreign Assistance for Conservation and Consequences for Human
Rights
Human rights advocates and organizations representing Human rights advocates and organizations representing ~~indigenous~~Indigenous communities have communities have
periodical y asserted that international conservation programs can result in forced displacement, periodical y asserted that international conservation programs can result in forced displacement,
in security force abuses against local communities, or both. For example, a 2019 news article in security force abuses against local communities, or both. For example, a 2019 news article
al eged that people living near national parks in Nepal and near national parks in several central al eged that people living near national parks in Nepal and near national parks in several central
African countries were abused as a result of counter-poaching operations by local park rangers.African countries were abused as a result of counter-poaching operations by local park rangers.8086
Al egations that Nepal park rangers had tortured and kil ed a suspected poacher near Chitwan Al egations that Nepal park rangers had tortured and kil ed a suspected poacher near Chitwan
Forest in 2006 were central to the article. Other reports of human rights abuses associated with Forest in 2006 were central to the article. Other reports of human rights abuses associated with
conservation have surfaced throughout the world. For example, some observers al ege human conservation have surfaced throughout the world. For example, some observers al ege human
rights abuses by park rangers in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo, and rights abuses by park rangers in Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of the Congo, and
some some ~~indigenous~~Indigenous rights groups al ege that this park’s creation dispossessed local communities of rights groups al ege that this park’s creation dispossessed local communities of
their lands without consent. Local government officials have denied these al egations. their lands without consent. Local government officials have denied these al egations.81
~~Some Members of Congress have expressed concern that U.S. international conservation aid has~~
~~been used to fund organizations implicated in human rights violations. In response to the article~~
87 84 Zdenek Oprsal and Jaromir Harmacek, “Is Foreign Aid Responsive to Environmental Needs and Performance of Developing Countries? Case Study of the Czech Republic,” Sustainability, vol. 11, no. 401 (2019), p. 10. Hereinafter, Oprsal and Harmacek, “Is Foreign Aid Responsive?” 85 Oprsal and Harmacek, “Is Foreign Aid Responsive?” 86 T om Warren and Katie Baker, “WWF Funds Guards Who Have T ortured and Killed People,” BuzzFeed News, March 4, 2019. 87 See, for example, Inés Ayari and Simon Counsell, The Human Cost of Conservation in the Republic of Congo , Rainforest Foundation UK, December 2017; Survival International, How Will We Survive? The destruction of Congo Basin tribes in the nam e of conservation, 2017. T he Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP) is managed by the Nouabalé-Ndoki Foundation, a public-private partnership between the Congolese government’s Ministry for Forest Economy and the Wildlife Conservation Society, a nonprofit conservation organization. NNNP has received funding from USAID, FWS, State, FS, and various private, international, and nongovernmental donors. Congressional Research Service 19 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Some Members of Congress have expressed concern that U.S. international conservation aid has been used to fund organizations implicated in human rights violations. In response to the 2019 news article mentioned above, Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Eliot Engel cal ed for an mentioned above, Senator Patrick Leahy and Representative Eliot Engel cal ed for an
investigation into U.S. funding administered by FWS for the international conservation investigation into U.S. funding administered by FWS for the international conservation
organizations that support anti-poaching efforts in Nepal.organizations that support anti-poaching efforts in Nepal.~~82 In May 2019, Representative Raúl~~
~~Grijalva and Representative Rob Bishop requested a GAO review of U.S. efforts to combat~~
~~wildlife trafficking, with a focus on human rights abuses.83 In response to these issues, DOI is~~
~~withholding certain funds for international conservation pending an internal review.84~~88 Further, in response to these al egations, DOI stated that certain funding would be withheld until an internal review of the matter was complete.89 Other Other
donors (including the British and German parliaments) donors (including the British and German parliaments) ~~are also investigating al eged~~ also have investigated al eged human ~~human~~
rights abuses as a result of conservation projects.rights abuses as a result of conservation projects.85
~~Some U.S. agencies, including FWS, have human rights guidelines for grants that fund~~
~~international conservation. Congress might consider evaluating these guidelines to potential y~~
~~decide whether further oversight or legislation might be needed to, for example, impose~~
~~additional conditions on grant recipients (e.g., certification that recipients have internal~~
~~procedures for soliciting, tracking, and reporting information on abuses by their personnel or sub-~~
~~grantees). Congress might also examine the al egations in question to determine whether they are~~
~~credible and whether partner and agency responses were adequate or appropriate.~~

