Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

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Women in the Middle East and North Africa:
~~June 19~~October 23, 2020 , 2020
Issues for Congress
Zoe Danon
~~The status of~~Many experts have found that women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) women in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) ~~has garnered widespread~~
~~Section Research Manager~~
~~interest among many Members of Congress. Many experts have found that women in this region~~

~~fare~~ fare Coordinator of Research worse than those in other parts of the world on a range of social, economic, legal and worse than those in other parts of the world on a range of social, economic, legal and
~~Sarah R. Collins~~Planning
political measures. Some attribute this underperformance to political measures. Some attribute this underperformance to prevailing gender roles and gender roles and ~~perspectives~~
~~Research Assistant~~
perspectives (including discriminatory laws and beliefs), (including discriminatory laws and beliefs), ~~and~~as well as challenges facing the challenges facing the Sarah R. Collins region overall (such as a region overall (such as a

preponderance of undemocratic governments, poor economic preponderance of undemocratic governments, poor economic Research Assistant growth,~~growth, civil~~ wars, and mass wars, and mass
displacement, which often disproportionately affect women). displacement, which often disproportionately affect women).

Some key issues facing many women in the region include Some key issues facing many women in the region include:
the following:   Unequal Legal Rights. Women in the MENA region face greater legal . Women in the MENA region face greater legal discrimination than women discrimination than women ~~in any~~
~~other region~~elsewhere, with differential laws on issues such as marriage, with differential laws on issues such as marriage ~~and divorce~~, freedom of movement, and , freedom of movement, and
inheritance, as well as limited to no legal protection from domestic violence. inheritance, as well as limited to no legal protection from domestic violence.
  Constraints on Economic Participation and Opportunity.. Regional conditions, in addition to Regional conditions, in addition to ~~gender-~~
gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant difference between men and women’s participation in based discrimination, contribute to a significant difference between men and women’s participation in
MENA economies. For example, women do not participate in the labor force to the same degree as women MENA economies. For example, women do not participate in the labor force to the same degree as women
in other regions, and those who do participate face on average nearly twice the levels of unemployment in other regions, and those who do participate face on average nearly twice the levels of unemployment
than men.than men.
  Underrepresentation in Political Processes. Women—particularly in . Women—particularly in ~~countries like~~ Yemen, Kuwait and Yemen, Kuwait and
Lebanon—are poorly represented in legislative bodies compared to the global average. Lebanon—are poorly represented in legislative bodies compared to the global average.
  Conflict and Displacement. Women and girls constitute the majority of displaced civilian . Women and girls constitute the majority of displaced civilian populations and populations and
are at a higher risk of exploitation and abuse in conflict and displacement settings. Experts are particularly are at a higher risk of exploitation and abuse in conflict and displacement settings. Experts are particularly
concerned about displaced populations in Syria and Yemen.concerned about displaced populations in Syria and Yemen.
  Lack of Representation in Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations. . ~~Despite international efforts to~~
~~improve women’s participation in peace negotiations, women have not played significant roles in~~Women have been sidelined in most formal efforts to ~~efforts to~~
resolve the resolve the MENA region’s three largest ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, region’s three largest ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, ~~or Yemen~~and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to involve women in these processes. .
  Susceptibility to Radicalization, Terrorism, and Violent Extremism. Women. Women, like men, are ~~are~~ susceptible to susceptible to
radicalization by extremist groups like the Islamic Stateradicalization by extremist groups like the Islamic State~~, which have targeted them~~. Some extremists target women for support and for support and
recruitment, though experts have noted that women recruitment, though experts have noted that women ~~may also~~also may be uniquely positioned to counter violent be uniquely positioned to counter violent
extremist ideology. In Egypt and Algeria, for example, extremist ideology. In Egypt and Algeria, for example, ~~the~~ governments have trained women clerics to governments have trained women clerics to
counter radicalization.counter radicalization.
  Disproportionate Vulnerability to Possible Impacts of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic. Women in the MENA region are experiencing unique and particularly dire effects from the COVID-19 pandemic, though the full effects remain to be seen. ~~. The~~
~~impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on women have yet to be fully realized. However, previous pandemics~~
~~and infectious disease outbreaks suggest that women will be differentially affected by the COVID-19~~
~~outbreak relative to men, particularly in the areas of employment, access to education, and sexual and~~
~~gender-based violence.~~
Over the years, many Members of Congress have supported U.S. efforts to bolster gender equality in the MENA region in the Over the years, many Members of Congress have supported U.S. efforts to bolster gender equality in the MENA region in the
context of advocating for women’s rights and well-being globally. Some context of advocating for women’s rights and well-being globally. Some ~~have also emphasized~~also have argued that supporting women’s that supporting women’s
rights may advance broader U.S. national security interests in the region. To support these positions, proponents sometimes rights may advance broader U.S. national security interests in the region. To support these positions, proponents sometimes
cite research suggesting that the relative status of women in society appears to be linked to greater political stability, security, cite research suggesting that the relative status of women in society appears to be linked to greater political stability, security,
and prosperity, as well as to better governance.and prosperity, as well as to better governance.
Congress has addressed issues related to women through foreign assistance appropriations and authorizations, resolutions, Congress has addressed issues related to women through foreign assistance appropriations and authorizations, resolutions,
statements and letters, and oversight activities. Some of these measures have been global in scope, while others have been statements and letters, and oversight activities. Some of these measures have been global in scope, while others have been
region-specific. region-specific. ~~In the 116th Congress and beyond~~Going forward, Members may consider whether improvements in the status of women , Members may consider whether improvements in the status of women
may contribute to other U.S. policy goals, and debate the appropriate level and types of U.S. engagement on the particular may contribute to other U.S. policy goals, and debate the appropriate level and types of U.S. engagement on the particular
challenges facing women in different MENA countries.challenges facing women in different MENA countries.
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Introduction
Congressional efforts to improve conditions for women in the Middle East and North Africa Congressional efforts to improve conditions for women in the Middle East and North Africa
(MENA) have garnered widespread support since at least the early 2000s. The broad appeal may (MENA) have garnered widespread support since at least the early 2000s. The broad appeal may
reflect a convergence of goals for those advocating positive reflect a convergence of goals for those advocating positive ~~changes~~change for women as an end-goal in for women as an end-goal in
itself, and those supporting such itself, and those supporting such ~~changes~~change primarily as a potential means to advance broader U.S. primarily as a potential means to advance broader U.S.
interests in the region, such as peace and stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and interests in the region, such as peace and stability, countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and
fostering good governance and human rightsfostering good governance and human rights—goals that have been assigned unequal priority for decades. Such support reflects a growing body of research . Such support reflects a growing body of research
suggesting that improving opportunities and conditions for women in a society may suggesting that improving opportunities and conditions for women in a society may ~~support~~promote such such
outcomes both outcomes both ~~global y~~ globally and in the region. and in the region.
This report provides background and data on key issues regarding women in the MENA region This report provides background and data on key issues regarding women in the MENA region
and describes selected ways in which Congress has engaged on issues such as women’s legal and describes selected ways in which Congress has engaged on issues such as women’s legal
rights, economic participation, and political representation; the humanitarian impact of conflict rights, economic participation, and political representation; the humanitarian impact of conflict
and displacement on women; women’s inclusion in conflict resolution and peace processes; and displacement on women; women’s inclusion in conflict resolution and peace processes;
violence against women; and women’s roles in perpetuating and combatting violent extremism. violence against women; and women’s roles in perpetuating and combatting violent extremism.
Many Members of Congress have demonstrated an interest in women’s issues, both within Many Members of Congress have demonstrated an interest in women’s issues, both within
~~MENA and global y,~~ the MENA region and globally, through legislation (through legislation (seesee Appendix), statements and letters, direct , statements and letters, direct
engagement with regional leaders, and oversight. engagement with regional leaders, and oversight.
For the purposes of this report, the MENA region comprises the areas defined as “Near East” by For the purposes of this report, the MENA region comprises the areas defined as “Near East” by
the State Department: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, the State Department: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya,
Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Yemen.1Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Yemen.1
Current Status of Women in the MENA Region
The World Economic Forum’s (WEF’s) 2020 Global Gender Gap Report ranked the Arab states The World Economic Forum’s (WEF’s) 2020 Global Gender Gap Report ranked the Arab states
of the MENA region the lowest in the world for achieving gender equality, with MENA states of the MENA region the lowest in the world for achieving gender equality, with MENA states
comprising 13 of the 25 worst-performing countries comprising 13 of the 25 worst-performing countries ~~global y~~globally.2 The region also performed poorly .2 The region also performed poorly
in the 2019 Women Peace and Security (WPS) Index, in which MENA states comprise 7 of the 25 in the 2019 Women Peace and Security (WPS) Index, in which MENA states comprise 7 of the 25
worst-performing countries.3 Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen—worst-performing countries.3 Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen—al all countries sustaining significant countries sustaining significant
levels of violent conflictlevels of violent conflict at the time of survey—were among the 10 worst performers on the WPS Index. The gender —were among the 10 worst performers on the WPS Index. The gender
gap in the region (as measured by WEF) narrowed by 0.5 percentage points since 2018 and 3.6 gap in the region (as measured by WEF) narrowed by 0.5 percentage points since 2018 and 3.6
points since 2006: points since 2006: ~~assuming the same rate of progress into the future, it would take approximately~~

~~1 T his~~before the outbreak of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which is expected to widen the global gender gap, it would have taken 1 This report does not include data on the West Bank or the Gaza Strip. report does not include data on the West Bank or the Gaza Strip. ~~CRS does not take a position on the political~~
~~status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Some~~ Some of the key sources on which this report relies do not provide data for the of the key sources on which this report relies do not provide data for the
West Bank andWest Bank and Gaza. For information on the status of women in the West Bank and Gaza,Gaza. For information on the status of women in the West Bank and Gaza, see for example: U.N. see for example: U.N.
Economic and SocialEconomic and Social Commission for Western Asia, “Commission for Western Asia, “ Social and Economic Situation of Palestinian Women and Girls Social and Economic Situation of Palestinian Women and Girls
(July 2016 – June 2018),” E/ESCWA/ECW/2019/(July 2016 – June 2018),” E/ESCWA/ECW/2019/~~T echnical~~Technical Paper 2, January 9, 2019. Paper 2, January 9, 2019.
2 The~~2 T he~~ WEF index “benchmarks national gender gaps WEF index “benchmarks national gender gaps on economic, education, health and political criteria, and provides on economic, education, health and political criteria, and provides
country rankings that allow for effective comparisons across regions and income groups.” country rankings that allow for effective comparisons across regions and income groups.” ~~T he~~The 13 countries are: 13 countries are:
Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Iran, SaudiYemen, Iraq, Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia,Arabia, Lebanon, Oman, Morocco, Jordan, Qatar, Egypt, Bahrain, and Algeria. WEF, Lebanon, Oman, Morocco, Jordan, Qatar, Egypt, Bahrain, and Algeria. WEF,
Global Gender Gap Report 2020, December 2019. , December 2019.
3 3 ~~T he~~The WPS Index measures WPS Index measures performance across three dimensions of a woman’s wellbeing:performance across three dimensions of a woman’s wellbeing: inclusion (economic, social, inclusion (economic, social,
and political), justice (formal lawsand political), justice (formal laws ~~and~~ and informal discrimination), and security (at the family, community, and societal informal discrimination), and security (at the family, community, and societal
levels). Countries in the bottom 25 are: Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, and Algeria.levels). Countries in the bottom 25 are: Yemen, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Egypt, Lebanon, and Algeria. Georgetown Institute Georgetown Institute
for Women, Peace and Securityfor Women, Peace and Security (GIWPS) and Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), (GIWPS) and Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO), ~~Wom en~~Women, Peace and Security Index
2019/20: Tracking sustainable peace through inclusion, justice, and security for ~~wom en~~ women, October 2019. , October 2019.
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Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

approximately 150 years to close the 150 years to close the MENA region’s gender gap.4 Not gender gap.4 Not ~~al MENA~~ all MENA countries perform countries perform ~~equal y~~equally poorly, poorly, asas Figure 1
~~below il ustrates~~below illustrates. For example, Israel scores higher than other MENA states in both rankings. . For example, Israel scores higher than other MENA states in both rankings.
Figure 1. MENA Performance on Global Measures of Women’s Equality

Sources: Created by CRS with data fromCreated by CRS with data from World Economic Forum,World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2020, December , December
2019; Georgetown Institute for Women,2019; Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security and Peace Research Institute Oslo, Peace and Security and Peace Research Institute Oslo, Women, Peace
and Security Index 2019/20, October 2019. , October 2019.
Key Trends and Challenges
Explanations for the region’s underperformance on most measures of gender equality are subject Explanations for the region’s underperformance on most measures of gender equality are subject
to debate, but to debate, but ~~general y fal~~ generally fall into two overlapping categories: into two overlapping categories: prevailing gender roles and perspectives, andand
challenges facing the MENA region overall. The 2019 WPS Index posits that the region’s poor The 2019 WPS Index posits that the region’s poor
performance is “traceable largely to high levels of organized violence and discriminatory laws performance is “traceable largely to high levels of organized violence and discriminatory laws
that disempower women, often coupled with low rates of inclusion, that disempower women, often coupled with low rates of inclusion, ~~especial y in paid~~
~~employment.”5 Since the early 2000s, some experts and policymakers have increasingly related~~
~~these issues to research examining possible links between the wel -being of women and the~~

4 WEF, 4 WEF, Global Gender Gap Report 2020. . ~~T his~~This is the same amount of time as WEF predicts will is the same amount of time as WEF predicts will take North America to take North America to
close its gap, given a slowerclose its gap, given a slower projected rate of change. projected rate of change.
5 GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20~~, p. 1.~~For more on the impact of COVID-19 on the gender gap, see Johnny Wood, “COVID-19 has worsened gender inequality,” World Economic Forum, September 4, 2020.
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Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

~~overal~~ especially in paid employment.”5 Since the early 2000s, some experts and policymakers have increasingly related these issues to research examining possible links between the well-being of women and the overall stability of societies (see stability of societies (see “Research on Women, Prosperity, Good Governance, and
Security”). .
Discriminatory Laws and Beliefs
Many experts postulate that some combination of institutionalized legalMany experts postulate that some combination of institutionalized legal discrimination, cultural discrimination, cultural
practices, and religious beliefs about women contribute to gender inequality in the MENA region. practices, and religious beliefs about women contribute to gender inequality in the MENA region.
Legal discrimination (discussed in Legal discrimination (discussed in “Legal Rights”) and cultural views relegating women to a and cultural views relegating women to a
lower standing in many regional countries appear to be pervasive, despite some signs of change. lower standing in many regional countries appear to be pervasive, despite some signs of change.
Public opinion surveys in predominantly Arab countries, which make up most but not Public opinion surveys in predominantly Arab countries, which make up most but not al all of the of the
MENA region, suggest that certain cultural beliefs against women’s equality are prevalent. For MENA region, suggest that certain cultural beliefs against women’s equality are prevalent. For
example, Arab Barometer’s 2019 survey on women’s rights in example, Arab Barometer’s 2019 survey on women’s rights in 1512 Arab countries found that the Arab countries found that the
majority of survey respondents believed that men are better leaders and should have greater say in majority of survey respondents believed that men are better leaders and should have greater say in
family decision making, and that women should not be family decision making, and that women should not be ~~al owed~~allowed to travel independently or have an to travel independently or have an
equal share in inheritance (seequal share in inheritance (see Figure 2).66
Figure 2. Public Opinion on Women’s Rights in Select MENA Countries

Source: Created by CRS with data from Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Created by CRS with data from Kathrin Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Rights in the Middle East and North
Africa,” Arab Barometer,Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. The Arab BarometerAugust 2019. The Arab Barometer survey included survey included 1410 countries within the scope of countries within the scope of
this reportthis report~~: Algeria, Bahrain~~—Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, , Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, ~~Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tunisia,~~
~~Qatar, and Yemen~~Tunisia, and Yemen—as well as Sudan and Palestine. .
Regional Dynamics
Experts also point to Experts also point to ~~chal enges~~challenges facing the region as a whole to explain why women in the MENA facing the region as a whole to explain why women in the MENA
region fare worse than women in most other regions in terms of a broad range of political, legal, region fare worse than women in most other regions in terms of a broad range of political, legal,
and socioeconomic indicators. Most MENA states have shown improvement on these indicators and socioeconomic indicators. Most MENA states have shown improvement on these indicators
over the last few generations.7 However, decades of civil and inter-state wars, a lack of effective over the last few generations.7 However, decades of civil and inter-state wars, a lack of effective
~~governing institutions, and a lag in developing robust, diversified economies arguably have~~
~~inhibited this progress. The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, and the wave of unrest known as the~~

5 GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20, p. 1. 6 One 2019 study found that people who agree that men are better political leaders than women, regardless6 One 2019 study found that people who agree that men are better political leaders than women, regardless of their of their
gender, are more likely to state that corruption is justifiable. Seegender, are more likely to state that corruption is justifiable. See Ortrun Merkle and Pui-Hang Wong, “Ortrun Merkle and Pui-Hang Wong, “ It Is All about It Is All about
Power: Corruption, Patriarchy and the Political Participation of Women,” in Power: Corruption, Patriarchy and the Political Participation of Women,” in Women and Sustainable Development:
~~Em powering Wom en~~Empowering Women in Africa, ed.ed. Maty Konte and Nyasha Maty Konte and Nyasha ~~T irivayi~~Tirivayi (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), pp. 353-368. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2020), pp. 353-368.
7 For a historical look at the status of women in the MENA region, see Nikki R. Keddie,7 For a historical look at the status of women in the MENA region, see Nikki R. Keddie, Women in the Middle East:
Past and Present (Princeton University Press, 2007); (Princeton University Press, 2007); and, Freedom House, Freedom House, ~~Wom en~~Women’s Rights in the Middle East and ~~North~~
~~Africa, 2010.~~
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~~“Arab Spring” that started in 2011 led to the fal~~ governing institutions, and a lag in developing robust, diversified economies arguably have inhibited this progress. The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, and the wave of unrest that followed the “Arab Spring” in 2011 led to the fall of longstanding leaders in some countries, and of longstanding leaders in some countries, and
political conflict and sectarian violence in others. Those changes and the rise of the Islamic State political conflict and sectarian violence in others. Those changes and the rise of the Islamic State
(IS, aka ISIS/ISIL) in 2014 produced a general deterioration in human development indicators (IS, aka ISIS/ISIL) in 2014 produced a general deterioration in human development indicators
across the region.8across the region.8
A majority of countries in the region are currently experiencing some combination of war, A majority of countries in the region are currently experiencing some combination of war,
political instability, terrorism, economic political instability, terrorism, economic ~~chal enges~~challenges, and/or poor governance. , and/or poor governance. The COVID-19 pandemic has layered on additional challenges to those preexisting conditions. These phenomena These phenomena
have had negative impacts on have had negative impacts on ~~the whole society~~societies as a whole, including some effects that are unique to, or , including some effects that are unique to, or
worse for, women (see below). worse for, women (see below). In Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen Iraq, Libya, Syria, and Yemen ~~face~~women have faced wars and/or terrorist/insurgent wars and/or terrorist/insurgent
violence that violence that ~~are eroding~~have eroded central governance central governance ~~in each country and producing~~ and produced large-scale large-scale
humanitarian crises. humanitarian crises. ~~Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon experienced significant popular~~
~~protests in 2019~~Some have warned that Lebanon is nearing state collapse after a series of failed governments, an economic crisis, and an explosion in August 2020 that left hundreds of thousands displaced from the capital city, Beirut.9 Algeria and Egypt, after facing protests in 2019 and 2020, doubled down on authoritarian responses, imprisoning those speaking out against the government. Freedom House noted in 2020 that region-wide, “credible elections remain . Freedom House noted in 2020 that region-wide, “credible elections remain
exceedingly rare.”exceedingly rare.”910 Tunisia remains the sole MENA country to have made a seemingly durable Tunisia remains the sole MENA country to have made a seemingly durable
transition to democracy as a result of the 2011 uprisings, but it continues to struggle to build transition to democracy as a result of the 2011 uprisings, but it continues to struggle to build
strong government institutions and overcome political polarization. strong government institutions and overcome political polarization.
Research on Women, Prosperity, Good Governance, and Security
During the past two decades, research linking the During the past two decades, research linking the ~~wel~~ well-being of women and the economic, social, -being of women and the economic, social,
and politicaland political stability and security of societies has gained prominence.stability and security of societies has gained prominence.1011 Some U.S. policymakers Some U.S. policymakers
have sought to examine these links in the context of the MENA region, suggesting that have sought to examine these links in the context of the MENA region, suggesting that
improvements to women’s status have the potential to improvements to women’s status have the potential to ~~achieve~~contribute to other U.S. regional policy other U.S. regional policy
objectives by improving outcomes for the region as a whole. Below is a summary of some of the objectives by improving outcomes for the region as a whole. Below is a summary of some of the
research as it pertains to U.S. policy objectives in the region, such as research as it pertains to U.S. policy objectives in the region, such as promoting peace and stability, peace and stability,
countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and fostering good governance. countering terrorism, increasing prosperity, and fostering good governance.
  Women’s equality appears to foster increased socioeconomic development
and political stability..1112 Studies have demonstrated a correlation between the Studies have demonstrated a correlation between the
~~extent to which women are involved and empowered in a country’s economy and~~
~~politics and better outcomes for the overal society in terms of economic growth~~
~~and stability.12 The World Bank has argued that “gender equality is smart~~

~~8 Since the Arab Spring,~~ North Africa, 2010. 8 Since the Arab Spring, all but two MENA countries have witnessedall but two MENA countries have witnessed a decline in Human Development Indicators: in a decline in Human Development Indicators: in
2009, only Yemen 2009, only Yemen ~~was categorized as low human development~~met ‘low human development’ criteria, but by 2018 Egypt, Morocco, and Syria had joined , but by 2018 Egypt, Morocco, and Syria had joined
Yemen in that category. Yemen in that category. ~~Only~~Within the region, only Iran, Qatar, and Saudi Iran, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia sawArabia saw improvements in their global rankings.improvements in their global rankings. 9 “Preventing State Collapse in Lebanon,” International Crisis Group, October 1, 2020. 10 While the While the
number of flawednumber of flawed democracies in the region doubleddemocracies in the region doubled from one in 2009 (Israel) to two in 2019 (Israel and from one in 2009 (Israel) to two in 2019 (Israel and ~~T unisia~~Tunisia), five ), five
countries experienced decreasescountries experienced decreases in democracy scores over the last decadein democracy scores over the last decade ~~(Bah rain~~ (Bahrain, Lebanon, Kuwait, Syria,, Lebanon, Kuwait, Syria, and and
~~Yemen). Sarah Repucci, Freedom in the World 2020: A Leaderless Struggle for Dem ocracy, Freedom House, February~~
~~2020.~~
~~9 Sarah Repucci,~~ Yemen). Freedom House, Freedom in the World 2020: : A Leaderless Struggle for Democracy~~, Freedom House, February 2020.~~
10. 11 Increased international awareness of this issue Increased international awareness of this issue ~~led~~ led to the adoption of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1325 on to the adoption of U.N. Security Council Resolution 1325 on
women, peace, and security in October 2000 and women, peace, and security in October 2000 and ~~eight~~nine subsequent subsequent ~~resolutions~~ resolutions, the most recent being Resolution 2493 (2019). Resolution 1325 called on U.N. member . Resolution 1325 called on U.N. member
states to increase women’s participation at all decision-making levels, states to increase women’s participation at all decision-making levels, ~~ensure~~ ensure the protection of and respect for human the protection of and respect for human
rights of women, support local women’s peace initiatives, provide suitable women candidates as U.N. special rights of women, support local women’s peace initiatives, provide suitable women candidates as U.N. special
representatives and envoys, and create special measures to protect women and girlsrepresentatives and envoys, and create special measures to protect women and girls from violence in situations of from violence in situations of
armed conflict. armed conflict.
~~11 T his~~ 12 This report generally accepts these prevailing conclusions that improvements in social conditions for women and report generally accepts these prevailing conclusions that improvements in social conditions for women and
increased participation by women are responsibleincreased participation by women are responsible for improvements in other areas, but acknowledgesfor improvements in other areas, but acknowledges that other that other
interpretations of these positive correlations are possible. For a discussioninterpretations of these positive correlations are possible. For a discussion on causation see for example Arjan de Haan, Congressional Research Service 4 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress extent to which women are involved and empowered in a country’s economy and politics and better outcomes for the overall society in terms of economic growth and stability.13 The World Bank has argued that “gender equality is smart ~~on causation see for example Arjan de Haan,~~
~~“T he Win-Win Case for Women’s Economic Empowerment and Growth: Review of the Literatur e,” International~~
~~Development Research Centre, GrOW Working Paper Series, March 2017.~~
~~12 See, for example, Esther Duflo, “Women Empowerment and Economic Development,”~~ ~~Journal of Economic~~
~~Literature, vol. 50, no. 4 (2012), pp. 1051 -79.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

economics,” asserting that gender equality enhances productivity and improves economics,” asserting that gender equality enhances productivity and improves
other development outcomes, including prospects for the next generation and for other development outcomes, including prospects for the next generation and for
the quality of societal policies and institutions.the quality of societal policies and institutions.13
14   Women’s political participation may be critical to developing good
governance and sustaining lasting democratic transitions. Various studies . Various studies
have found that women’s empowerment as political leaders is correlated with have found that women’s empowerment as political leaders is correlated with
greater greater government responsiveness to citizen needs, increased cooperation across party and responsiveness to citizen needs, increased cooperation across party and
ethnic lines, decreased levels of corruption, lower levels of civil conflict, and a ethnic lines, decreased levels of corruption, lower levels of civil conflict, and a
reduced risk of civil war relapse.reduced risk of civil war relapse.14
15   Women’s and girls’ experiences in conflict and displacement settings may
have long-term impacts on a country’s economic and social development.
Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against women and girls tends to Sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) against women and girls tends to
increase during conflict and humanitarian crises due to the sudden breakdown of increase during conflict and humanitarian crises due to the sudden breakdown of
family and social structures family and social structures ~~after~~and security deterioration amid forced displacement. forced displacement.1516 Gaps in education, Gaps in education,
combined with war-related trauma and SGBV, may have long-term implications combined with war-related trauma and SGBV, may have long-term implications
for the region’s economic growthfor the region’s economic growth,; rates of child, early, and forced marriage and rates of child, early, and forced marriage and
~~fertility,~~fertility; and maternal and child health. and maternal and child health.1617 A World Bank study estimates that A World Bank study estimates that
ending childhood marriage ending childhood marriage ~~global y~~globally would have significant socioeconomic would have significant socioeconomic
benefits.benefits.1718
  Women’s participation in peace processes may enhance post-conflict
stability.. Studies have shown that the inclusion of women in peace processes can Studies have shown that the inclusion of women in peace processes can
help to reduce conflict and improve long-term prospects for peace.help to reduce conflict and improve long-term prospects for peace.~~18 A recent~~
~~study estimated that the participation of women and civil society groups in a~~
~~peace negotiation makes a peace agreement 64% less likely to fail and 35% more~~
~~likely to last at least 15 years.19~~

~~13 T he World Bank,~~ ~~World~~ 19 A 2015 “The Win-Win Case for Women’s Economic Empowerment and Growth: Review of the Literature,” International Development Research Centre, GrOW Working Paper Series, March 2017. 13 See, for example, Esther Duflo, “Women Empowerment and Economic Development,” Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 50, no. 4 (2012), pp. 1051-79. 14 The World Bank, World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development, 2012; , 2012; ~~T he~~The World Bank, World Bank,
Opening Doors: Gender Equality and ~~Developm ent~~Development in the Middle East and North Africa , 2013. , 2013.
14 15 See, See, for example, David Dollar et al., “Are Women Really the ‘Fairer’ Sex? for example, David Dollar et al., “Are Women Really the ‘Fairer’ Sex? ~~Co rruption~~Corruption and Women in and Women in
Government,” Government,” Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, vol. 49 (2001), pp. 423-9; Georgina Waylen, “Gender , vol. 49 (2001), pp. 423-9; Georgina Waylen, “Gender
and and ~~T ransitions~~Transitions: What do We Know?” : What do We Know?” Democratization, vol. 10, no. 1 (2003), pp. 157-78; Erik Melander, “Gender , vol. 10, no. 1 (2003), pp. 157-78; Erik Melander, “Gender
Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict,” Equality and Intrastate Armed Conflict,” International Studies International Studies Quarterly, vol. 49, no. 4 (2005), vol. 49, no. 4 (2005),
pp. 695–714; Jacqueline Demeritt et al., “pp. 695–714; Jacqueline Demeritt et al., “ Female Participation and Civil War Relapse,”Female Participation and Civil War Relapse,” Civil Wars,, vol. 16, no. 3 vol. 16, no. 3
(2014). (2014).
1516 See, See, for example, U.N. Population Fund, for example, U.N. Population Fund, Humanitarian Action: 2019 Overview, December 2018; and U.N. Security , December 2018; and U.N. Security
Council, Council, Conflict-related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General, S/2019/280, March 29, , S/2019/280, March 29,
2019. 2019. ~~T he~~The WPS Index 2019 also posits that intimate partner violence is correlated with security in a country at large, WPS Index 2019 also posits that intimate partner violence is correlated with security in a country at large,
finding that “a 1 percentage point increase in the share of women experiencing current intimate partner violence is finding that “a 1 percentage point increase in the share of women experiencing current intimate partner violence is
associated with a 1.4 percent increase in organized violence.” GIWPS and PRIO, associated with a 1.4 percent increase in organized violence.” GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index
2019/20, p. 5. , p. 5.
1617 See, See, for example, Oxfam, “Factsheet: Women, Peace and Security in the Middlefor example, Oxfam, “Factsheet: Women, Peace and Security in the Middle East and North Africa Region,” East and North Africa Region,”
February 2016; UNHCR,February 2016; UNHCR, ~~“ T urn the T ide~~ “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,”: Refugee Education in Crisis,” ~~August 2018.~~
~~17 T he~~ August 2018. 18 The study estimated the welfare benefits from lower population growth due study estimated the welfare benefits from lower population growth due to ending child marriage globally would to ending child marriage globally would
be $22 billion in 2015 and $566 billion in 2030 (for 106 countries). Quentin Wodon et al., “Economic Impacts of Child be $22 billion in 2015 and $566 billion in 2030 (for 106 countries). Quentin Wodon et al., “Economic Impacts of Child
Marriage: GlobalMarriage: Global Synthesis Report,” Synthesis Report,” ~~T he~~The World Bank, June 2017. World Bank, June 2017.
1819 For a review of the literature on women’s involvement in peace processes and the positive correlation with success For a review of the literature on women’s involvement in peace processes and the positive correlation with success
and durability, seeand durability, see Maxwell Adjei,Maxwell Adjei, “Women’s participation in peace processes: a review of literature,” “Women’s participation in peace processes: a review of literature,” Journal of
~~Peace Education, vol. 16, no. 2 (2019), pp. 133-154.~~
~~19 Marie O’Reilly, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and T hania Paffenholz,~~ ~~Re-Imagining Peacemaking: Women’s Roles in~~
~~Peace Processes, International Peace Institute, June 2015.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
5

~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

 Women’s status in the household may be linked to levels of extremism in a
~~community. Some~~ Congressional Research Service 5 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress study estimated that the participation of women and civil society groups in a peace negotiation makes a peace agreement 64% less likely to fail and 35% more likely to last at least 15 years.20  Women’s status and roles may be tied to relative terrorism outcomes. Some studies have linked the status of women at the household studies have linked the status of women at the household
level to the resilience of a state and community to violence and violent level to the resilience of a state and community to violence and violent
extremism.extremism.2021 Terrorist groups have tasked female members with concealing Terrorist groups have tasked female members with concealing
explosive devices, relaying communications, ferrying funds, and the like, explosive devices, relaying communications, ferrying funds, and the like,
~~leveraging~~assuming that women are less likely to be searched or otherwise draw attention that women are less likely to be searched or otherwise draw attention
from security forces.from security forces.2122 At the same time, some research found that women may At the same time, some research found that women may
be uniquely positioned as “mitigators” of terrorism, both as “predictors” and be uniquely positioned as “mitigators” of terrorism, both as “predictors” and
“preventers.”“preventers.”2223
Overview of U.S. Policy
Successive U.S. Successive U.S. ~~administrations~~Administrations at least since the George W. Bush presidency have expressed an at least since the George W. Bush presidency have expressed an
interest in improving women’s conditions in the MENA region, and have established or supported interest in improving women’s conditions in the MENA region, and have established or supported
programs aimed at pursuing that goal. programs aimed at pursuing that goal. Successive Congresses have authorized initiatives and appropriated funds to enable these efforts. At the same time, because of the complex nature of broader At the same time, because of the complex nature of broader
U.S. policy, activities that U.S. policy, activities that ~~specifical y~~specifically address the address the ~~wel~~ well-being of women often compete with other -being of women often compete with other
regional policy priorities. regional policy priorities.
The primary U.S. government agencies that address women in the region are the State The primary U.S. government agencies that address women in the region are the State
Department and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). BilateralDepartment and the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Bilateral aid funded aid funded
by the State Department and USAID-funded democracy and governance activities routinely by the State Department and USAID-funded democracy and governance activities routinely
incorporate the promotion of women’s equality.incorporate the promotion of women’s equality.2324 The Trump Administration requested The Trump Administration requested
approximately $75 approximately $75 ~~mil ion~~ million and $83 and $83 ~~mil ion~~ million in FY2019 and FY2020 respectively for State in FY2019 and FY2020 respectively for State
Department and USAID genderDepartment and USAID gender-focused programs in the region. programs in the region.2425 Broader U.S. foreign affairs Peace Education, vol. 16, no. 2 (2019), pp. 133-154. 20 Marie O’Reilly, Andrea Ó Súilleabháin, and Thania Paffenholz, Re-Imagining Peacemaking: Women’s Roles in Peace Processes, International Peace Institute, June 2015. 21 Krista Couture, “A Gendered ~~Broader U.S. foreign affairs and~~
~~security assistance programs addressing cross-cutting issues such as global health, humanitarian~~
~~activities, defense, and legal and political rights may also address issues related to women.~~
~~The U.S. government does not consistently or comprehensively track the number or cost of~~
~~programs that address the status of women in the MENA region. Therefore, it is unclear how~~
~~much money the United States spends annual y on such programs. Capturing this information is~~
~~complicated by the varying degree to which programs focus on women, and the extent to which~~
~~they focus on the region or are part of broader global initiatives. Despite a lack of government-~~