~~80 T om Warren and Katie Baker, “WWF Funds Guards Who Have T ortured and Killed People,” BuzzFeed News,~~
~~March 4, 2019.~~
~~81 See, for example, Inés Ayari and Simon Counsell, The Human Cost of Conservation in the Republic of Congo,~~
~~Rainforest Foundation UK, December 2017; Survival International,~~ ~~How Will We Survive? The destruction of Congo~~
~~Basin tribes in the nam e of conservation, 2017. T he Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP) is managed by the~~
~~Nouabalé-Ndoki Foundation, a public-private partnership between the Congolese government’s Ministry for Forest~~
~~Economy and the Wildlife Conservation Society, a nonprofit conservation organization. NNNP has received funding~~
~~from USAID, FWS, State, FS, and various private, international, and nongovernmental donors.~~
~~82 Michael Burke, “Lawmakers Call for Investigation into World Wildlife Fund,” The Hill, March 5, 2019.~~
~~83 Letter from Representative Raúl M. Grijalva, chair of the House Committee on Natural Resources, and~~
~~Representative Rob Bishop, ranking member of the House Committee on Natural Resources, to the Honorable Gene~~
~~Dodaro, comptroller general of the GAO, May 6, 2019.~~
~~84 Letter from Susan Combs, assistant secretary of Policy, Management, and Budget for the Department of the Interior,~~
~~to Representative Raúl Grijalva, chair of the House Committee on Natural Resources, September 19, 2019.~~
~~85 For example, see Karen McVeigh, “British Watchdog Launches Inquiry into WWF Abuse Allegations,”~~ ~~The~~
~~Guardian, April 4, 2019.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
23