~~20 Krista Couture, “A Gendered~~ Approach to Countering Violent Extremism: Lessons Learned From Women in Approach to Countering Violent Extremism: Lessons Learned From Women in
PeacebuildingPeacebuilding and Conflict Prevention Applied Successfullyand Conflict Prevention Applied Successfully in Bangladeshin Bangladesh and Morocco,” Brookings Institution, and Morocco,” Brookings Institution,
Policy Paper, July 2014; , July 2014; ~~T estimony~~Testimony of Dr. Valerie Hudson, of Dr. Valerie Hudson, in Housein House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on ~~T errorism~~Terrorism, ,
Nonproliferation and Nonproliferation and ~~T rade,~~ ~~Wom en~~Trade, Women’s Role in Countering Terrorism , hearing 115th Cong., 2nd sess.,, hearing 115th Cong., 2nd sess., February 27, 2018 February 27, 2018
(Washington DC: GPO,(Washington DC: GPO, ~~2018). Dr. Hudson’s study, drawing data on foreign fighters from the Soufan Center, found~~
~~that the status of women at the household level is correlated with a reduction in the incidence of a country producing~~
~~foreign fighters.~~
~~21 Jamille Bigio and Rebecca T urkington~~ 2018); Valerie Hudson et. al., The First Political Order: How Sex Shapes Governance and National Security Worldwide (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2020). 22 Jamille Bigio and Rebecca Turkington, “U.S. Counterterrorism’s Big Blindspot: Women,” , “U.S. Counterterrorism’s Big Blindspot: Women,” The New Republic, March , March
27, 2019. For an in-depth look at one terrorist organization that has utilized this tactic to unprecedented levels, see 27, 2019. For an in-depth look at one terrorist organization that has utilized this tactic to unprecedented levels, see
Hilary Matfess, Hilary Matfess, ~~Wom en~~Women and the War on Boko Haram : Wives, Weapons, Witnesses (Zed Books, 2017).(Zed Books, 2017).
2223 For a discussion For a discussion of the range of roles women play in perpetrating and mitigating terrorism, see Jamille Bigioof the range of roles women play in perpetrating and mitigating terrorism, see Jamille Bigio and and
Rachel Vogelstein, “Women and Rachel Vogelstein, “Women and ~~T errorism~~Terrorism: Hidden : Hidden ~~T hreats~~Threats, Forgotten Partners,” Council on Foreign Relations, , Forgotten Partners,” Council on Foreign Relations,
DiscussionDiscussion Paper, May 2019. Paper, May 2019.
23 24 USAID’s USAID’s ~~Gender~~ Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment PolicyEquality and Women’s Empowerment Policy seeks to “advance gender equality through integrated seeks to “advance gender equality through integrated
approaches as wellapproaches as well as specific programming that dives deeper into the gender disparities across the region.” See as specific programming that dives deeper into the gender disparities across the region.” See
USAID,USAID, “Middle East Regional:“Middle East Regional: Democracy and Governance,” last updatedDemocracy and Governance,” last updated May 4, 2018. May 4, 2018.
2425 FY2019 and FY2020 Congressional Budget FY2019 and FY2020 Congressional Budget Justification supplementary tables for the Department of State, Foreign Justification supplementary tables for the Department of State, Foreign
Operations, and Related Programs. Operations, and Related Programs. ~~T he~~The MENA region accounted for 8% and 11% of the FY2019 and FY2020 regional MENA region accounted for 8% and 11% of the FY2019 and FY2020 regional
fundingfunding ~~request s~~ requests for gender for gender ~~programs.~~
programs. The FY2021 Congressional Budget Justification does not similarly specify how much funding is requested for gender programs in the region. Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
6 6

link to page 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

~~wide information~~ and security assistance programs addressing cross-cutting issues such as global health, humanitarian activities, defense, and legal and political rights may also address women’s issues. It is unclear how much money the United States spends annually on programs that address the status of women in the MENA region: the executive branch does not consistently or comprehensively track the number or cost of relevant programs, and Congress has not mandated such accounting. Capturing this information is complicated by the varying degree to which programs focus on women, and the extent to which they focus on the region or are part of broader global initiatives. Despite a lack of government-wide accounting, some U.S. agencies have provided , some U.S. agencies have provided ~~potential y~~potentially useful snapshots of their useful snapshots of their
activities. For example, USAID estimates that in activities. For example, USAID estimates that in FY2018~~FY2018 (the most recent year for which~~
~~comprehensive data are available)~~, it spent over $30 , it spent over $30 ~~mil ion~~ million on projects or activities in the region on projects or activities in the region
in which gender equality or women’s and girls’ empowerment was the primary or secondary goal; in which gender equality or women’s and girls’ empowerment was the primary or secondary goal;
an additionalan additional ~~$3.4 mil ion was spent~~ $3.4 million was spent by USAID on projects targeting gender-based violence and trafficking on projects targeting gender-based violence and trafficking
in persons.in persons.2526
Selected MENA-Specific Congressional Actions
In recent Congresses, legislation introduced and/or enacted aims to address issues of women’s In recent Congresses, legislation introduced and/or enacted aims to address issues of women’s
rights and rights and ~~wel being~~ well-being in the MENA region. Some examples are described below. (See in the MENA region. Some examples are described below. (See Appendix A
for additional legislation.)for additional legislation.)
  FY2020 Appropriations. Section 7041(a) of P.L. 116-94 includes a provision . Section 7041(a) of P.L. 116-94 includes a provision
that withholds $300 that withholds $300 ~~mil ion~~ million of Foreign Militaryof Foreign Military Financing (FMF) funds to Egypt Financing (FMF) funds to Egypt
until the Secretary of State certifies that the Government of Egypt is taking until the Secretary of State certifies that the Government of Egypt is taking
effective steps to advance democracy and human rights, among other things, to effective steps to advance democracy and human rights, among other things, to
include protecting religious minorities and the rights of women.include protecting religious minorities and the rights of women.2627 Section 7041 Section 7041
(l(l) provides $40 ) provides $40 ~~mil ion under~~million for stabilization assistance for Yemen, including a for stabilization assistance for Yemen, including a
contribution for United Nations (U.N.) stabilization and governance facilities, contribution for United Nations (U.N.) stabilization and governance facilities,
and to meet the needs of vulnerable populations, including women and girls.and to meet the needs of vulnerable populations, including women and girls.2728
  Saudi Arabia. In the 116th Congress, two resolutions have been introduced to . In the 116th Congress, two resolutions have been introduced to
condemn the condemn the ~~Government~~government of Saudi Arabia’s detention and of Saudi Arabia’s detention and ~~al eged~~alleged abuse of abuse of
women’s rights activists (H.Res. 129, passed in the House on July 15, 2019, and women’s rights activists (H.Res. 129, passed in the House on July 15, 2019, and
S.Res. 73). The Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019 S.Res. 73). The Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019
(H.R. 2037)(H.R. 2037)~~, which~~ passed in the House on July 25, 2019 passed in the House on July 25, 2019, and would impose would impose
sanctions related to the sanctions related to the ~~kil ing~~ killing of Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi, of Washington Post columnist Jamal Khashoggi,
which could be suspended if, among other criteria, “the Government of Saudi which could be suspended if, among other criteria, “the Government of Saudi
Arabia has taken verifiable steps to repeal any law or regulation that requires Arabia has taken verifiable steps to repeal any law or regulation that requires
Saudi women to obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the Saudi women to obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the
~~country.”28~~
~~ Sexual and Gender-based Violence. The Accountability for Sexual and Gender-~~
~~based Violence as a Tool in Conflict Act of 2019 (S. 1777 and H.R. 3212) would~~
~~provide for sanctions against foreign persons responsible for conflict-related acts~~

~~25 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019.~~
~~26 T he~~country.”29 26 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019. CRS has requested information on FY2019 and FY2020 funding levels and will provide such information when it becomes available. 27 The FMF certification requirement for Egypt in P.L. 116-94 does not apply to funds appropriated for FMF certification requirement for Egypt in P.L. 116-94 does not apply to funds appropriated for
counterterrorism, border security, and nonproliferation programs for Egypt. counterterrorism, border security, and nonproliferation programs for Egypt. ~~T his~~This provision has been in annual provision has been in annual
appropriations bills since FY2012. appropriations bills since FY2012.
27 28 Joint Explanatory Statement for Division G – Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs Joint Explanatory Statement for Division G – Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs
Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94). Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-94).
~~28 T he Act~~29 The act was incorporated as amendment 475 to the House-passed National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) was incorporated as amendment 475 to the House-passed National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA)
(H.R. 2500), but only parts of the (H.R. 2500), but only parts of the ~~Act~~ act (reporting requirements on Saudi(reporting requirements on Saudi Arabia’sArabia’s human rights record and on the killing human rights record and on the killing
of Jamal Khashoggi)of Jamal Khashoggi) were incorporated into the final version (Sect. 1276were incorporated into the final version (Sect. 1276 and 1277, P.L. 116-92). Shortly after the and 1277, P.L. 116-92). Shortly after the
NDAA passedNDAA passed the House, the Saudithe House, the Saudi government eased government eased some restrictions on women’s movement, however several prominent restrictions on women’s movement, however several prominent
women activists remain in jail. Seewomen activists remain in jail. See Anya van Wagtendonk “Anya van Wagtendonk “ Saudi ArabiaSaudi Arabia changed its guardianshipchanged its guardianship ~~laws, but activists~~
~~who fought them remain imprisoned,” Vox.com, August 3, 2019 and Human Rights Watch, “ Saudi Arabia: Unrelenting~~
~~Repression: Positive Reforms for Women T ainted by Ongoing Arrests of Activists, Dissidents,” News Release, January~~
~~14, 2020.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
7

~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

laws, but Congressional Research Service 7 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress  Sexual and Gender-based Violence. The Accountability for Sexual and Gender- based Violence as a Tool in Conflict Act of 2019 (S. 1777 and H.R. 3212) would provide for sanctions against foreign persons responsible for conflict-related acts of sexual and gender-based violence, and finds that “rape and sexual assault have of sexual and gender-based violence, and finds that “rape and sexual assault have
been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and Syria.”been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and Syria.”30
Congress Congress ~~has~~ also also has conducted some oversight on the status of women in the region. In conducted some oversight on the status of women in the region. In ~~2019,~~
~~Congress held~~the 116th Congress, at least at least ~~four~~five hearings hearings were held in which in which some Members asked about the status of women in the Members asked about the status of women in the
~~region.29 Members have also~~ region.31 Some Members also have publicized meetings with senior women serving in the region’s publicized meetings with senior women serving in the region’s
governments, andgovernments, and during official travel for oversight purposes have expressed concerns related to the status of women have expressed concerns related to the status of women ~~during official travel~~
~~for oversight purposes.30~~.32 Some Senators have raised questions regarding U.S. efforts to advance the Senators have raised questions regarding U.S. efforts to advance the
status of women and sought related commitments from executive branch nominees for status of women and sought related commitments from executive branch nominees for
ambassadorships to the region and Assistant Secretary positions within the State Department.ambassadorships to the region and Assistant Secretary positions within the State Department.3133
Selected Global Congressional Actions
In recent years, legislation has been enacted or introduced to address women’s issues worldwide, In recent years, legislation has been enacted or introduced to address women’s issues worldwide,
including on women, peace, and security; economic empowerment; and gender-based violence. including on women, peace, and security; economic empowerment; and gender-based violence.
Although these pieces of legislation are global in scope, they have the potential to apply to the Although these pieces of legislation are global in scope, they have the potential to apply to the
MENA region given prevailing political, economic and security conditions. Three examples are MENA region given prevailing political, economic and security conditions. Three examples are
described below.described below.
  The Women Peace and Security Act of 2017 (P.L. 115-68) states it is (P.L. 115-68) states it is ~~policy of~~
the policy of the United States “to promote the meaningful participation of women in overseas the United States “to promote the meaningful participation of women in overseas
conflict prevention, management and resolution, and post-conflict relief and conflict prevention, management and resolution, and post-conflict relief and
recovery efforts” and recovery efforts” and ~~cal s~~calls for the creation of a new Women, Peace and Security for the creation of a new Women, Peace and Security
strategy to detail the operationalizationstrategy to detail the operationalization of the WPS Act.of the WPS Act.3234 It also activists who fought them remain imprisoned,” Vox.com, August 3, 2019, and Human Rights Watch, “Saudi Arabia: Unrelenting Repression: Positive Reforms for Women Tainted by Ongoing Arrests of Activists, Dissidents,” News Release, January 14, 2020. 30 Both bills were introduced in June 2019, but have not received votes. 31 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Transnational Crime, Civilian Security, Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues, ~~It also requires training~~
~~for selected U.S. government employees, consultation and collaboration between~~
~~State Department and USAID to increase the meaningful participation of women~~
~~in conflict prevention and peacebuilding, as wel as a reporting requirement on~~
~~the WPS strategy two years after enactment.~~
 The Women's Entrepreneurship and Economic Empowerment Act of 2018
~~(P.L. 115-428) modifies USAID programs to provide targeted assistance for~~
~~women and authorizes the President to provide programs in developing countries~~
~~for micro, smal , and medium-sized businesses, particularly those owned,~~
~~managed, and controlled by women.~~

~~29 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, T ransnational Crime, Civilian Security,~~
~~Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women’s Issues,~~ Women in Conflict: Advancing Women’s Role in Peace and
Security, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June 13, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South 13, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South
Asia, Central AsiaAsia, Central Asia and Counterterrorism, and Counterterrorism, Iraq: A Crossroads of U.S. Policy, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, July 16,
2020; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle2020; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, East, North Africa and International Terrorism, The FY20
Budget: State ~~Departm ent~~Department Counterterrorism and Countering Violent ~~Extrem ism Bureau~~ Extremism Bureau, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,
JulyJuly 24, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia,24, 2019; Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism Central Asia, and Counterterrorism
The Path Forward: Key Findings from the Syria Study Group Report, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., ~~September 24,~~
~~2019.~~
30 September 24, 2019; House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International Terrorism, Egypt: Trends in Politics, Economics, and Human Rights, hearing, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., September 9, 2020.. 32 For example, Senators Young and King met with female activists during For example, Senators Young and King met with female activists during a congressional delegation to Saudia congressional delegation to Saudi Arabia Arabia
in in ~~Sept ember~~September 2019 to discuss 2019 to discuss women’s rights in the Middlewomen’s rights in the Middle ~~East~~ East. Sen. . Sen. ~~T odd~~Todd Young and Sen. Young and Sen. ~~Angus~~ Angus King, “King, “ Public Public
actions, not private assurances, willactions, not private assurances, will help repair US-Saudihelp repair US-Saudi relations,” relations,” Defense News,, September 20, 2019. September 20, 2019.
3133 See See , for examplefor example, questions raised questions raised about Saudiabout Saudi Arabia’s detention of women’s rights activists duringArabia’s detention of women’s rights activists during the Senate the Senate
Foreign Relations Committee hearings on AmbassadorialForeign Relations Committee hearings on Ambassadorial Nominations for SaudiNominations for Saudi Arabia and Iraq, March 6, 2019Arabia and Iraq, March 6, 2019, ~~and~~
on Pending Nomination for Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, March 27, 2019on Pending Nomination for Assistant Secretary of State for Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, March 27, 2019.
~~32 T he T rump~~, and on Pending Nomination for Under Secretary of State for Civilian Security, Democracy, And Human Rights, September 22, 2020. 34 The Trump Administration delivered its strategy on Women Peace and Security on June 11, 2019 Administration delivered its strategy on Women Peace and Security on June 11, 2019 ~~available at~~
~~https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/WPS_Strategy_10_October2019.pdf .~~
. Available at Congressional Research Service Congressional Research Service
8 8

link to page link to page 3032 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

~~ The Women and Countering Violent Extremism Act of 2019 (H.R. 1653),~~
~~would find that the Islamic State benefited strategical y and financial y~~ requires training for selected U.S. government employees, consultation and collaboration between State Department and USAID to increase the meaningful participation of women in conflict prevention and peacebuilding, as well as a reporting requirement on the WPS strategy two years after enactment.  The Women’s Entrepreneurship and Economic Empowerment Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-428) modifies USAID programs to provide targeted assistance for women and authorizes the President to provide programs in developing countries for micro, small, and medium-sized businesses, particularly those owned, managed, and controlled by women.  The Women and Countering Violent Extremism Act of 2019 (H.R. 1653) would find that the Islamic State benefited strategically and financially from the from the
subjugation of women, and would authorize assistance to women-led and subjugation of women, and would authorize assistance to women-led and
women’s empowerment organizations in foreign countries working on countering women’s empowerment organizations in foreign countries working on countering
violent extremism and terrorism. Section 1047 of the National Defense violent extremism and terrorism. Section 1047 of the National Defense
Authorization Act for FY2020 (P.L. 116-92) incorporates a similar provision Authorization Act for FY2020 (P.L. 116-92) incorporates a similar provision
contained in H.R. 1653 that requires an independent assessment of the contained in H.R. 1653 that requires an independent assessment of the
relationship between gender and violent extremism (relationship between gender and violent extremism (~~for more detail see~~see
Appendix). .
Over the years, several Members Over the years, several Members also have ~~have also~~ introduced various versions of the International introduced various versions of the International
Violence Against Women Act, and Congress has enacted legislation on a range of women’s issues Violence Against Women Act, and Congress has enacted legislation on a range of women’s issues
in annual appropriations acts (see in annual appropriations acts (see text box below). Some Members ). Some Members ~~have also~~also have sought to codify the sought to codify the
executive branch positions and offices related to global women’s issues.executive branch positions and offices related to global women’s issues.33
35 https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/WPS_Strategy_10_October2019.pdf. 35 For example, selected legislative vehicles that have sought to codify the State Department’s Office of Global Women’s Issues and the Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women’s issues over the years included versions of the International Violence Against Women Act; some proposed Senate State and Foreign Operations appropriations bills; and proposed State Department authorization bills. Congressional Research Service 9 link to page 14 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress
FY2020 Foreign Aid Appropriations for Global Women’s Issues
Section 7059 of the Section 7059 of the ~~final~~ FY2020 FY2020 ~~SFOPS~~State and Foreign Operations (SFOPS) appropriations (Division G, appropriations (Division G, P.L. 116-94) provides up to $330 ) provides up to $330
~~mil ion~~ million to promote gender equality and women’sto promote gender equality and women’s ~~empowerment~~ empowerment global y.global y. It is unclear to what extent, if It is unclear to what extent, if
any, such funding might impact women inany, such funding might impact women in the MENA region.the MENA region.
  Women’s Economic Empowerment—Up to $100 —Up to $100 ~~mil ion~~ million in bilateral economicin bilateral economic assistance assistance
(Title III) funds for the Women’s (Title III) funds for the Women’s Global DevelopmentGlobal Development and Prosperityand Prosperity Fund. Fund.
  Women’s Leadership—Not—Not ~~less~~ less than $50 than $50 ~~mil ion~~ million in Title III funds for programsin Title III funds for programs ~~“specifical y~~ “specifically
designed to increase leadership designed to increase leadership opportunities for women in countries where women and girls opportunities for women in countries where women and girls
suffer discriminationsuffer discrimination due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s due to law, policy, or practice, by strengthening protections for women’s
political status, expanding women’spolitical status, expanding women’s participation in politicalparticipation in political parties and elections,parties and elections, and increasing and increasing
women’swomen’s opportunities for leadershipopportunities for leadership positions in the public and private sectorspositions in the public and private sectors at the local, at the local,
provincial,provincial, and national levels.” and national levels.”
  Gender-based Violence—Not less—Not less than $165 mil ionthan $165 mil ion in Title III and IV (international security in Title III and IV (international security
assistance) funds to implement assistance) funds to implement a multi-year strategy to prevent and respond to a variety of a multi-year strategy to prevent and respond to a variety of
formsforms of gender-based violence including child, early,of gender-based violence including child, early, and forced marriage,and forced marriage, rape, femalerape, female genital genital
cutting and mutilation,cutting and mutilation, and domesticand domestic violence,violence, in conflict and non-conflict settings. in conflict and non-conflict settings.
  Women, Peace and Security—Unspecified—Unspecified ~~level~~ level of funds from various accounts to support a of funds from various accounts to support a
multi-year strategy to expand, and improve multi-year strategy to expand, and improve coordination of U.S. government efforts to empower coordination of U.S. government efforts to empower
women as equal partners in conflict prevention,women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building, transitional processes,peace building, transitional processes, and and
reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transition, and to ensure the reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transition, and to ensure the
equitable provisionequitable provision of reliefof relief and recoveryand recovery assistance to women and girls. assistance to women and girls.
  Women and Girls at Risk from Extremism and Conflict—Not—Not ~~less~~ less than $15 than $15 ~~mil ion~~ million in in
Economic Support Fund monies Economic Support Fund monies “to support women and girls who are at risk from“to support women and girls who are at risk from extremism extremism
and conflict.” and conflict.”
Policy Issues
The following sections describe several issues policymakers and lawmakers may take into The following sections describe several issues policymakers and lawmakers may take into
account when considering account when considering whether and how to improve the status of women in the MENA region, including how to improve the status of women in the MENA region, including
women’s legal rights and protections, economic participation, political representation, and the impact of conflict, displacement, and the COVID-19 pandemic~~legal rights and protections for women, women’s economic participation, women’s political~~