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

~~Free, Prior, and Informed Consent of Indigenous Peoples~~
~~Areas of the world that are home to large concentrations of indigenous peoples and low-income~~
~~communities are often prone to the negative effects of climate change, biodiversity loss,~~
~~ecosystem degradation, and other conservation-related chal enges.86 Congress might consider~~
~~whether foreign assistance for conservation aids or hinders indigenous and low -income~~
~~communities in recipient countries. Some human rights advocates argue that efforts to conserve~~
~~habitats or sustainably manage lands could force indigenous peoples out of their ancestral~~
~~homelands and deprive them of their livelihoods.87 They argue that conservation assistance may~~
~~not address or mitigate externalities that affect the livelihoods of these populations.88 For~~
~~example, international efforts to shut down wildlife markets to prevent the spread of zoonotic~~
~~diseases and lower wildlife trafficking may have the unintended consequence of diminishing~~
~~protein options for indigenous or low-income people with little access to markets with meat from~~
~~domesticated animals. Some conservation advocates counter that conservation assistance and~~
~~activities can enhance the wel -being of indigenous people by involving them in securing the~~
~~sustainability and longevity of natural habitats and lands and by protecting the ecosystems they~~
~~depend on from destruction at the hands of local government, private sector initiatives, and~~
~~themselves.89~~
~~U.S. government entities involved in international conservation activities differ in their~~
~~approaches to involving indigenous~~90 GAO conducted an analysis of human rights abuse al egations in overseas conservation programs in 2020.91 GAO found that federal agencies vetted park rangers who received funding through the Leahy Process. The Leahy Process is guided by two laws that prohibit the United States from using certain funds to support foreign security forces when credible information shows the forces have committed a gross violation of human rights.92 The laws lay out a process for vetting recipients of aid that is conducted by the Department of State or Defense, where applicable. The respective agency assesses available information about the recipient’s human rights records as part of this process.93 GAO also found that U.S. agencies responded to al egations of human rights abuses in different ways. For example, GAO reported that USAID responded to al egations with more training on human rights issues for park rangers and conducted site visits to further understand al egations. DOI has put a hold on international conservation funding and is conducting more in-depth inquiries into human rights abuses, as discussed. Congress responded to this issue in the explanatory statement for P.L. 116-260 (Consolidated Appropriations Act, FY2021). Congress directed agencies to follow the House Report (116-444) accompanying H.R. 7608 with regard to funds made available for national parks and protected areas. The report states that agreements obligating funds shal include provisions that require  information on the proposed project and its potential impacts is shared with local communities and the “free, prior, and informed consent of affected indigenous communities is obtained in accordance with international standards”;  the proposed project’s potential effects on land or resource claims made by local communities or Indigenous peoples are considered and addressed in management plans; 88 Michael Burke, “Lawmakers Call for Investigation into World Wildlife Fund,” The Hill, March 5, 2019. 89 Letter from Susan Combs, assistant secretary of Policy, Management, and Budget for the Department of the Interior, to Representative Raúl Grijalva, chair of the House Committee on Natural Resources, September 19, 2019. 90 For example, see Karen McVeigh, “British Watchdog Launches Inquiry into WWF Abuse Allegations,” The Guardian, April 4, 2019. 91 GAO, Combating Wildlife Trafficking: Agencies Work to Address Human Rights Abuse, GAO-21-139R, October 2, 2020, pp. 1-16, at https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-21-139r.pdf. 92 See 22 U.S.C. § 2378d, which is applicable to assistance furnished under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 and the Arms Export Control Act, and 10 U.S.C. § 362, which is applicable to funds appropriated to the Department of Defense. T he Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 defines gross violations of internationally recognized hum an rights to include torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment; prolonged detention without charges; causing the disappearance of persons by the abduction and clandestine detention of those persons; or other flagrant denial of the right to life, liberty, and the security of persons (22 U.S.C. § 2151n(a) and 22 U.S.C. § 2304(a)(4)). According to GAO, “while these definitions do not apply to the Leahy provision codified at 2 2 U.S.C. § 2378d, the State Department has adopted them in implementing its Leahy vetting program.” 