~~33 For example, selected legislative vehicles that have sought to codify the State Department’s Office of Global~~
~~Women’s Issues and the Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women’s issues over the years included versions of the~~
~~International Violence Against Women Act; some proposed Senate State/Foreign Operations appropriations bills; and~~
~~proposed State Department authorization bills.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

~~representation, and the impact of conflict and displacement~~ on women and girls. Each section on women and girls. Each section
examines both the gender perspectives and regional dynamics that affect women in the region. examines both the gender perspectives and regional dynamics that affect women in the region.
Legal Rights
~~A chal enge~~One challenge facing many women in the MENA region is a lack of legal facing many women in the MENA region is a lack of legal recognition of fundamental rights. The region exhibits rights. The region exhibits
high levels of gender-based legal discrimination (high levels of gender-based legal discrimination (seesee Figure 3): according to the aforementioned : according to the aforementioned
2019 WPS Index, 2019 WPS Index, al all 18 MENA18 MENA countries except Israel are below the global average and 10 countries except Israel are below the global average and 10
countries are among the world’s bottom 12 performers.countries are among the world’s bottom 12 performers.3436 Saudi Arabia ranked the lowest Saudi Arabia ranked the lowest ~~global y~~
globally for legal discrimination against women, followed closely by Yemen, the UAE, and Syria. (These for legal discrimination against women, followed closely by Yemen, the UAE, and Syria. (These
findings pre-date legal and administrative changes undertaken by Saudi Arabia in 2019 regarding findings pre-date legal and administrative changes undertaken by Saudi Arabia in 2019 regarding
~~guardianship laws.)~~
guardianship laws.) 36 This measure captures both legal discrimination and discriminatory norms. GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20. Congressional Research Service 10 link to page 15 link to page 15 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress Figure 3. Legal Discrimination Score by World Region
2019 WPS Index 2019 WPS Index

Sources: Created by CRS with data fromCreated by CRS with data from GIWPS and PRIO, GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20. The . The
Index calculates the legal discriminationIndex calculates the legal discrimination score by aggregating and weighting scoresscore by aggregating and weighting scores of 78 laws and regulationsof 78 laws and regulations that that
limitlimit women’swomen’s ability to participate in society or the economy or that differentiate between men and women,ability to participate in society or the economy or that differentiate between men and women, as as
measuredmeasured by The Worldby The World Bank, Bank, Women, Business, and the Law 2019: A Decade of Reform,, February 2019. February 2019.
Note: The WPS index “Fragile States” classification The WPS index “Fragile States” classification is based on The World Bank “Harmonized List of Fragile is based on The World Bank “Harmonized List of Fragile
Situations,” 2019.Situations,” 2019.
The constitutions of some MENA countries The constitutions of some MENA countries ~~nominal y guarantee~~nominally guarantee legal equality between men and equality between men and
women (women (seesee Figure 4))~~.35~~.37 However, in practice, rules governing matters of family law apply However, in practice, rules governing matters of family law apply
differently to women in nearly differently to women in nearly ~~al MENA~~ all MENA countries, as they are often based on religious countries, as they are often based on religious
jurisprudence. On issues related to family matters, jurisprudence. On issues related to family matters, al all of the Arab countries and Iran apply Islamic of the Arab countries and Iran apply Islamic
law, which is not gender-neutral on marriage, divorce, child custody and guardianship, and law, which is not gender-neutral on marriage, divorce, child custody and guardianship, and
inheritance. Israel’s legal system places status issues of marriage and divorce under the inheritance. Israel’s legal system places status issues of marriage and divorce under the
jurisdiction of religious courts, which include Jewish Rabbinical Religious Courts, as jurisdiction of religious courts, which include Jewish Rabbinical Religious Courts, as ~~wel~~ well as as
Muslim, Druze, and Christian courtsMuslim, Druze, and Christian courts~~.36~~, none of which are gender-neutral.38 In general, constitutional provisions and laws mandating In general, constitutional provisions and laws mandating

~~34 T his measure captures both legal discrimination and discriminatory norms. GIWPS and PRIO,~~ ~~Women, Peace and~~
~~Security Index 2019/20~~.
35gender equality cannot be effective if judicial institutions are not independent and if executive institutions are unwilling or unable to implement the laws, or hold law-breakers accountable.39 As illustrated in Figure 4, no MENA countries treat women fully equally under the law. Specifically, women are treated differently under  Gender equality and discrimination laws. Half of MENA countries (9 of 18) include a constitutional provision enshrining the principle of gender equality. The other half either have an equality provision that does not specifically mention the term “gender,” or they provide for equality based on Islamic legal criteria, which treat women and men differently.  Domestic violence laws. Half of MENA countries have laws addressing domestic violence. In three of these countries, legal provisions address some acts of domestic violence but do not address marital rape. 37 Additionally, every MENA country, with the exception of Iran, has ratified the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of Additionally, every MENA country, with the exception of Iran, has ratified the Convention to Eliminate All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), though almost every country ratified with conditions. (Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), though almost every country ratified with conditions. (~~T he~~The United States United States
has not ratified CEDAW.) has not ratified CEDAW.)
3638 In Israel, laws In Israel, laws regulating inheritance, transmission of citizenship, and age of marriage regulating inheritance, transmission of citizenship, and age of marriage ~~in Israel~~ do not differentiate do not differentiate
between persons basedbetween persons based on their gender. on their gender. ~~T he~~The Law Library of Congress, Law Library of Congress, “ “Legal Provisions on GenderLegal Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Equality: Arab
Countries, Israel, Iran,” LL FileCountries, Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020. See also Ruth Levush, “Israel: SpousalNo. 2020-018615, February 2020. See also Ruth Levush, “Israel: Spousal Agreements Agreements
~~for Couples~~ for Couples Not Belonging to Any Religion—ANot Belonging to Any Religion—A Civil Marriage Option?” Law Library of Congress, September 2015. 39 For example, the State Department noted that in Morocco, “the judiciary lacked willingness to enforce [family law reforms enacted in 2004], as many judges did not agree with their provisions” and where “corruption among working-level court clerks and lack of knowledge about its provisions among lawyers were also obstacles to enforcing the law.” U.S. Department of State, “Morocco 2019 Human Rights Report,” March 2020. Congressional Research Service 11 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress ~~Civil Marriage Option?” Law Library of Congress, September 2015.~~
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~~gender equality cannot be effective if judicial institutions are not independent and if executive~~
~~institutions are unwil ing or unable to implement the laws, or hold perpetrators accountable. 37~~
~~As il ustrated in Figure 4, no MENA countries treat women fully equal y under the law.~~
~~Specifical y, women are treated differently under:~~
~~ Gender equality and discrimination laws. Half of MENA countries (9 of 18)~~
~~include a constitutional provision enshrining the principle of gender equality. The~~
~~other half either have an equality provision that does not specifical y mention the~~
~~term “gender,” or they provide for equality based on Islamic legal criteria, which~~
~~treat women and men differently.~~
~~ Domestic violence laws. Half of MENA countries have laws addressing~~
~~domestic violence. In three of these countries, legal provisions address some acts~~
~~of domestic violence but do not address marital rape.~~
  Age of marriage laws. More than half of MENA countries (11 of 18) have set a . More than half of MENA countries (11 of 18) have set a
minimum age for marriage of 18 or older for both girls and boys. Nevertheless, minimum age for marriage of 18 or older for both girls and boys. Nevertheless,
13 countries (including Israel) have a provision in their family law 13 countries (including Israel) have a provision in their family law ~~al owing~~allowing a religious court to marry women younger than the legal age of marriage. Iran has the lowest legal age of marriage for girls at 13 years old, and Yemen has no minimum age for marriage. Figure 4. Selected Measures of Legal Discrimination Against MENA Women Source: Created by CRS with data from the GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20 (legal discrimination score, reflecting country conditions as of 2019) and The Law Library of Congress, “Legal Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries, Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020. Congressional Research Service 12 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress Legal Spotlight: Violence Against Women and Sexual Harassment Violence against women, sexual harassment and gender discrimination are longstanding and pervasive problems in the MENA region, with perpetrators often not held accountable by local or national governments.40 In recent years, there has been increased public awareness of these issues through media reporting and social media movements. Some governments in the region have recently passed legislation addressing violence against women and protecting victims of sexual harassment, but implementation of the laws remains spotty. Members of Congress have engaged on two of these legal efforts in Tunisia and Egypt. Tunisia. Some 60% of Tunisian women have experienced domestic violence, according to the Ministry of Women, Family and Children.41 In 2017, parliament passed a law to prevent and address violence against women, though there have been challenges to implementation.42 In late 2019, Tunisian women began to share testimonies of sexual harassment under the hashtag #EnaZeda, (“MeToo” in Tunisian dialect).43 In the explanatory statement accompanying the FY2018 aid appropriations measure (Division K, P.L. 115-141), Congress directed some funds “to support implementation of Tunisia’s Law on Eliminating Violence Against Women.” Similar directives were not included in FY2019 or FY2020 appropriations. Egypt. Harassment of women in Egypt is widespread: a 2013 U.N. survey found that 99% of respondents had been subjected to some form of sexual harassment.44 The government passed a law in 2014 criminalizing sexual harassment, but abuses continue, including some by the government. For example, human rights advocates have expressed concern over recent government arrests of multiple young women for “offending public morals” and “undermining family values” in their social media videos.45 Violence against women is also an issue: U.N. Women reports that roughly 25% of women experience Lifetime Physical and/or Sexual Intimate Partner Violence and 87% of girls and women aged 15 to 49 years have undergone Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C).46 Accusations of sexual harassment and assault have increasingly surfaced in the media, and in early July 2020, hundreds of accounts of rape and sexual harassment published on social media with the hashtag #MeToo led to the arrest of six men accused of rape.47 On August 16, 2020, the Egyptian parliament passed a new law to protect the identity of victims reporting incidences of sexual harassment and assault.48 In a September 2020 hearing on Egypt, House Foreign Affairs Middle East and North Africa Subcommittee Chairman Ted Deutch raised the issue: “[T]he Egyptian government has claimed that it's taking sexual assault and--and harassment seriously. But efforts to go after victims as well as the LGBT community show otherwise--suggest otherwise.” He then asked, “.. what additional legal mechanisms could Egypt put in place to protect women from sexual harassment and gender-based violence and to support and protect the LGBT community?” 40 The United Nations defines violence against women as “any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.” U.N. General Assembly, “Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women,” A/RES/48/104, February 1994. 41 Lilia Blaise, “‘I Can Finally Dream’: Tunisia Expands Protection for Battered Women,” The New York Times, May 12, 2018. 42 See, e.g., Rihab Boukhayatia, “Tunisia’s Violence against Women Law Seemed Perfect on Paper. In Practice, It Hasn’t Been.,” HuffPost, December 13, 2018; Charlotte Bailey, “One Year Ago, Tunisia Passed a Groundbreaking Law to Protect Women. Has It Worked?” Time, July 26, 2018. 43 Mohamed Haddad, “#EnaZeda, le #metoo tunisien est né,” Le Monde, October 15, 2019. Makhlouf resigned from the Qalb Tounes party on May 14, 2020 but remains a member of parliament. 44 Bouthiana El Deeb, “Study on Ways and Methods to Eliminate Sexual Harassment in Egypt,” United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (U.N. Women), May 23, 2013. 45 Human Rights Watch, “Egypt: Spate of ‘Morality’ Prosecutions of Women,” August 17, 2020. 46 U.N. Women, “Global Database on Violence against Women: Egypt,” 2016. 47 “Egypt #MeToo: Arrests over Alleged Gang Rape after Instagram Campaign,” BBC News, August 26, 2020. 48 Menna A. Farouk, “Egypt Approves Law to Protect Identities of Women Reporting Sex Abuse,” Reuters, August 16, 2020. Congressional Research Service 13 link to page 19 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress Economic Participation and Opportunity49 Regional conditions, in addition to gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant difference between men and women’s economic participation. With the partial exception of major oil- and gas-producing countries, the MENA region has long lagged on economic development indicators when compared with other regions. Some have argued that a
~~religious court to marry women younger than the legal age of marriage. Iran has~~
~~the lowest legal age of marriage for girls at 13 years old, and Yemen has no~~
~~minimum age for marriage.~~
~~Case Study: USAID Efforts to Address the Justice System~~
~~and Gender-based Violence (GBV) in Jordan38~~
~~In FY2018, USAID aimed to improve the ability of the judicial system in Jordan to respond to cases of violence~~
~~against women by developing and securing approval from the Ministry of Justice to promulgate and enforce~~
~~guidelines for judicial handling procedures for victims of domestic violence. USAID trained 210 justice sector~~
~~personnel across Jordan on how to use the guidelines. As part of its efforts to strengthen advocacy for female~~
~~empowerment, USAID also worked with the Jordanian National Commission for Women to advocate for legal~~
~~safeguards to prevent or respond to GBV by helping to draft recommendations for amendments to the Personal~~
~~Status Law and lobby members of Parliament. The law offers the legal framework that governs marriage, divorce,~~
~~paternity, and inheritance, and provides guardianship provisions that shape gender relationships within families.~~
~~The proposed amendments safeguard non-discrimination based on social status, sex, and religion, and promote~~
~~gender equality and the rights of children in line with international treaties. USAID partnered with national~~
~~stakeholders and convened a two-day workshop bringing advocates and experts to further examine the Personal~~
~~Status Law. An assessment published by USAID in January 2020 notes that the law has stil not incorporated these~~
~~amendments, despite increased debate on the issues.39~~

~~37 For example, the State Department noted that in Morocco, “the judiciary lacked willingness to enforce [family law~~
~~reforms enacted in 2004], as many judges did not agree with their provisio ns” and where “ corruption among working-~~
~~level court clerks and lack of knowledge about its provisions among lawyers were also obstacles to enforcing the law. ”~~
~~U.S. Department of State, “ Morocco 2019 Human Rights Report,” March 2020.~~
~~38 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019.~~
~~39 USAID, “Final Report: USAID/Jordan Gender Analysis and Assessment,” January 10, 2020.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

~~Figure 4. Selected Measures of Legal Discrimination Against MENA Women~~

Source: Created by CRS with data from the GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20 (legal
~~discrimination score, reflecting country conditions as of 2019) and The Law Library of Congress, “Legal~~
~~Provisions on Gender Equality: Arab Countries, Israel, Iran,” LL File No. 2020-018615, February 2020.~~
~~Economic Participation and Opportunity~~
~~Regional conditions, in addition to gender-based discrimination, contribute to a significant~~
~~difference between men and women’s economic participation. With the partial exception of major~~
~~oil- and gas-producing countries, the MENA region has long lagged on economic development~~
~~indicators when compared with other regions. Development indicators have declined further in~~
~~some countries as a result of violent unrest since 2011. Al but one MENA country (Algeria) fel~~
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~~in the ranking of Human Development Indicators (HDI) between 2009 and 2019.40 Women~~
~~arguably have experienced these national and regional disadvantages more severely than men: the~~
~~average unemployment rate for women in the region (14.7%) is more than twice the regional~~
~~average for men (6.6%).41 Conversely,~~ the limits in women’s economic participation may be the limits in women’s economic participation may be
among many factors that have contributed to regional among many factors that have contributed to regional ~~shortfal s:~~ shortfalls: in 2016, the OECD estimated in 2016, the OECD estimated
that gender-based discrimination in laws and social norms costs the MENA region $575 that gender-based discrimination in laws and social norms costs the MENA region $575 ~~bil ion a~~
~~year.42~~
billion a year.50 Development indicators have declined further in some countries as a result of violent unrest since 2011, and in 2020 the “dual shocks” of the COVID-19 pandemic and the oil price decline have presented daunting economic challenges.51 Before the pandemic, women were arguably experiencing these national and regional disadvantages more severely than men, and the COVID-19 pandemic is likely to exacerbate these inequalities. Within the region, states have significant differences with regard to income level. To some extent, Within the region, states have significant differences with regard to income level. To some extent,
women in states that have achieved more economic success women in states that have achieved more economic success ~~overal have~~overall have had higher participation in higher participation in
the labor force and lower unemployment rates than women in the lower-income, less developed the labor force and lower unemployment rates than women in the lower-income, less developed
countries (countries (seesee Figure 5). This is not uniformly true, however; in Saudi Arabia, where the legal ). This is not uniformly true, however; in Saudi Arabia, where the legal
system and culture system and culture ~~have traditional y~~traditionally have discouraged women’s participation in the economy, discouraged women’s participation in the economy, ~~few~~
many fewer women work despite relative national wealth. Saudi authorities have begun encouraging women’s women work despite relative national wealth. Saudi authorities have begun encouraging women’s
participation in the workforce in recent years as a component of broader national economic participation in the workforce in recent years as a component of broader national economic
development and transformation initiatives.development and transformation initiatives.43
~~The MENA region has~~52 Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the MENA region had the lowest rates of female labor force participation (i.e., the percentage of the lowest rates of female labor force participation (i.e., the percentage of
women who work or are actively seeking employment) in the world.women who work or are actively seeking employment) in the world.44 The regional average The regional average
female labor force participation rate (28.3%) female labor force participation rate (28.3%) iswas 19 percentage points below the global average for 19 percentage points below the global average for
women (47.7%), ranging from 5.8% in Yemen to 59.2% in Israel.women (47.7%), ranging from 5.8% in Yemen to 59.2% in Israel.4553 On average, women On average, women
~~participate~~participated in the labor force at less than half the rate of men in the in the labor force at less than half the rate of men in the region (76.2%). Women’s unpaid domestic and agricultural labor is seldom quantified and not measured in official statistics~~region (76.2%)~~. The greatest . The greatest
gaps between male and female participation in the labor force gaps between male and female participation in the labor force ~~are~~were found in Yemen, Iraq and found in Yemen, Iraq and
Syria—countries that face severe instability and conflict in addition to economic woes—and in Syria—countries that face severe instability and conflict in addition to economic woes—and in
~~several~~ Gulf monarchies (Gulf monarchies (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Oman).Saudi Arabia, Oman).
~~The “MENA Paradox”~~
~~In what has been referred to as the “MENA paradox,” female labor force participation remains low across the~~
~~region despite rapidly rising female education attainment (see Figure 5).46 The World Bank argues that the~~
~~region’s conservative gender norms, legal and institutional barriers, and incentives and opportunities generated by~~
~~local economic structures drive low rates of women’s participation in the public sphere.47 Some observers have~~
~~posited that the mismatch is demand-side driven, as young women have increasingly entered the workforce at a~~