93 For more information, see U.S. Department of State, About the Leahy Law, fact sheet, January 20, 2021, at https://www.state.gov/key-topics-bureau-of-democracy-human-rights-and-labor/human-rights/leahy-law-fact -sheet/. Congressional Research Service 20 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity  eco-guards, park rangers, and other law enforcement personnel authorized to protect biodiversity are trained and monitored; and  mechanisms exist for victims of human rights violations and other misconduct. Congress might consider evaluating these guidelines to determine if they are sufficient to address human rights concerns or if further oversight or legislation is needed to impose additional conditions on grant recipients. Congress also might consider whether these guidelines should be applicable to overseas assistance directed for al types of conservation. Free, Prior, and Informed Consent of Indigenous Peoples Areas of the world that are home to large concentrations of Indigenous peoples and low-income communities are often prone to the negative effects of climate change, biodiversity loss, ecosystem degradation, and other conservation-related chal enges.94 Congress might consider whether foreign assistance for conservation aids or hinders Indigenous and low-income communities in recipient countries. Some human rights advocates argue that efforts to conserve habitats or sustainably manage lands could force Indigenous peoples out of their ancestral homelands and deprive them of their livelihoods.95 They argue that conservation assistance may not address or mitigate externalities that affect the livelihoods of these populations.96 For example, international efforts to shut down wildlife markets to prevent the spread of zoonotic diseases and lower wildlife trafficking may have the unintended consequence of diminishing protein options for Indigenous or low-income people with little access to markets with meat from domesticated animals. Some conservation advocates counter that conservation assistance and activities can enhance the wel -being of Indigenous people by involving them in securing the sustainability and longevity of natural habitats and lands and by protecting the ecosystems they depend on from destruction at the hands of local government, private sector initiatives, and themselves.97 U.S. government entities involved in international conservation activities differ in their approaches to involving Indigenous peoples and other local communities as potential stakeholders peoples and other local communities as potential stakeholders
in conservation efforts. The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (recently in conservation efforts. The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (recently reconstituted as reconstituted as
the U.S. Development Finance Corporation), for instance, maintained a policy to attain “consent” the U.S. Development Finance Corporation), for instance, maintained a policy to attain “consent”
~~of indigenous~~of Indigenous peoples for programs; State and Treasury suggest the need for “consultation.” peoples for programs; State and Treasury suggest the need for “consultation.”90
98 USAID, in its new policy on USAID, in its new policy on ~~indigenous~~Indigenous peoples, encourages attaining free, prior, and informed peoples, encourages attaining free, prior, and informed
consent as a “best practice” but also refers to the U.S. Announcement of Support for the UN consent as a “best practice” but also refers to the U.S. Announcement of Support for the UN
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as a “cal for a process of Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples as a “cal for a process of meaningful meaningful
consultation with [traditional] leaders, but not necessarily the agreement of those consultation with [traditional] leaders, but not necessarily the agreement of those leaders, before leaders, before
the actions addressed in those consultations are taken.”the actions addressed in those consultations are taken.”9199
Congress could seek to clarify the U.S. position on requirements for attaining the consent of Congress could seek to clarify the U.S. position on requirements for attaining the consent of
~~indigenous~~ Indigenous peoples in U.S. conservation programs, including by considering the establishment of peoples in U.S. conservation programs, including by considering the establishment of
~~a U.S. government position on the matter. Congress could also consider policy mechanisms to~~
~~integrate conservation programs with the livelihoods of indigenous peoples.~~