~~40 With the exception of five countries (Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Syria, and Yemen), all of the MENA countries~~
~~improved their HDI scores over the 10-year period. T he HDI is a statistic composite index of life expectancy,~~
~~education, and per capita income indicators compiled by the U.N. Development Program .~~
~~41 T he ILO defines unemployment as the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking~~
~~employment. T welve of the world’s 14 worst performing countries o n female employment are Yemen, Syria, Algeria,~~
~~Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, T unisia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Lebanon. ILOST AT data, 2018, presented in~~
~~GIWPS and PRIO, Wom en, Peace and Security Index 2019/20 .~~
~~42 Gaëlle Ferrant and Alexandre Kolev, “T he~~ Experts expect more women to leave the labor force due to the COVID-19 pandemic.54 A U.N. report from April 2020 reported that 700,000 women in the region faced income insecurity, with women’s jobs accounting for around 40% of the 1.7 million jobs expected to be lost. That is 49 Much of the economic data used for this section predates the COVID-19 pandemic, and thus will not reflect changes and trends related to the pandemic. The International Labor Organization (ILO) has noted major disruptions to data collection for statistical estimates of the labor market. “COVID-19 impact on the collection of labour market statistics,” ILO, May 10, 2020. 50 Gaëlle Ferrant and Alexandre Kolev, “The economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions,” economic cost of gender-based discrimination in social institutions,”
OECD Development Centre, OECD Development Centre, Issues Paper, June 2016. , June 2016.
~~43 T he World Bank, “ Saudi women rising up in business in line with Vision 2030,” March 11, 2020.~~
~~44 International Labor Organization (ILO) modeled estimates retrieved December 2019. T he ILO statistics on labor~~
~~force participation and unemployment do not count unpaid domestic or agricultural work that many women do.~~
~~45 ILO modeled~~ 51 Rabah Arezki and Ha Nguyen, “Coping with a Dual Shock: COVID-19 and Oil Prices,” The World Bank, April 14, 2020. See also, Larry Luxnor, “COVID-19 could set back Mideast Economies for Years,” New Atlanticist, July 14, 2020. 52 The World Bank, “Saudi women rising up in business in line with Vision 2030,” March 11, 2020. 53 ILO modeled estimates retrieved December 2019. For a discussionestimates retrieved December 2019. For a discussion of why women’s economic participation is so low of why women’s economic participation is so low
in Yemen specifically, seein Yemen specifically, see Fawziah Al-Ammar and Hannah Patchett, “The Repercussions of War on Women in the Fawziah Al-Ammar and Hannah Patchett, “The Repercussions of War on Women in the
Yemeni Workforce,” Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies,Yemeni Workforce,” Sana’a Center for Strategic Studies, ~~July 23, 2019.~~
~~46 ILO, “High female education and low labour participation rates: IFAD and ILO tackle the ‘MENA gender paradox,’”~~
~~ILO News, July 19, 2017.~~
~~47 T he World Bank, Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa , 2013.~~
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~~time when job opportunities happen to have stagnated for both men and women .48 Others argue that the paradox~~
~~can be explained by a trifecta of constraints on supply-side factors, namely discriminatory gender norms, attitudes~~
~~and regulations; a lack of financial and business services for women; and limited access to skil s, knowledge,~~
~~markets and networks.49~~
~~The World Bank has~~ July 23, 2019. 54 Anu Madgavkar et al., “COVID-19 and Gender Equality: Countering the Regressive Effects,” McKinsey Global Institute, July 15, 2020. Congressional Research Service 14 link to page 19 link to page 19 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress despite women in the region constituting a much smaller percentage of the workforce.55 For example, data from Israel—one of the countries in the region in which women’s participation in the economy is highest—show that women accounted for 56% of jobs lost from March to May; during a second lockdown in September, women made up 62.7% of the newly unemployed in September.56 The prevalence of women in the informal sector, where basic protections such as unemployment insurance and health benefits are generally lacking, add to their economic vulnerability. The “MENA Paradox” In what has been referred to as the “MENA paradox,” female labor force participation remains low across the region despite rapidly rising female education attainment (see Figure 5).57 The World Bank argues that the region’s conservative gender norms, legal and institutional barriers, and incentives and opportunities generated by local economic structures drive low rates of women’s participation in the public sphere.58 Some observers have posited that the mismatch is demand-side driven, as young women have increasingly entered the workforce at a time when job opportunities happen to have stagnated for both men and women.59 Others argue that the paradox can be explained by a trifecta of constraints on supply-side factors, namely discriminatory gender norms, attitudes and regulations; a lack of financial and business services for women; and limited access to skil s, knowledge, markets and networks.60 Even before the pandemic, the World Bank had noted that a failure to address the high unemployment rates among youth noted that a failure to address the high unemployment rates among youth
and women could “deter economic recovery and hamper long-term growth prospects in the and women could “deter economic recovery and hamper long-term growth prospects in the
region.”region.”5061 High rates of unemployment and under-employment (reflecting those who are actively High rates of unemployment and under-employment (reflecting those who are actively
seeking work), particularly among young people, continue to seeking work), particularly among young people, continue to ~~chal enge MENA~~ challenge MENA governments (seegovernments (see Figure 5). The average unemployment rate for women in the region (14.7%) was more than twice the regional average for men (6.6%).62
Figure 5). Youth unemployment, while a Youth unemployment, while a ~~chal enge~~challenge for men as for men as ~~wel~~ well as women, as women, iswas worse for young worse for young
women in women in al all the MENAthe MENA countries except Israel: on average, female youth unemployment countries except Israel: on average, female youth unemployment is
was nearly 14 percentage points higher than male youth unemployment (31.6% compared to 18%).nearly 14 percentage points higher than male youth unemployment (31.6% compared to 18%).51
63 Economic frustration was arguably one of the driving forces behind the Arab Spring uprisings in Economic frustration was arguably one of the driving forces behind the Arab Spring uprisings in
~~2011, and renewed protests in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon in 2019 again brought the issue~~
~~to the fore.52~~
~~The picture is not uniformly negative: since 2000, over nine mil ion women have entered the~~
~~region’s labor force.53 Some observers also point to increased female entrepreneurship in~~
~~countries such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar as positive economic developments for women. In~~
~~2019, Saudi Arabia and Qatar were found to have more women entrepreneurs than men, an~~
~~increase from 2017 when there were around eight women for every 10 male entrepreneurs.54~~
~~Case Study: USAID Efforts to Promote Women’s Entrepreneurship in Egypt55~~
~~Through its Strengthening Entrepreneurship and Enterprise Development (SEED) activity, USAID launched a~~
~~women entrepreneurs' network (WEN) in 2018 with representatives from eight women-focused organizations.56~~
~~This network aims to secure financial and non-financial services for women entrepreneurs and business owners~~
~~and articulate policy needs to the Government of Egypt. In FY2018, USAID reached out to 5,720 women~~
~~beneficiaries, and 776 women entrepreneurs were trained to become leaders through USAID’s SEED capacity~~
~~building programs and events. SEED activities in FY2018 also supported female entrepreneurs in developing their~~
~~businesses and generating revenues of $64,211, with revenue growth of 366%.~~

~~48 Ragui Assaad et al., “Explaining the MENA Paradox: Rising~~ 2011, and 55 UN Women and UN ESCWA, “The Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region,” E/ESCWA/2020/Policy Brief.4, April 2020. The World Bank has forecasted significant macroeconomic losses to the region’s Gross Domestic Product, and predicts an increase in poverty, especially for those who are self-employed, work in informal sector lacking social protection, and those who work in sectors directly hit by the COVID-19 crisis. The World Bank “MENA Crisis Tracker,” October 14, 2020. 56 Lee Yaron, “Almost Twice as Many Women as Men Lost Jobs in Israel's Second Lockdown,” Haaretz, October 18, 2020. 57 ILO, “High female education and low labour participation rates: IFAD and ILO tackle the ‘MENA gender paradox,’” ILO News, July 19, 2017. 58 The World Bank, Opening Doors: Gender Equality and Development in the Middle East and North Africa, 2013. 59 Ragui Assaad et al., “Explaining the MENA Paradox: Rising Educational Attainment, Yet Stagnant Female Labor Educational Attainment, Yet Stagnant Female Labor
Force Participation,” IZA Institute of Labor Economics, Force Participation,” IZA Institute of Labor Economics, Discussion Paper No. 11385, March 2018. No. 11385, March 2018.
4960 Drew Drew Gardiner, “Attitudes and Norms on Women’s Employment in the MENA region,” ILO, March 2018.Gardiner, “Attitudes and Norms on Women’s Employment in the MENA region,” ILO, March 2018.
50 61 Rabah Arezki et al., “ Rabah Arezki et al., “ A NewA New Economy for the Middle East and North Africa,” Economy for the Middle East and North Africa,” ~~T he~~The World Bank, World Bank, Middle East and
North Africa ~~Econom ic~~Economic Monitor, October 2018. 62 The ILO defines unemployment as the share of the labor force that is without work but available for and seeking employment. Twelve of the world’s 14 worst performing countries on female employment are Yemen, Syria, Algeria, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Libya, and Lebanon. ILOSTAT data, 2018, presented in GIWPS and PRIO, Women, Peace and Security Index 2019/20. 63 CRS calculations using ILO-modeled estimates last updated April 9, 2020. Congressional Research Service 15 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress renewed protests in Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, and Lebanon in 2019 and 2020 again brought the issue to the fore.64 The picture has not been uniformly negative: between 2000 and 2018, over nine million women entered the region’s labor force.65 Some observers also point to increased female entrepreneurship in countries such as Saudi Arabia and Qatar as positive economic developments for women. In 2019, Saudi Arabia and Qatar were found to have more women entrepreneurs than men, an increase from 2017 when there were around eight women for every 10 male entrepreneurs.66 ~~Monitor, October 2018.~~
~~51 CRS calculations using ILO modeled estimates last updated April 9, 2020.~~
~~52 See for example Jeremy Bowen, “Is a new Arab Spring unfolding in the Middle East?” BBC News, October 29,~~
~~2019.~~
~~53 Saadia Zahidi, Fifty Million Rising: The New Generation of Working Women Transforming the Muslim World, (New~~
~~York, NY: Nation Books, 2018), p. 7.~~
~~54 Ayman Ismail, “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Middle East and North Africa,” Global Entrepreneurship Research~~
~~Association, London Business School, November 2017; Niels Bosma et al., “ Global Entrepreneurship Monitor~~
~~2019/2020 Global Report ,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School, 2020. While~~
~~promising, these gains for women are not universal across the region: the 2019 study found there are more than two~~
~~male entrepreneurs for every female entrepreneur in Egypt .~~
~~55 CRS communication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019.~~
~~56 U.S. Embassy in Egypt, “ USAID Supports the Launch of Egypt’s First Women Entrepreneurs Network ,” Press~~
~~Release, November 18, 2018.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

Figure 5. Selected Economic Indicators for Women in the MENA region

Source: Labor force participation rate and unemployment rate are International Labor Organization (ILO) Labor force participation rate and unemployment rate are International Labor Organization (ILO)
-modeledmodeled ~~estimates~~ estimates for 2019, downloaded from the World Bank data portal on May 28, 2020. GDP data are also for 2019, downloaded from the World Bank data portal on May 28, 2020. GDP data are also
available from the Worldavailable from the World Bank for 2018. Mean years of schooling data are fromBank for 2018. Mean years of schooling data are from the UN Developmentthe UN Development Program Program
(UNDP), (UNDP), Human Development Report 2019, Gender Development, Gender Development Index, July 15, 2019. 64 See for example Jeremy Bowen, “Is a new Arab Spring unfolding in the Middle East?” BBC News, October 29, 2019; “Ten Years of Pan-Arab Protests: Understanding the New Dynamics of Change,” Wilson Center Event, October 7, 2020. 65 Saadia Zahidi, Fifty Million Rising: The New Generation of Working Women Transforming the Muslim World, (New York, NY: Nation Books, 2018), p. 7. 66 Ayman Ismail, “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor Middle East and North Africa,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School, November 2017; Niels Bosma et al., “Global Entrepreneurship Monitor 2019/2020 Global Report,” Global Entrepreneurship Research Association, London Business School, 2020. While promising, these gains for women are not universal across the region: the 2019 study found there are more than two male entrepreneurs for every female entrepreneur in Egypt. Congressional Research Service 16 link to page 22 link to page 22 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress ~~Index, July 15, 2019.~~
Notes: UNDP defines mean years of schooling as “the average number of years of education received by people UNDP defines mean years of schooling as “the average number of years of education received by people
ages 25 and older,ages 25 and older, converted fromconverted from educational attainment levelseducational attainment levels using officialusing official durations of each level.”durations of each level.” The most The most
recent GDP per capita data for Syria is from 2010 and from 2017 for Iran. recent GDP per capita data for Syria is from 2010 and from 2017 for Iran.
Political Representation
~~Women~~ On a population share basis, women are underrepresented in political positions and institutions in the MENA region to a are underrepresented in political positions and institutions in the MENA region to a
greater extent than they are in most of the world.greater extent than they are in most of the world.5767 For example, MENA countries perform poorly For example, MENA countries perform poorly
as compared to the world average when it comes to the percentage of seats held by women in as compared to the world average when it comes to the percentage of seats held by women in
~~legislative~~ legislative bodies: 10.4% of seats are held by women compared to 24.3% bodies: 10.4% of seats are held by women compared to 24.3% ~~global y~~globally and 23.6% in and 23.6% in
the United States (the United States (seesee Figure 6). Moreover, no country in the region is classified by Freedom ). Moreover, no country in the region is classified by Freedom
House as a full democracy.House as a full democracy.5868 Monarchies and authoritarian or hybrid political systems may create Monarchies and authoritarian or hybrid political systems may create
some opportunities for women to participate in legislativesome opportunities for women to participate in legislative bodies, but ultimately may not be bodies, but ultimately may not be
~~responsive to elected representatives. For example, the Saudi monarchy granted women the right~~

~~57 See CRS Report R45483, Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet, by Susan G. Chesser.~~
~~58 In order of descending democracy scores, Freedom House ranks Israel and T unisia as flawed democracies; Morocco,~~
~~Lebanon, and Algeria as hybrid regimes; and Jordan, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, Egypt, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Iran, Libya,~~
~~Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as authoritarian regimes. Sarah Repucci, Freedom in the World 2020:~~ ~~A Leaderless~~
~~Struggle for Dem ocracy~~.
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~~to vote in 2011 and has granted women some additional~~ responsive to elected representatives. For example, the Saudi monarchy recognized women’s right to vote in 2011 and expanded women’s participation in the advisory, appointed Shura Council. Saudi Arabia has recognized some additional women’s rights (such as the right to drive) since rights (such as the right to drive) since
2017, but the government continues to detain women activists and maintain some “guardianship” 2017, but the government continues to detain women activists and maintain some “guardianship”
limits on women’s behavior.limits on women’s behavior.5969 Some observers argue that authoritarian leaders Some observers argue that authoritarian leaders ~~rhetorical y uphold~~
~~initiatives~~ rhetorically uphold initiatives on women’s rights to appear more inclusive and divert attention away from repressive on women’s rights to appear more inclusive and divert attention away from repressive
behavior or to bolster their legitimacy abroad.behavior or to bolster their legitimacy abroad.6070
Some governments and political parties have attempted to improve women’s representation in Some governments and political parties have attempted to improve women’s representation in
legislativelegislative bodies by implementingbodies by implementing gender quotas. Eight countries in the region have some form gender quotas. Eight countries in the region have some form
of quota to ensure women’s representation, and those countries have more women seated in lower of quota to ensure women’s representation, and those countries have more women seated in lower
houses of the legislature than the MENA average (houses of the legislature than the MENA average (seesee Figure 6). Arab Barometer findings . Arab Barometer findings
indicate that more than twoindicate that more than two -thirds of those surveyed support women’s quotas.thirds of those surveyed support women’s quotas.6171 One recent One recent
example of quota implementation is in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, example of quota implementation is in the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria,
also known as Rojava, where “each administrative institution is co-led by a woman and, in also known as Rojava, where “each administrative institution is co-led by a woman and, in
addition to addition to al all-female councils, a 40 per cent quota reinforces female representation and -female councils, a 40 per cent quota reinforces female representation and
participation in economic initiatives and civil society organizations.”participation in economic initiatives and civil society organizations.”6272
In 2019, women won fewer parliamentary seats than in the past in both Tunisia and Israel, the In 2019, women won fewer parliamentary seats than in the past in both Tunisia and Israel, the
region’s two most democratic countries. In Tunisia, where the electoral law requires that region’s two most democratic countries. In Tunisia, where the electoral law requires that
~~parliamentary candidate lists alternate between men and women (meaning that any party that~~
~~wins more than one seat in a given district wil send at least one woman to parliament), women~~
~~lost 25 seats in the 2019 parliamentary elections compared to 2014.63 In Israel, where some~~
~~political parties have voluntarily instituted gender quotas, women held 35 seats in the 120-seat~~
~~20th Knesset (elected in 2015), compared to 29 elected in April 2019, 28 in the September 2019~~
~~re-run of elections, and 30 in the third electoral re-run, in March 2020.64~~
~~Where women are elected to political bodies, they may encounter additional barriers to political~~
~~participation. For example, a 2015 study found that even though women held 16% of seats in the~~
~~Libyan parliament (due in part to gender quotas), female members of parliament were chal enged~~
~~by practices such as holding meetings late at night when it is not social y acceptable for women to~~
~~be out or in places considered unsafe for women to attend. They have also been subject to verbal~~
~~intimidation by their male counterparts.65~~

~~59 See Eman Alhussein, “Saudi Changes to Guardianship System Ease Restrictions on Women,” Arab Gulf~~ 67 See CRS Report R45483, Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet, by Susan G. Chesser. 68 In order of descending democracy scores, Freedom House ranks Israel and Tunisia as flawed democracies; Morocco, Lebanon, and Algeria as hybrid regimes; and Jordan, Kuwait, Iraq, Qatar, Egypt, Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Iran, Libya, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, and Syria as authoritarian regimes. Sarah Repucci, Freedom in the World 2020: A Leaderless Struggle for Democracy. 69 See Eman Alhussein, “Saudi Changes to Guardianship System Ease Restrictions on Women,” Arab Gulf States States
Institute in Washington, August 7, 2019, and Amnesty International, “Institute in Washington, August 7, 2019, and Amnesty International, “ Saudi Arabia: Women’s rights campaigner Saudi Arabia: Women’s rights campaigner
Loujain al-Hathloul dueLoujain al-Hathloul due in court,” March 9, 2020. in court,” March 9, 2020.
6070 See See for example: Gabriellefor example: Gabrielle Bardall, “Autocrats use feminism to undermine democracy,” Policy Options, October 30, Bardall, “Autocrats use feminism to undermine democracy,” Policy Options, October 30,
2019; Hind Ahmed Zaki, “2019; Hind Ahmed Zaki, “ El-Sissi’sEl-Sissi’s Women? Shifting genderWomen? Shifting gender ~~discourses and~~ discourses and the limits of state feminismthe limits of state feminism ,” ,”
Égypte/Monde Arabe, vol. 13 (2015), pp. 39-53. , vol. 13 (2015), pp. 39-53.
61 71 Kathrin Kathrin ~~T homas~~Thomas, “Women’s Rights in the Middle, “Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. East and North Africa,” Arab Barometer, August 2019. ~~T homas~~Thomas
notes that “Many MENA publicsnotes that “Many MENA publics express a preference for greater female political participation, including acceptance of express a preference for greater female political participation, including acceptance of
a female head of state and the implementation of women’s quotas for elected office. However, the belief that men are a female head of state and the implementation of women’s quotas for elected office. However, the belief that men are
better political leaders prevails.” better political leaders prevails.”
6272 U.N. Human Rights U.N. Human Rights Council, “Council, “ Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab
Republic,”Republic,” A/HRC/43/57, January 28, 2020. See also, Gayle A/HRC/43/57, January 28, 2020. See also, Gayle ~~T zemach~~Tzemach Lemmon, “ Lemmon, “ Inside the World’s Most Radical Inside the World’s Most Radical
Experiment in Women’s Rights,” Experiment in Women’s Rights,” ~~DefenseOne, February 6, 2018.~~
~~63 T his may be attributed, in part, to the election of a more fractious parliament in 2019, in which relatively few parties~~
~~won more than one seat. Composition of the 2019 parliament available at https://majles.marsad.tn/2019/fr/assemblee/.~~
~~64 T he 22nd Knesset was dissolved in December 2019 after PM Netanyahu was unable to form a coalition. Allison~~
~~Kaplan Sommer, “Israel Election Results: Fewer Women and LGBT People – But Lots of Ex-Generals – in New~~
~~Knesset,” Haaretz, September 24, 2019; Greer Fay Cashman, “ T here are fewer Israeli women in politics than it may~~
~~seem,” The Jerusalem Post, February 25, 2020.~~
~~65 U.N. Development Program Libya, “Women, Peace and Security in Libya: Comparative Summary of the WPS~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~
Defense One, February 6, 2018. Congressional Research Service 17 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress parliamentary candidate lists alternate between men and women (meaning that any party that wins more than one seat in a given district will send at least one woman to parliament), women lost 25 seats in the 2019 parliamentary elections compared to 2014.73 In Israel, where some political parties have voluntarily instituted gender quotas, women held 35 seats in the 120-seat 20th Knesset (elected in 2015), compared to 29 elected in April 2019, 28 in the September 2019 re-run of elections, and 30 in the third electoral re-run, in March 2020.74 Where women are elected to political bodies, they may encounter additional barriers to political participation. For example, a 2015 study found that even though women held 16% of seats in the Libyan parliament (due in part to gender quotas), female members of parliament were challenged by practices such as holding meetings late at night when it is not socially acceptable for women to be out or in places considered unsafe for women to attend. They have also been subject to verbal intimidation by their male counterparts.75
Obstacles to women’s representation may also include cultural beliefs about a woman’s place in Obstacles to women’s representation may also include cultural beliefs about a woman’s place in
politics, though there appears to be a range of views within the region. A 2016 public opinion poll politics, though there appears to be a range of views within the region. A 2016 public opinion poll
in Arab countries indicated that men, and to a lesser extent women, view men as superior political in Arab countries indicated that men, and to a lesser extent women, view men as superior political
leaders. At the same time, the poll also found that a majority of men and a larger majority of leaders. At the same time, the poll also found that a majority of men and a larger majority of
women in each country except Algeria agreed that an Arab woman could become the head of state women in each country except Algeria agreed that an Arab woman could become the head of state
of a Muslim-majority country.of a Muslim-majority country.6676
Furthermore, as women gain greater representation in political bodies, they may Furthermore, as women gain greater representation in political bodies, they may ~~stil~~ still hold less hold less
power than men, a distinction that is sometimes lost in quantitative measures of participation. An power than men, a distinction that is sometimes lost in quantitative measures of participation. An
index developed by the U.S. government’s Wilson Center to measure women’s leadership in the index developed by the U.S. government’s Wilson Center to measure women’s leadership in the
MENA region found in 2020 that when women led top government departments there, they were MENA region found in 2020 that when women led top government departments there, they were
four times more likely to be found in what are considered four times more likely to be found in what are considered ~~traditional y~~traditionally “feminized” “feminized” ~~roles that~~
sectors focused on various forms of caretaking, focused on various forms of caretaking, ~~primarily in~~such as socio-cultural ministries socio-cultural ministries~~.67~~, rather than sectors with large budgets and greater influence over policy areas such as defense, finance, energy or justice.77
Selected Milestones for Women’s Political Representation
  ~~In 1969,~~ ~~Golda Meir was elected Prime Minister of Israel. From~~ In 1969, Israelis elected Golda Meir as Prime Minister. From 2006-2009, Dalia Itzik served2006-2009, Dalia Itzik served as as
the first female speakerthe first female speaker of the Israeliof the Israeli Knesset. Knesset.
  In 2011, Bothaina Kamel Bothaina Kamel became the first woman to run for president in Egypt. became the first woman to run for president in Egypt.
  In 2011, Saudi Arabia became the last country in the world (besides the Vatican) to Saudi Arabia became the last country in the world (besides the Vatican) to ~~give~~recognize women women’s
~~the~~ right to vote fol owing Oman (2003), Qatar (2003), Kuwait (2005), and the UAE (2006).right to vote fol owing Oman (2003), Qatar (2003), Kuwait (2005), and the UAE (2006).1
 78 73 This may be attributed, in part, to the election of a more fractious parliament in 2019, in which relatively few parties won more than one seat. Composition of the 2019 parliament available at https://majles.marsad.tn/2019/fr/assemblee/. 74 The 22nd Knesset was dissolved in December 2019 after PM Netanyahu was unable to form a coalition. Allison Kaplan Sommer, “Israel Election Results: Fewer Women and LGBT People – But Lots of Ex-Generals – in New Knesset,” Haaretz, September 24, 2019; Greer Fay Cashman, “There are fewer Israeli women in politics than it may seem,” The Jerusalem Post, February 25, 2020. 75 U.N. Development Program Libya, “Women, Peace and Security in Libya: Comparative Summary of the WPS Baseline Study, Phase I and Phase II,” 2015. 76 Arab Barometer, “Views of Arab Women as Political Leaders,” February 11, 2019. 77 Merissa Khurma et al., “Ready to Lead: Understanding Women’s Public Leadership in the Middle East and North Africa,” The Wilson Center, March 2020, p. 20. 78 CRS Report R45483, Women in National Governments Around the Globe: Fact Sheet, by Susan G. Chesser. Saudi women did not actually vote until the 2015 municipal elections. Congressional Research Service 18 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress  In 2014, Iraq adopted the region’s first National Action Plan in support of U.N. Security Council ~~In 2014,~~ ~~Iraq adopted the region’s first National Action Plan in support of U.N. Security Council~~
Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security,Resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security, fol owed by Jordan (2017), Tunisia (2018), fol owed by Jordan (2017), Tunisia (2018),
Lebanon (2019), and Yemen (2019).Lebanon (2019), and Yemen (2019). 
 In 2015, the UAE elected Dr. Amal the UAE elected Dr. Amal Al Qubaisi Speaker of the FederalAl Qubaisi Speaker of the Federal National Council, the first National Council, the first
woman to serve as speakerwoman to serve as speaker of a legislativeof a legislative body in the Arab world.body in the Arab world.
  In 2018, Sarwa Abdul Wahid became the first woman to run for president in Iraq. Sarwa Abdul Wahid became the first woman to run for president in Iraq.
  In January 2019, Lebanon’s Raya Al-Hassan was appointed the first female interior Lebanon’s Raya Al-Hassan was appointed the first female interior ~~minister in~~
minister in the Arab world.the Arab world.1
  In February 2019, Princess Princess Reema bint Bandar AlReema bint Bandar Al- Saud became the first femaleSaud became the first female ambassador to ambassador to
~~represent~~ represent Saudi Arabia.Saudi Arabia.1
  In September 2019, two women, Selma two women, Selma El oumi RekikEl oumi Rekik and Abirand Abir Moussi, ran in Tunisia’s Moussi, ran in Tunisia’s
~~presidential~~ presidential elections.elections.1

~~Baseline Study, Phase I and Phase II,” 2015.~~
~~66 Arab Barometer, “Views of Arab Women as Political Leaders,” February 11, 2019.~~
~~67 Merissa Khurma et al., “ Ready to Lead: Understanding Women’s Public Leadership in the Middle East and North~~
~~Africa,” T he Wilson Center, March 2020, p. 20.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~
 In January 2020, Lebanon’s Zeina Akar Adra became the first female Minister of Defense in the Arab world.  In March 2020, Israelis elected 33 women to the Knesset, including “the first Ethiopian-born Knesset member to become a government minister, the first female ultra-Orthodox Jewish lawmaker and minister, the first female Knesset member from the Druze religious community, and the first to wear a Muslim hijab.”79
Figure 6. Political Representation of Women
Percentage of seats held by women in parliament/consultative body and date of women’s Percentage of seats held by women in parliament/consultative body and date of women’s ~~suf rage~~
suffrage
Sources: Compiled Compiled by the Congressionalby the Congressional ~~Research Service~~ Research Service using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the using data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the
Gender Quotas Database published by the International Institute for DemocracyGender Quotas Database published by the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance,and Electoral Assistance, and and
UN Women:UN Women: ~~Women~~ Women in Politicsin Politics ~~2019.~~
~~Conflict and Displacement~~ 2019. 79 Ruth Eglash, “Four Israeli women who’ve broken new political ground,” The Washington Post, August 7, 2020. Congressional Research Service 19 link to page 25 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress Conflict and Displacement80
Compared with most of the rest of the world, the MENA region Compared with most of the rest of the world, the MENA region ~~has~~ experienced a experienced a
disproportionate share of conflict and population displacement disproportionate share of conflict and population displacement ~~in the last decade.68 Women and~~
from 2009 to 2018.81 The United Nations estimates that women and children make up the majority of displaced civilianchildren make up the majority of displaced civilian populations populations ~~in the region.69~~from Syria and Yemen.82 Prolonged Prolonged
situations of conflict and displacement have specific implications for sexual and gender-based situations of conflict and displacement have specific implications for sexual and gender-based
violence (SGBV), girls’ access to education, and rates of child, early, and forced marriage violence (SGBV), girls’ access to education, and rates of child, early, and forced marriage
(CEFM).(CEFM).7083 A As Figure 7 ~~il ustrates~~illustrates, the countries suffering from conflict and humanitarian crises , the countries suffering from conflict and humanitarian crises

~~68 Data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program suggests~~ (Iraq, Syria) also have some of the highest rates of intimate partner violence in the region.84 In some cases, SGBV may even be used as a weapon of war. For example, conflict-related sexual violence has been documented in Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen. Some examples of instances of SGBV in countries affected by conflict and humanitarian crises follow.  At the height of its power, the Islamic State (which seized power across areas of Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2019) “discriminated against women, girls, and sexual minorities as a matter of policy.”85 The group was notably implicated in genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes against the Yazidis, an ethnic group indigenous to Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. Yazidi women and girls as young as nine were sold into sexual slavery by IS fighters.86 Abuses against women 80 For background on global humanitarian issues, see CRS In Focus IF10568, Overview of the Global Humanitarian and Displacement Crisis, by Rhoda Margesson. 81 Data from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program suggests that 58% of the world’s battle deaths took place in the that 58% of the world’s battle deaths took place in the
MENA region from 2009-2019 (available through the World Bank data portal). United Nations High Commissioner for MENA region from 2009-2019 (available through the World Bank data portal). United Nations High Commissioner for
RefugeesRefugees (UNHCR) estimates that 29% of the world’s refugees(UNHCR) estimates that 29% of the world’s refugees and internally displaced persons in 2019 originated in and internally displaced persons in 2019 originated in
the MENA region. the MENA region. ~~T he~~The region accounts for 6% of the total global population. UNHCR, “Mid-Year region accounts for 6% of the total global population. UNHCR, “Mid-Year ~~T rends 2019 -~~
~~Annex T ables~~Trends 2019—Annex Tables,” February,” February 2020; U.N. Population Division, “World Population Prospects 2019,” data as of July2020; U.N. Population Division, “World Population Prospects 2019,” data as of July 1 2019. 1 2019.
6982 After eight years of war After eight years of war in Syria, at least 5.6 million people have fled the country as refugees, 6.2 million are in Syria, at least 5.6 million people have fled the country as refugees, 6.2 million are
internally displaced, and an estimated 12 million Syrians are in needinternally displaced, and an estimated 12 million Syrians are in need of humanitarian assistance. In March of humanitarian assistance. In March ~~20 20~~2020, the , the
U.N. Population Fund estimated that women and children make up 80% of those displacedU.N. Population Fund estimated that women and children make up 80% of those displaced in Syria since December in Syria since December
2019. 2019. ~~T he~~The International Rescue Committee estimates that women and girls International Rescue Committee estimates that women and girls account for 75% of those displacedaccount for 75% of those displaced in in
Yemen since 2015. UNHCR, “Syria Emergency,” April 19, 2018; “Yemen since 2015. UNHCR, “Syria Emergency,” April 19, 2018; “ UN Population Fund soundsUN Population Fund sounds alarm over dire alarm over dire
situation facing women and girlssituation facing women and girls in Syria, as 10th year of war begins,”in Syria, as 10th year of war begins,” UN News,UN News, March 16, 2020; Delphine Valette, March 16, 2020; Delphine Valette,
Protection, Participation and Potential: Women and Girls in Yemen’s War, International Rescue Committee, January International Rescue Committee, January
2019. 2019.
~~70 T he~~ 83 The United Nations offers the following definition of CEFM: “ United Nations offers the following definition of CEFM: “ Child marriage, or early marriage, isChild marriage, or early marriage, is any marriage where at least one of the parties is under 18 years of age. Forced marriages are marriages in which one and/or both parties have not personally expressed their full and free consent to the union. A child marriage is considered to be a form of forced marriage, given that one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free and informed consent.” This naming convention has not been universally adopted, so this report uses the term “child marriage” when reflecting the conventions of the underlying sourcing. U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “Child, early and forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings,” last updated 2020. 84 Overall rates of sexual and gender-based violence are not universally available: a USAID context analysis of six MENA countries in 2016 remarked that “existing GBV studies focus on IPV [intimate partner violence] or early and forced marriage—and, in the case of Egypt, on female genital mutilation (FGM); as a result, numerous other forms of GBV are not well studied or understood.” Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab Women for Training and Research, Gender-Based Violence in the MENA Region: Context Analysis, USAID Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA Task Order, May 2016. 85 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity’: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/37/CRP.3, March 2018. 86 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘They Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis,” A/HRC/32/CRP.2, June 15, 2016. Congressional Research Service 20 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress ~~any marriage~~
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~~also have some of the highest rates of intimate partner violence in the region.71 In some cases,~~
~~SGBV may even be used as a weapon of war. For example, conflict-related sexual violence has~~
~~been documented in Iraq, Syria, Libya, and Yemen. Some examples of instances of SGBV in~~
~~countries affected by conflict and humanitarian crises follow.~~
~~ At the height of its power, the Islamic State (which assumed power across Iraq~~
~~and Syria between 2014 and 2019) “discriminated against women, girls, and~~
~~sexual minorities as a matter of policy.”72 The group was notably implicated in~~
~~genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes against the Yazidis, an ethnic~~
~~group indigenous to Iraq, Syria, and Turkey. Yazidi women and girls as young as~~
~~nine were sold into sexual slavery by IS fighters.73 Abuses against women~~
attributed to IS combatants also included stonings, executions, forced marriages, attributed to IS combatants also included stonings, executions, forced marriages,
restrictions on movement, and strict dress codes enforced by lashings. restrictions on movement, and strict dress codes enforced by lashings.
 Parties to the  Parties to the Syrian conflict have have ~~al egedly~~allegedly used sexual violence as a tool to used sexual violence as a tool to
“ “~~instil~~ instill fear, humiliate and punish or, in the case of terrorist groups, as part of fear, humiliate and punish or, in the case of terrorist groups, as part of
their enforced social order.”their enforced social order.”74 87 The United Nations has The United Nations has ~~al eged~~alleged that rapes and that rapes and
other acts of sexual violence carried out by government forces have “formed part other acts of sexual violence carried out by government forces have “formed part
of a widespread and systematic attack directed against a civilian population, and of a widespread and systematic attack directed against a civilian population, and
amount to crimes against humanity.”amount to crimes against humanity.”7588 Syrian refugee women have also noted Syrian refugee women have also noted
that intimate partner violence has intensified as the lack of employment that intimate partner violence has intensified as the lack of employment
opportunities for men have increased frustration, tension, and violence in the opportunities for men have increased frustration, tension, and violence in the
home.“[R]ampant child marriage” was explained, particularly by widows, as a home.“[R]ampant child marriage” was explained, particularly by widows, as a
way to way to ~~al eviate~~alleviate financial burdens and protect the reputation of the family. financial burdens and protect the reputation of the family.76
89  In  In Yemen, the United Nations recorded increased reporting of sexual violence in , the United Nations recorded increased reporting of sexual violence in
2018, including cases of physical or sexual assault, rape, and sexual slavery, 2018, including cases of physical or sexual assault, rape, and sexual slavery,
noting that “while a few cases are directly attributable to parties to the conflict, noting that “while a few cases are directly attributable to parties to the conflict,
most are the result of increased risks that women and children face, against a most are the result of increased risks that women and children face, against a