86 94 Sandra Díaz et al., Sandra Díaz et al., Summary for Policymakers of the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services of the Intergovernm ental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, IPBES, 2019, pp. , IPBES, 2019, pp.
15-16. 15-16.
8795 Jeremy Hance, “Conservation’s People Problem,” Jeremy Hance, “Conservation’s People Problem,” Mongabay, 2016. , 2016. ~~Hereafter~~Hereinafter Hance, “ Hance, “ Conservation’s People Conservation’s People
Problem,” 2016. Problem,” 2016.
8896 Hance, “Conservation’s People Problem,” 2016. Hance, “Conservation’s People Problem,” 2016.
8997 Claudia Sobrevila, Claudia Sobrevila, The Role of Indigenous Peoples in Biodiversity Conservation: The Natural but Often Forgotten
Partners, , ~~Working Paper no. 44300, T he World Bank, 2008.~~
90World Bank, working paper no. 44300, 2008. 98 USAID, USAID, Biodiversity and Development Handbook, 2015, p. 83. , 2015, p. 83.
9199 USAID, USAID, Policy on Promoting the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, March 2020, p. 21. , March 2020, p. 21.
Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
24

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~
21 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity a U.S. government position on the matter. For example, Congress might consider questions that would elucidate the requirement under P.L. 116-260 that asks for the “free, prior, and informed consent” of Indigenous communities affected by projects. Some questions might include what information should be passed to Indigenous communities, what form their consent should be in, and how to collaborate with the national government where Indigenous communities are located. Congress also could consider policy mechanisms to integrate conservation programs with the livelihoods of Indigenous peoples. Congressional Research Service 22 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity
Appendix. Selected Appropriations for
International Conservation Activities
Table A-1. Enacted Appropriations for Selected Federal Programs That Address
International Conservation, FY2018 to ~~FY2020~~FY2021
(in mil ions of U.S. dol ars) (in mil ions of U.S. dol ars)
Program
Description
FY2018 FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 Request
U.S. Agency for U.S. Agency for
Biodiversity conservation Biodiversity conservation ~~activities conducted by USAID~~
~~269.0~~
~~285.0~~
~~Not less~~
~~International~~
~~aim to help developing countries maintain biodiversity~~
~~than~~
~~Development~~
~~and habitats and the environmental services they provide.~~
~~315.0~~
~~(USAID)~~
~~USAID funds projects~~ 269.0 285.0 Not less Not less 217.7 International activities conducted by USAID than than Development aim to help developing countries 315.0 320.0 (USAID) maintain biodiversity and habitats Biodiversity and the environmental services Programs they provide. USAID funds projects and activities in approximately 60 and activities in approximately 60
~~Biodiversity~~
countries throughout the world and countries throughout the world and emphasizes sustainable development ~~emphasizes~~
~~Programs~~
~~sustainable development~~ and community-based and community-based
conservation. Efforts began in the 1970s to address the conservation. Efforts began in the 1970s to address the
conservation of forests and expanded to address conservation of forests and expanded to address
~~biological diversity~~ biological diversity and tropical deforestation in the and tropical deforestation in the
1980s. Biodiversity conservation activities are broadly 1980s. Biodiversity conservation activities are broadly
authorized by §119 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 authorized by §119 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961
(22 U.S.C. §2151q). (22 U.S.C. §2151q).
USAID funds to USAID funds to
This category covers funding This category covers funding ~~under several programs that~~ Not less
Not less Not less
Not less Not less
Not less Not less
~~address wildlife~~
~~address wildlife trafficking. A portion of funds are~~92.7 address wildlife under several programs that than
than than
than than
than than
poaching and poaching and
~~appropriated to in-country programs in Africa and Asia.~~
~~90.7~~
90address wildlife trafficking. A 90.7 90.7 100.7 .7
100.7 100.7
trafficking trafficking
portion of funds are appropriated to in-country programs in Africa and Asia. Another portion of funding is appropriated to the Another portion of funding is appropriated to the
International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement
Program to develop criminal justice systemsProgram to develop criminal justice systems ~~and~~
~~capabilities~~ and capabilities in foreign countries.in foreign countries. Wildlife trafficking is one Wildlife trafficking is one
of the il icit international crimes in the purview of this of the il icit international crimes in the purview of this
program. program.
Congressional Research Service 23 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Program Description FY2018 FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 Request International International
This funding covers international This funding covers international ~~treaties that address~~ 7.0 7.0
7.0 7.0
7.0 7.0
7.0 7.0
Conservation Conservation
treaties that address Programs conservation, including the Convention on International conservation, including the Convention on International
~~Programs~~
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES); U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification;(CITES); U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification; RAMSAR
~~RAMSAR~~ Convention on Wetlands; Intergovernmental Convention on Wetlands; Intergovernmental
Platform for Biodiversity and EcosystemPlatform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services;Services; U.N. U.N.
Forum on Forests;Forum on Forests; International Tropical Timber International Tropical Timber
Organization; and the Food and Organization; and the Food and ~~Agriculture~~
Agriculture Organization’s National ForestOrganization’s National Forest ~~Program~~ Program Facility. Facility.
U.N. Environment U.N. Environment
This funding goes towards the This funding goes towards the ~~U.N. Environment~~ 10.0
10.0 10.0
10. 10.06
10.6 10.6
~~Program~~
10.2 Program U.N. Environment Program (UNEP), which promotesProgram (UNEP), which promotes ~~environmental~~
environmental sustainability global y. UNEP workssustainability global y. UNEP works in themes related to in themes related to
climate change, disasters, ecosystems,climate change, disasters, ecosystems, ~~environmental~~
~~governance, chemicals~~ environmental governance, chemicals and waste, resourceand waste, resource efficiency, and efficiency, and
sustainability. sustainability.
U.S. Department U.S. Department
The GEF is a multilateral The GEF is a multilateral ~~environmental trust fund that~~ 139.6
139.6 139.6
139.6 139.6
139.6 139.6
149.3 of the Treasury of the Treasury
environmental trust fund that Global supports projects with global supports projects with global ~~environmental benefits~~
~~Global~~
~~related to~~ Environmental environmental benefits related to Facility (GEF) six areas: biodiversity, climatesix areas: biodiversity, climate change, ~~change,~~
~~Environmental~~
international waters,international waters, the ozone layer, land degradation, the ozone layer, land degradation,
~~Facility (GEF)~~
and persistent organic pol utants. Al ocation of funding and persistent organic pol utants. Al ocation of funding
across these six areas has varied by year. Established in across these six areas has varied by year. Established in
1991, the GEF has received funds from the United States 1991, the GEF has received funds from the United States
annual y since annual y since 1993. ~~1993.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
25

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

~~Program~~
~~Description~~
~~FY2018 FY2019 FY2020~~
U.S. Department U.S. Department
The TFCA (22 U.S.C. §2431 et The TFCA (22 U.S.C. §2431 et ~~seq.) authorizes debt-for-~~
0.0 0.0 0.0
015.0 15.0 .0
15.0 15.0
of the Treasury of the Treasury
~~nature transactions, where developing country debt is~~
~~Tropical Forest~~
~~exchanged for local funds to conserve~~ seq.) authorizes debt-for-nature Tropical Forest transactions, where developing Conservation Act country debt is exchanged for (TFCA) local funds to conserve tropical forests. tropical forests.
~~Conservation Act~~
~~(TFCA)~~Congressional Research Service 24 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Program Description FY2018 FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 Request
U.S. Department U.S. Department
The Sustainable Landscapes The Sustainable Landscapes ~~program aims to reduce~~
No No less Not less less
Not less Not less
Not less Not less
232.3 of State (State) of State (State)
~~greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation and forest~~program aims to reduce than
than than
than than
than than
and USAID and USAID
~~degradation. USAID and State draw funds for bilateral~~greenhouse gas emissions from
123.5 123.5
125.0 125.0
135.0 135.0
~~Sustainable~~
~~and regional Sustainable Landscape programming from~~
~~Landscapes~~
135.0 Sustainable deforestation and forest Landscapes degradation. USAID and State Programming draw funds for bilateral and regional Sustainable Landscape programming from larger accounts in their budgets, including Development larger accounts in their budgets, including Development
~~Programming~~
Assistance, Economic Support Fund, and International Assistance, Economic Support Fund, and International
Organizations and Programs. Organizations and Programs.
U.S. Fish and U.S. Fish and
The MSCF supports The MSCF supports ~~conservation efforts benefitting~~
11.1 11.1
11.6 11.6
15.0 15.0
~~Wildlife Service~~18.0 18.0 Wildlife Service conservation efforts benefitting (FWS)
certain species, often in certain species, often in Multinational conjunction with efforts under conjunction with efforts under
~~(FWS)~~Species
CITES (to which the United CITES (to which the United Conservation States is a party). The MSCF States is a party). The MSCF
~~Multinational~~Fund (MSCF)
provides funding to a range of countries for the provides funding to a range of countries for the
~~Species~~
conservation of African and Asian elephants, conservation of African and Asian elephants,
~~Conservation~~
rhinoceroses, tigers, great apes, tortoises, freshwaterrhinoceroses, tigers, great apes, tortoises, freshwater
~~Fund (MSCF)~~
turtles, and turtles, and ~~marine~~ marine turtles.turtles. This funding provides grants This funding provides grants
that target species and address habitat conservation, law that target species and address habitat conservation, law
enforcement,enforcement, and technical assistance for conserving and technical assistance for conserving
~~species~~ species under the MSCF. under the MSCF.
FWS Neotropical FWS Neotropical
This funding provides grants for This funding provides grants for ~~the conservation of~~ 3.9
3.9 3.9
34.9 .9
4.9 4.9
~~Migratory Bird~~
~~hundreds of~~ 7.9 Migratory Bird the conservation of hundreds of Fund bird species that migrate among North bird species that migrate among North
~~Fund~~
America, South America,America, South America, and the Caribbean. and the Caribbean.
FWS International FWS International
The FWS International Affairs The FWS International Affairs ~~program addresses wildlife~~
15.8 15.8
15.8 15.8
18.8 18.8
~~Affairs Program~~
23.0 29.3 Affairs Program program addresses wildlife conservation, wildlife trade, and the implementation of conservation, wildlife trade, and the implementation of
~~several~~ several U.S. wildlife laws. This office also coordinates U.S. wildlife laws. This office also coordinates
programs that address forest conservation programs that address forest conservation ~~indirectly by~~
indirectly by supporting the conservation of species and ecosystems.supporting the conservation of species and ecosystems.
Program components include International Conservation Program components include International Conservation
and International Wildlife Trade discussed below. and International Wildlife Trade discussed below.
 