~~where at least one of the parties is under 18 years of age. Forced marriages are marriage s in which one and/or both~~
~~parties have not personally expressed their full and free consent to the union. A child marriage is considered to be a~~
~~form of forced marriage, given that one and/or both parties have not expressed full, free and informed consent .” T his~~
~~naming convention has not been universally adopted, so this report uses the term “child marriage” when reflecting the~~
~~conventions of the underlying sourcing. U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, “ Child, early and~~
~~forced marriage, including in humanitarian settings,” last updated 2020.~~
~~71 Overall rates of sexual and gender-based violence are not universally available: a USAID context analysis of six~~
~~MENA countries in 2016 remarked that “existing GBV studies focus on IPV [intimate partner violence] or early and~~
~~forced marriage—and, in the case of Egypt, on female genital mutilation (FGM); as a result, numerous other forms of~~
~~GBV are not well studied or understood.” Banyan Global, International Center for Research on Women, Center of Arab~~
~~Women for T raining and Research, Gender-Based Violence in the MENA Region: Context Analysis, USAID~~
~~Countering Gender-Based Violence Initiative – MENA T ask Order, May 2016.~~
~~72 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity’: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic,”~~
~~A/HRC/37/CRP.3, March 2018.~~
~~73 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘T hey Came to Destroy’: ISIS Crimes Against the Yazidis,” A/HRC/32/CRP.2, June~~
~~15, 2016.~~
~~74 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity.”~~
~~75 Ibid, p. 1.~~
~~76 UNHCR, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East~~
~~and North Africa,” 2015; U.N. Human Rights Council, “ Report of the Independent International Commission of~~
~~Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

~~backdrop of pre-existing gender inequality, exacerbated by the chronic incapacity~~
~~of Government institutions to protect civilians.”77~~
~~ In 2019, then-head of U.N. Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) Ghassan~~
~~Salamé spoke of a “pattern of violence against women across the country,”~~
~~highlighting the abduction of Seham Serghewa, a member of the Libyan House~~
~~of Representatives, and other instances of kil ing and forced disappearances.~~
~~Salamé also noted that “women migrants and refugees in Libya are at risk of rape~~
~~and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and~~
~~forced prostitution in detention and at large.”78~~backdrop of pre-existing gender inequality, exacerbated by the chronic incapacity of Government institutions to protect civilians.”90  In 2019, then-head of U.N. Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) Ghassan Salamé spoke of a “pattern of violence against women across the country,” highlighting the abduction of Seham Serghewa, a member of the Libyan House of Representatives, and other instances of killing and forced disappearances. Salamé also noted that “women migrants and refugees in Libya are at risk of rape and other forms of sexual and gender-based violence, sexual exploitation and forced prostitution in detention and at large.”91 87 U.N. Human Rights Council, “‘I lost my dignity.” 88 Ibid, p. 1. 89 UNHCR, “Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Prevention and Response in Refugee Situations in the Middle East and North Africa,” 2015; U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019. 90 U.N. Security Council, “Conflict Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General,” S/2019/280, March 29, 2019. 91 UNSMIL, “SRSG Ghassan Salamé Briefing to the Security Council,” November 18, 2019. Congressional Research Service 21 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress
Figure 7. Conflict, Displacement, and Gender-based Violence

Source: Created by CRS using battle death and intimate partner violence Created by CRS using battle death and intimate partner violence data fromdata from GIWPS and PRIO, GIWPS and PRIO, WPS
Index 2019/20; displacement data fromdisplacement data from UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019UNHCR, “Mid-Year Trends 2019 - —Annex Tables,” February 2020; and Annex Tables,” February 2020; and
child marriagechild marriage data fromdata from WEF, WEF, Global Gender Gap Report 2020. Literacy rates are from CIA World. Literacy rates are from CIA World Factbook, Factbook,
accessed June 2020. accessed June 2020.
Notes: The WPS Index measures The WPS Index measures intimate partner violenceintimate partner violence by the percentage of women who experienced by the percentage of women who experienced
physical or sexual violencephysical or sexual violence ~~committed~~ committed by their intimate partner in the previous 12 months. The Global by their intimate partner in the previous 12 months. The Global ~~gender~~Gender
Gap Report measuresGap Report measures child marriagechild marriage by the percentage of girls aged 15–19 years who are or have ever been by the percentage of girls aged 15–19 years who are or have ever been
married,married, divorced, widowed or in an informaldivorced, widowed or in an informal union in 2017. union in 2017.
Years of conflict and prolonged displacement Years of conflict and prolonged displacement, are expected to have a detrimental effect on an are expected to have a detrimental effect on an
entire generation of girls’ entire generation of girls’ (and boys’) education, particularly in Syria and Yemen, where two million children were already out of school due to conflict.92 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbates these trends.~~education, particularly in Syria and Yemen, where schools have closed~~

~~77 U.N. Security Council, “ Conflict Related Sexual Violence: Report of the United Nations Secretary-General,”~~
~~S/2019/280, March 29, 2019.~~
~~78 UNSMIL, “ SRSG Ghassan Salamé Briefing to the Security Council,” November 18, 2019.~~
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~~due to conflict. Two mil ion children are out of school in both Syria and Yemen.79 Yemeni women~~
~~historical y have~~ Yemeni women historically have had the highest rate of the highest rate of ~~il iteracy~~ illiteracy in the region,in the region,8093 and the ongoing conflict and the ongoing conflict ~~is likely to~~
, as well as school closures due to the COVID-19 pandemic, are likely to lead to a rise in that rate as girls drop out of school.lead to a rise in that rate as girls drop out of school.81 Facing the economic and social burdens that Facing the economic and social burdens that
emerge during protracted conflict and humanitarian crises, families may resort to harmful emerge during protracted conflict and humanitarian crises, families may resort to harmful
practices such as child, early, and forced marriage and child labor that may further impact girls’ practices such as child, early, and forced marriage and child labor that may further impact girls’
access to education and increase the risk of gender-based violence (see access to education and increase the risk of gender-based violence (see text box).).8294 Gaps in Gaps in
education, combined with war-related trauma, may have long-term education, combined with war-related trauma, may have long-term 92 UNICEF, “If Not In School: The Paths Children Cross in Yemen,” March 2018. 93 UNICEF data last updated October 2015 https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/literacy/. 94 Joud Monla-Hassan and Mona Yacoubian, “COVID Will Lead to More Child Marriage—What Can Be Done?” United States Institute of Peace, August 12, 2020. Congressional Research Service 22 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress implications for the region’s implications for the region’s
economic growth, rates of child, early, and forced marriage and fertility, and maternal and child economic growth, rates of child, early, and forced marriage and fertility, and maternal and child
~~health.83~~
health.95 Child, Early, and Forced Marriages in Conflict and Displacement Settings
UNICEF estimated in April UNICEF estimated in April 2019 that 17% of girls in the MENA region were2019 that 17% of girls in the MENA region were ~~married~~ married before their before their ~~18 th~~18th birthdays, birthdays,
with 700,000 new child brides each year.with 700,000 new child brides each year.8496 Rates of child, early and forced marriages Rates of child, early and forced marriages (CEFM) had decreased (CEFM) had decreased
between 1990 and 2010, but progress between 1990 and 2010, but progress ~~has reportedly stal ed~~reportedly has stalled since then. Studies suggest that CEFM since then. Studies suggest that CEFM ~~general y~~generally rises rises
in conflict-affected countries and protracted displacement conditions. Civilin conflict-affected countries and protracted displacement conditions. Civil society organization society organization Girls Not Brides
explains the increaseexplains the increase in child marriagein child marriage in humanitarian crisesin humanitarian crises by noting that parents may seeby noting that parents may see child marriagechild marriage as a as a
way to relieveway to relieve economic difficultieseconomic difficulties by transferring the cost of supporting a girlby transferring the cost of supporting a girl to another family or to another family or ~~th rough~~through
dowry payments, and may believedowry payments, and may believe that marriagethat marriage wil protect girls fromwil protect girls from violence.violence.85 97 Negative trends for girlsNegative trends for girls in Iraq, in Iraq,
Libya, Syria, and Yemen, il ustrateLibya, Syria, and Yemen, il ustrate this increased vulnerability. Experts are now concerned about the effect the COVID-19 pandemic may have on efforts to reduce child marriage, both in terms of the ability to implement interventions due to social distancing measures, and in terms of increased poverty in vulnerable communities, a key driver of CEFM.98~~this increased vulnerability.~~
  In Iraq, CEFM increased from 15% in 1997 to 24% by 2016, including 5% of marriages CEFM increased from 15% in 1997 to 24% by 2016, including 5% of marriages involving children involving children
younger than 15; younger than 15;86
99   In Syria, child marriage child marriage rates are reportedlyrates are reportedly four timesfour times higher among displaced Syrian refugeeshigher among displaced Syrian refugees than than
among Syrians before the crisis; among Syrians before the crisis;87100
  In Libya, previously ranked among the region’s previously ranked among the region’s lowest rates of child marriagelowest rates of child marriage (2%), the number of child (2%), the number of child
brides brides ~~is rising,~~ has risen, and roseand rose particularly rapidly in areas that wereparticularly rapidly in areas that were control ed or influenced by the Islamic control ed or influenced by the Islamic
State;State;88101 andand
  In Yemen, child marriage child marriage rates may be as high as tworates may be as high as two -thirds of girlsthirds of girls under the age of 18under the age of 18~~; in governorates~~
. A September 2016 study found that in governorates with high numbers of with high numbers of ~~internal y~~internally displaced persons, displaced persons, ~~44% of marriages reportedly~~ 44% of marriages reportedly involved girls under the involved girls under the
age of 15.age of 15.89

~~79 UNICEF, “If Not In School: T he Paths Children Cross in Yemen,” March 2 018.~~
~~80 UNICEF data last updated October 2015 https://data.unicef.org/topic/education/literacy/.~~
~~81 See, for example, Louise Wetheridge, “Girls’ and women’s literacy with a lifelong learning perspective: issues,~~
~~trends and implications for the Sustainable Development Goals,” U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural~~
~~Organization, 2016.~~
~~82 See, for example, UNHCR, “ Woman Alone: T he Fight for Survival by Syria’s Refugee Women,” July 2014.~~
~~83 UNHCR, “T urn the T ide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018.~~
~~84 UNICEF, “A Profile of Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa,” April 2019.~~
~~85 Girls Not Brides, “ Why Does Child Marriage Happen?” last updated 2020.~~
~~86 Gilgamesh Nabeel and Jacob Wirtschafter, “Early marriage figures for Iraq are startling. Child advocates worry it~~
~~could rise even more,” Public Radio International, August 13, 2018.~~
~~87 U.N. Human Rights Council, “ Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab~~
~~Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019.~~
~~88 Omer Karasapan and Sajjad Shah, “Forced Displacement and Child Marriage: A Growing Challenge in the MENA~~
~~region,” Brookings Institution, Future Development blog post, June 19, 2019; Umberto Bacchi, “ISIS in Libya: Child~~
~~Brides Boom in Derna as Record Number of Girls Married Off to Jihadi Fighters,” International Business Times, May~~
~~11, 2015.~~
~~89 UNICEF, “Falling T hrough the Cracks: T he Children of Yemen,” March 2017.~~
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~~Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations~~
~~Women have not largely not been involved in formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three~~
~~largest ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, or Yemen, despite attempts by some international players to~~
involve women in these processes. For example, in Libya~~, despite the active~~ 102 Conflict Resolution and Peace Negotiations Women have been sidelined in most formal efforts to resolve the MENA region’s three largest ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, and Yemen, despite attempts by some international actors to involve women in these processes. Women have nevertheless continued peacebuilding efforts through civil society and grassroots organizations. In May 2020, over 90 Arab women’s civil society organizations joined the U.N. Secretary General in calling for a global ceasefire to address 95 UNHCR, “Turn the Tide: Refugee Education in Crisis,” August 2018. 96 UNICEF, “A Profile of Child Marriage in the Middle East and North Africa,” April 2019. 97 Girls Not Brides, “Why Does Child Marriage Happen?” last updated 2020. 98 UNFPA, “Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Family Planning and Ending Gender-based Violence, Female Genital Mutilation and Child Marriage,” Interim Technical Note Information, April 27, 2020. 99 Gilgamesh Nabeel and Jacob Wirtschafter, “Early marriage figures for Iraq are startling. Child advocates worry it could rise even more,” Public Radio International, August 13, 2018. 100 U.N. Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, August 15, 2019. 101 Omer Karasapan and Sajjad Shah, “Forced Displacement and Child Marriage: A Growing Challenge in the MENA Region,” Brookings Institution, Future Development blog post, June 19, 2019; Umberto Bacchi, “ISIS in Libya: Child Brides Boom in Derna as Record Number of Girls Married Off to Jihadi Fighters,” International Business Times, May 11, 2015. 102 UNICEF, “Falling Through the Cracks: The Children of Yemen,” March 2017. Congressional Research Service 23 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress the COVID-19 pandemic.103 Women’s peacebuilding organizations also have mobilized to stop the spread of the virus and assist affected communities. In Libya, peace efforts to date have not been inclusive of Libyan women.104 Despite the active involvement of involvement of
nearly one in five women in the 2011 nearly one in five women in the 2011 ~~Libyan revolution, peace efforts to date have not been fully~~
~~inclusive of women.90 Since 2016,~~revolution and repeated calls from the U.N. the U.N. Security Council ~~Security Council Resolutions extending the mandate~~
~~of U.N. Support Mission in Libya~~ ~~(UNSMIL) have cal ed~~ for the “the full, equal and effective for the “the full, equal and effective
participation of women in participation of women in al all activities relating to the democratic transition, conflict resolution activities relating to the democratic transition, conflict resolution
~~and peacebuilding.”91 No women were invited to participate in the International Conference on~~
~~Libya that took place in Paris on May 29, 2018.92 The consultative phase of the Libyan National~~
~~Conference Process that ended in July 2018, coordinated by then-head of UNSMIL Ghassan~~
~~Salamé to organize elections and a peace process in Libya, solicited submissions from 7,000~~
~~Libyans, a quarter of whom were women.93~~
and peacebuilding,” formal peace talks have not included Libyan women.105 Women peacebuilders are active in the country, however. For example, the Libyan Women’s Network for Peacebuilding (Network), created with support from UN Women in July 2019, has been convening virtually to press for a ceasefire, advocate for imprisoned activists, and condemn violence against women in politics. After the COVID-19 pandemic emerged, Network members repurposed their networks to spread information, collect personal protective equipment (such as masks) for healthcare workers, and advocate for the humanitarian needs of vulnerable groups.106 In In Syria, throughout six rounds of peace talks between 2012 and 2017 to resolve the Syrian war, , throughout six rounds of peace talks between 2012 and 2017 to resolve the Syrian war,
Syrian women were sidelined from the process, despite repeated women were sidelined from the process, despite repeated ~~cal s~~calls by the international community for by the international community for
women to be included in government and opposition delegations. Four years into the U.N.-women to be included in government and opposition delegations. Four years into the U.N.-
sponsored talks in 2016, the sponsored talks in 2016, the then-U.N. Special Envoy, Staffan de Mistura, created a Syrian Women’s U.N. Special Envoy, Staffan de Mistura, created a Syrian Women’s
Advisory Board to support women’s participation in the peace processAdvisory Board to support women’s participation in the peace process~~, which~~; the Board sent a delegation of sent a delegation of
12 women as third party observers to negotiations in Geneva.12 women as third party observers to negotiations in Geneva.94107 In 2017, women comprised 15% In 2017, women comprised 15%
of negotiators of the U.N.-sponsored peace talks.of negotiators of the U.N.-sponsored peace talks.95108 That same year, Syrian women politicians and That same year, Syrian women politicians and
activists formed the Syrian Women Political Movement to develop a shared vision for a peace activists formed the Syrian Women Political Movement to develop a shared vision for a peace
process inclusive of women and grassroots activists. The group has advocated that process inclusive of women and grassroots activists. The group has advocated that al all decision-decision-
making processes include at least 30% women, among other demands.making processes include at least 30% women, among other demands.96109 Women hold about 30% Women hold about 30%
of seats in the 150-member Constitutional Committee, of seats in the 150-member Constitutional Committee, created in late 2019 with 50 participants each nominated from the government, opposition, and civil society~~created in late 2019~~, and 13 of 45 seats in , and 13 of 45 seats in
~~the constitution drafting committee.97~~
Yemen was on track to increase political representation of women before the outbreak of conflict
~~in 2015. In 2009, Yemen ranked at the bottom for women’s political participation (135th of 136~~
~~countries assessed by the Inter-Parliamentary Union); there was one woman serving in the lower~~
~~house of parliament and two in the upper house.98 After protests broke out in 2011, however, a~~

~~90 Rola Abdul-Latif, “ Libya Status of Women Survey 2013,” IFES, September 2013.~~
~~91 U.N. Security Resolution 2273, March 12, 2016; U.N. Security Council Resolut ion 2376, September 14, 2017; U.N.~~
~~Security Resolution 2434, September 13, 2018; U.N. Security Resolution 2486, September 12, 2019.~~
~~92 Scheherazade Khan, “Libyan Women Break the Silence,” Women’s International League for Peace & Freedom,~~
~~October 10, 2018.~~
~~93 UNSMIL, “Remarks of SRSG Ghassan Salamé to the United Nations Security Council,” July 16, 2018.~~
~~94 Council on Foreign Relations, “Women’s Participation in Peace Processes: Syria,” January 30, 2019.~~
~~95 Bela Kapur, “Syrian Women in Political Processes: Literature Review,” T he Kvinna T ill Kvinnna Foundation, May~~
~~2017; T estimony of Jamille Bigio in Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, T ransnational~~
~~Crime, Civilian Security, Democracy, Human Rights, and Global Women's Issues,~~ ~~Wom en in Conflict: Advancing~~
~~Wom en's Role in Peace and Security, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June 13, 2019.~~
~~96 Sheila Goishabib, “ Syrian Women’s Political Movement Releases T hree Policy Papers,” Women’s International~~
~~League for Peace & Freedom, July 1, 2019.~~
~~97 Remarks by Jomana Qaddour at Middle East Institute event, “The Role of Women in Syria’s Future,” November 21,~~
~~2019. T he U.N.-facilitated Constitutional Committee is comprised of 150 delegates equally split between the Syrian~~
~~government, opposition and civil society.~~
~~98 Inter-Parliamentary Union, “Women in National Parliaments,” September 30, 2009, available at~~
~~http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/arc/classif300909.htm.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