~~International~~Sub-program
This program consists of species This program consists of species ~~and regional programs~~
~~8.3~~
~~8.3~~
~~10.8~~
~~Conservation that~~ [8.3] [8.3] [10.8] [10.3] [10.8] International and regional programs that Conservation provide technical and financial provide technical and financial assistance to conserve assistance to conserve
high-priority specieshigh-priority species and habitats. Congressional Research Service 25 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity Program Description FY2018 FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 Request  Sub-program~~and habitats.~~

~~International~~
This program is responsible for This program is responsible for ~~implementing CITES and~~
~~7.5~~
~~7.5~~
~~8.0~~
~~Wildlife~~
~~various~~ [7.5] [7.5] [8.0] [12.7] [18.5] International implementing CITES and various Wildlife domestic laws of the United domestic laws of the United Trade States to ensure that States to ensure that
~~Trade~~
the international wildlife trade is not harmful to the international wildlife trade is not harmful to
endangered and threatened wildlife around the world. endangered and threatened wildlife around the world.
U.S. Forest U.S. Forest
The FS International Programs The FS International Programs ~~office promotes~~
9.0 9.0
9.0 9.0
12.0 12.0
~~Service (FS)~~
~~sustainable~~ 15.4 15.4 Service (FS) office promotes sustainable International forest management and forest management and ~~biodiversity~~
~~International~~
Programs biodiversity conservation international y. The office has three main conservation international y. The office has three main
~~Programs~~
units: Technical Cooperation, Policy,units: Technical Cooperation, Policy, ~~and Disaster~~
and Disaster Assistance Response. Specific activities include managing Assistance Response. Specific activities include managing
protected areas,protected areas, protecting migratoryprotecting migratory species,species, engaging in engaging in
landscape-level forest planning, providing fire landscape-level forest planning, providing fire
management training, curbing invasive species, preventing management training, curbing invasive species, preventing
il egalil egal logging, promoting forest certification,logging, promoting forest certification, reducing the reducing the
impacts of forest use, and the development of nontimber impacts of forest use, and the development of nontimber
forest products. forest products.
Sources: P.L. 116-94, P.L. 116-6, P.L. 115-141; accompanying committee reports for Interior, Environment, and P.L. 116-94, P.L. 116-6, P.L. 115-141; accompanying committee reports for Interior, Environment, and
Related Agencies and for State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs; and Related Agencies and for State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs; and ~~FY2020~~FY2022 congressional budget congressional budget
~~Congressional Research Service~~
26

~~U.S. Support for International Conservation~~

justifications for Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies and for State, Foreign Operations, and Related justifications for Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies and for State, Foreign Operations, and Related
Programs. Programs.
Notes: FY2020 appropriations for biodiversity programs under USAID identify funding for some conservation FY2020 appropriations for biodiversity programs under USAID identify funding for some conservation
programs in the explanatory statement, including the Andean Amazon Program ($24.5 mil ion); Brazilian Amazon programs in the explanatory statement, including the Andean Amazon Program ($24.5 mil ion); Brazilian Amazon
Program ($11.0 mil ion); Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment ($43.0 mil ion); and Great Apes Program ($11.0 mil ion); Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment ($43.0 mil ion); and Great Apes
Conservation ($40.0 mil ion); among others. Conservation ($40.0 mil ion); among others.

Congressional Research Service 26 U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity
Author Information

Pervaze A. Sheikh Pervaze A. Sheikh
Katarina C. O'Regan Katarina C. O'Regan
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Analyst in Foreign Policy Analyst in Foreign Policy

Nick M. Brown Nick M. Brown
Richard K. Lattanzio Richard K. Lattanzio
Analyst in Foreign Assistance and Foreign Policy Analyst in Foreign Assistance and Foreign Policy
Specialist in Environmental Policy Specialist in Environmental Policy

Emily M. Morgenstern Emily M. Morgenstern

Analyst in Foreign Assistance and Foreign Policy Analyst in Foreign Assistance and Foreign Policy

Acknowledgments
Lucas Bermejo, former research associate, authored and contributed to earlier versions of this work. Lucas Bermejo, former research associate, authored and contributed to earlier versions of this work.

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