~~National Dialogue Conference (NDC) was cal ed to broker a transition from the longtime rule of~~
~~President Ali Abdullah Saleh to President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi. Women held 30% of seats~~
~~and chaired three of the nine committees at the NDC. A new draft constitution that built on~~
~~recommendations from the NDC would have secured the recognition of women as equal citizens~~
~~and independent individuals, a 30% quota in decision making positions, and a legal minimum age~~
~~of marriage~~the constitution drafting committee.110 In Yemen, women had been making progress towards greater representation in decision-making, but since the outbreak of war in 2014, have largely been excluded from formal peace negotiations. Women held 30% of seats and chaired three of the nine committees on the National Dialogue Conference (NDC) called to broker a transition from the longtime rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh to President Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi in 2011. A new draft constitution that built on NDC recommendations would have secured the recognition of women as equal citizens and 103 UN Women, “Women’s organizations in the Arab States region join UN Secretary-General António Guterres’s call for ceasefire in the face of COVID-19,” Press Release, May 29, 2020. 104 Emily Burchfield, “How the exclusion of women has cost Libya,” The Atlantic Council, November 26, 2019. 105 Rola Abdul-Latif, “Libya Status of Women Survey 2013,” International Foundation for Electoral Systems, September 2013; U.N. Security Resolution 2273 (2016); U.N. Security Council Resolution 2376 (2017); U.N. Security Resolution 2434, (2018); U.N. Security Resolution 2486 (2019); U.N. Security Council Resolution 2542, (2020). 106 UN Women, “Connected by their phones, women peacebuilders lead COVID-19 prevention efforts across Libya,” June 19, 2020. 107 Council on Foreign Relations, “Women’s Participation in Peace Processes: Syria,” January 30, 2019. 108 Bela Kapur, “Syrian Women in Political Processes: Literature Review,” The Kvinna till Kvinnna Foundation, May 2017. 109 Sheila Goishabib, “Syrian Women’s Political Movement Releases Three Policy Papers,” Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, July 1, 2019. 110 Remarks by Jomana Qaddour at Middle East Institute event, “The Role of Women in Syria’s Future,” November 21, 2019. Congressional Research Service 24 link to page 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress independent individuals, a 30% quota in decision-making positions, and a legal minimum marriage age of marriage of 18. The constitution was never ratified, however, and rebel Houthi leaders’ rejection of . The constitution was never ratified, however, and rebel Houthi leaders’ rejection of
the draft constitution was one of the triggers of the current crisis.the draft constitution was one of the triggers of the current crisis. Women have been Women have been ~~minimal y~~
minimally involved in subsequent peace negotiations to resolve the conflict with the Houthis, which has involved in subsequent peace negotiations to resolve the conflict with the Houthis, which has
drawn in multiple neighboring states.drawn in multiple neighboring states.~~99 Eight women were reportedly invited by~~111 U.N. Special U.N. Special
Envoy Martin Envoy Martin Griffiths reportedly invited eight women ~~Griffiths~~ to join the peace talks in Sweden in 2018, though only one woman was to join the peace talks in Sweden in 2018, though only one woman was
present at the negotiation table.present at the negotiation table.~~100 There are three women currently serving as members of the 26-~~
~~member presidential body of the separatist Southern Transitional Council.101~~112 In December 2019, the Prime Minister of the Hadi government approved Yemen’s National Action Plan for Women, Peace, and Security. The plan reportedly states that women’s participation should be set at no less than 30% in all stages of the peace process, though critics have raised concerns that the plan lacks specifics on “budgets, resource allocation, monitoring and evaluation mechanisms or accountability measures” and ignores the outcomes of the NDC as a national point of reference.113
Radicalization, Terrorism and Violent Extremism
The recruitment of women by the Islamic State and other armed Islamist groups, and the The recruitment of women by the Islamic State and other armed Islamist groups, and the
uncertain status of many of those women after the Islamic State lost control of territory in Syria uncertain status of many of those women after the Islamic State lost control of territory in Syria
and Iraq, brought increased attention to the roles women play within violent extremist and Iraq, brought increased attention to the roles women play within violent extremist
organizations. From its inception, the Islamic State used women as recruiters and fundraisers, and organizations. From its inception, the Islamic State used women as recruiters and fundraisers, and
to provide support and companionship to male fighters. As the group lost territory it reportedly to provide support and companionship to male fighters. As the group lost territory it reportedly
loosened gender role distinctions to use women in traditional military operational roles as loosened gender role distinctions to use women in traditional military operational roles as ~~wel .102~~well.114
One estimate suggested that women accounted for up to 13% (4,761) of the total 41,490 One estimate suggested that women accounted for up to 13% (4,761) of the total 41,490
foreigners who were recorded to have traveled to, or were born inside, territory under the control foreigners who were recorded to have traveled to, or were born inside, territory under the control
of the Islamic State from 2014 to 2019.of the Islamic State from 2014 to 2019.~~103~~115 According to a journalist who covered the fighting in According to a journalist who covered the fighting in
Iraq, IS territorial losses elevated the role of women within the group, as some were driven by Iraq, IS territorial losses elevated the role of women within the group, as some were driven by
“revenge, need, or both” to retaliate against coalition “revenge, need, or both” to retaliate against coalition and Iraqi military operations.military operations.~~104~~
116 Experts and U.S. government officials Experts and U.S. government officials ~~have repeatedly~~repeatedly have expressed concern about the potential expressed concern about the potential
radicalization of women residing in camps for people displaced from territory formerly held by radicalization of women residing in camps for people displaced from territory formerly held by
the Islamic Statethe Islamic State~~.105~~ (see Appendix for more detail).117 In August 2019, the United Nations reported that vulnerable populations in In August 2019, the United Nations reported that vulnerable populations in
these camps were at risk of further radicalization: these camps were at risk of further radicalization:
~~As many of their countries of origin initially refused to repatriate them, most families of~~
~~foreign ISIL fighters, including children, are being held in limbo by SDF [Syrian~~
~~Democratic Forces]. Subsequently, women and children remain at higher risk of further~~

99 111 Neha Wadekar, “Women Want to Put Yemen Back Neha Wadekar, “Women Want to Put Yemen Back ~~T ogether~~Together Again,” Again,” Foreign Policy, November 27, 2018. , November 27, 2018.
~~100~~112 Valette, Valette, Protection, Participation and Potential, January 2019. January 2019.
~~101 Afrah Nasser, “Southern Yemeni women enter storm of politics, war,” Al Monitor, August 23, 2019.~~
~~102 Vera Mironova, “Is the Future of ISIS Female?” New York Times, February 20, 2019.~~
~~103 Joana Cook and Gina Vale, “ From Daesh to ‘Diaspora’ II: T he~~113 Maha Awadh, “Unfulfilled Ambition: Yemen’s National Action Plan for Women Leaves Much to be Desired,” Enheduanna Blog, Wilson Center, April 9, 2020. The plan has not been officially published and CRS has not reviewed a translated draft. 114 Vera Mironova, “Is the Future of ISIS Female?” New York Times, February 20, 2019. 115 Joana Cook and Gina Vale, “From Daesh to ‘Diaspora’ II: The Challenges Posed by Women and Minors after the Challenges Posed by Women and Minors after the
Fall of the Caliphate,” Fall of the Caliphate,” ~~Combating T errorism~~U.S. Military Academy Combating Terrorism Center, Center, CTC Sentinel, vol. 12, no. 6, July vol. 12, no. 6, July 2019. 2019.
~~104~~ 116 For example, Iraqi security forces reportedly raped and harassed women and stole from them in rampages after For example, Iraqi security forces reportedly raped and harassed women and stole from them in rampages after
expelling IS fighters. expelling IS fighters. ~~T his~~This reportedly left some women wanting to get revenge, and others seeing no other way to reportedly left some women wanting to get revenge, and others seeing no other way to
survive after being left without incomes andsurvive after being left without incomes and in terrible living conditions. Mironova, “Is the Future of ISISin terrible living conditions. Mironova, “Is the Future of ISIS Female?”Female?”
~~105~~ 117 See, See, for example, Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia and for example, Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia and
Counterterrorism, Counterterrorism, Iraq: A Crossroads of U.S. Policy, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July 16, 2020; House Foreign 16, 2020; House Foreign
Affairs Subcommittee on MiddleAffairs Subcommittee on Middle East, North Africa and International East, North Africa and International ~~T errorism~~ Terrorism, The FY20 Budget: State ~~Departm ent~~Department
Counterterrorism and Countering Violent ~~Extrem ism~~ Extremism Bureau, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., July 24, 2019; House July 24, 2019; House
Homeland Security Committee, Homeland Security Committee, Global Terrorism : Threats to the ~~Hom eland~~Homeland, Part I and II , hearings, 116th Cong., 1st , hearings, 116th Cong., 1st
sess.,sess., September 10, 2019 and October 30, 2019September 10, 2019 and October 30, 2019; Julia Hurley, “Coronavirus and ISIS: The Challenge of Repatriation from Al-Hol,” United States Institute of Peace, May 28, 2020. .
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~~radicalization, especially given the absence of age- and gender-sensitive rehabilitation~~
~~programmes.106~~
~~A U.N. assessment in early 2020 estimated that 96% of the 66,100~~ As many of their countries of origin initially refused to repatriate them, most families of foreign ISIL fighters, including children, are being held in limbo by SDF [Syrian Democratic Forces]. Subsequently, women and children remain at higher risk of further radicalization, especially given the absence of age- and gender-sensitive rehabilitation programmes.118 A U.N. assessment in October 2020 estimated that 94% of the more than 64,000 then-inhabitants of Al Hol inhabitants of Al Hol
displacement camp in Syria were women and children.displacement camp in Syria were women and children.~~107~~119 An unknown number of An unknown number of ~~these women~~
the women remaining in Al Hol and similar camps are family members and/or former supporters of IS combatants, or are former IS combatants are family members and/or former supporters of IS combatants, or are former IS combatants
themselves.themselves.120
Experts have argued that in order to be effective, efforts to counter terrorism need to recognize Experts have argued that in order to be effective, efforts to counter terrorism need to recognize
the the ~~role women can play (as~~ potential roles women can play in recruitment, messaging, administration, and operations (as the extremist groups do).the extremist groups do).~~108~~121 Several MENA governments have taken Several MENA governments have taken
steps in this direction. For example, the State Department’s steps in this direction. For example, the State Department’s ~~2018~~2019 Country Reports on Terrorism Country Reports on Terrorism
~~noted that the Algerian foreign minister had lauded~~noted that Algeria recognizes the “crucial role” of women in Algeria’s the “crucial role” of women in Algeria’s
efforts to counter extremism, highlighting the female clerics who work with young girls, mothers, efforts to counter extremism, highlighting the female clerics who work with young girls, mothers,
and prisoners.and prisoners.~~109~~122 The report also noted that in Jordan, “officials regularly engage experts on topics such as the role of women and girls in terrorism prevention.” ~~The report also noted that in Egypt, the Ministry of Islamic Endowments~~
~~(Awqaf) had trained up to 250 female preachers as part of its outreach program to women who~~
~~might be susceptible to recruitment by extremist organizations.~~
Case Study: USAID Efforts to Counter Violent Extremism in ~~Morocco110~~Morocco123
USAID’s USAID’s Favorable Opportunities to Reinforce the Self Advancement of Today’s Youth (FORSATYFavorable Opportunities to Reinforce the Self Advancement of Today’s Youth (FORSATY, or “my opportunity” in Arabic) program, ) program,
active fromactive from 2012 to 2019, worked2012 to 2019, worked with vulnerable youth in nine marginalizedwith vulnerable youth in nine marginalized ~~communities~~ communities in northern Morocco in northern Morocco
where extremistwhere extremist ~~recruitment cel s~~ recruitment cells have been active. FORSATY partnered with local community members have been active. FORSATY partnered with local community members to to
encourage greaterencourage greater female participation in school,female participation in school, the workforce,the workforce, and extracurricular activities.and extracurricular activities. In FY2018, In FY2018,
FORSATY served 3,699 at-risk youth through community activities, including 817 young women (22 percent), an FORSATY served 3,699 at-risk youth through community activities, including 817 young women (22 percent), an
~~increase~~ increase from FY2015 when 15 women participated. FORSATY’sfrom FY2015 when 15 women participated. FORSATY’s education component served almost equal education component served almost equal
numbers of femalenumbers of female and male at-risk students: of 2,011 atand male at-risk students: of 2,011 at ~~risk~~ -risk students who were served,students who were served, ~~976 were~~ 976 were men and 1,035 men and 1,035
were women.were women. USAID noted that “based on the success of the model,USAID noted that “based on the success of the model, FORSATY has FORSATY has ~~leveraged~~ leveraged funds from other funds from other
donors and the private sector,donors and the private sector, which have contributed to expanding the program to other cities and its which have contributed to expanding the program to other cities and its ~~overal~~
overall sustainability.”sustainability.”~~111~~124 Implications of the COVID-19 Pandemic125 Early data indicates that women in the MENA region are experiencing unique and particularly dire effects from the COVID-19 pandemic, though the pandemic is ongoing and the full impact remains to be seen.126 Women in many MENA countries generally face greater exposure to 118 U.N. Human Rights Council, “
~~Implications of COVID-19~~
~~The effects of the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the MENA region, or on~~
~~women in the region specifical y, have yet to be fully realized. Previous pandemics and infectious~~
~~disease outbreaks suggest that women may be uniquely affected by the COVID-19 outbreak.112~~
~~Women are likely to face greater exposure to the virus in many countries, as they constitute the~~
~~majority of healthcare workers and disproportionately care for sick family members at home.~~
~~Women’s preexisting vulnerabilities detailed in this report are likely to be exacerbated by the~~
~~virus and by government responses in the following areas.~~

~~106 U.N. Human Rights Council, “~~ Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab
Republic,”Republic,” A/HRC/42/51, AugustA/HRC/42/51, August ~~15, 2019.~~
~~107 U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, “Syrian Arab Republic: North East Syria: Al Hol Camp,”~~
~~Humanitarian Snapshot, January 16, 2020.~~
~~108 See, for example, Jamille Bigio and~~ 15, 2019. 119 “Syria: Humanitarians ‘very concerned’ for thousands still living in Al Hol camp,” U.N. News, October 16, 2020. 120 In October 2020, the Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Council announced preparations to begin releasing Syrians held at Al Hol camp, including family members of IS fighters. Louisa Loveluck, “Kurdish-led zone vows to release Syrians from detention camp for ISIS families,” The Washington Post, October 5, 2020. 121 See, for example, Jamille Bigio and Rachel Vogelstein, Rachel Vogelstein, Women and Terrorism: Hidden Threats, Forgotten
Partners, Council on Foreign Relations, May 2019. , Council on Foreign Relations, May 2019.
~~109~~122 U.S. U.S. Department of State, “Department of State, “ Country Reports on Country Reports on ~~T errorism 2018.”~~
~~110 CRS~~ Terrorism 2019,” June 24, 2020. 123 CRS communication with USAIDcommunication with USAID officials on October 28, 2019. officials on October 28, 2019.
~~111~~124 USAID, USAID, “ “Favorable Opportunities to Reinforce Self-Advancement for Favorable Opportunities to Reinforce Self-Advancement for ~~T oday~~Today’s Youth (’s Youth (~~FORSAT Y~~FORSATY),” ),” Factsheet, last , last
updated Juneupdated June ~~27, 2018.~~
~~112 Helen Lewis, “ T he Coronavirus Is a Disaster for Feminism: Pandemics affect men and women differently,”~~ ~~The~~
~~Atlantic,~~ ~~March 19, 2020.~~
~~Congressional Research Service~~
24 27, 2018. 125 Sara M. Tharakan, CRS Analyst in Global Health and International Development, co-authored this section. 126 Most countries in the region are not reporting cases with sex-disaggregated data. CRS analysis found that 18% of all Congressional Research Service 26

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress
COVID-19 because they constitute the majority of healthcare workers and home caregivers for sick family members.127 Some research has found that women in the region are less likely to have access to quality health care, and those who contract COVID-19 may face greater long-term consequences to their health, due in part to existing gender disparities in access to health care throughout the region.128 The humanitarian crises and conflicts in Libya, Syria, and Yemen have weakened health systems and destroyed medical facilities, and refugees and displaced populations tend to have higher rates of underlying health issues due to the impacts of war, a lack of access to healthcare, and food insecurity; COVID-19 may compound all of these issues.129 While the long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and the resulting economic downturn are not clear yet, the U.N. Secretary General has warned that COVID-19 is deepening gender inequality globally that might take years to recover from: “Already we are seeing a reversal in decades of limited and fragile progress on gender equality and women’s rights. And without a concerned response, we risk losing a generation or more of gains.”130 Some reports indicate that government measures to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the MENA region are limiting women’s access to education and humanitarian aid, increasing unpaid domestic and care work for women, and contributing to increased domestic violence.131 As with other issues discussed in this report, a combination of challenging underlying circumstances and prevailing attitudes about gender make the ongoing pandemic a particular risk for women in the MENA region, at the same time that the pandemic increases competition for U.S. and global resources and attention. Considerations for Congress Looking ahead, Members may take into account the following issues and questions as they conduct oversight of and consider U.S. policy addressing both the status of women in MENA countries and broader security and policy priorities in the region.  Resources and priorities. In a context of competing domestic and foreign policy priorities and finite resources, to what extent, if any, should U.S. foreign policy, foreign assistance, and military cooperation be directed to address gender imbalances in the MENA region? If so, how can this be done most effectively? Are there specific countries or lines of effort that should be prioritized over others, and, if so, for what reasons? reported cases in the region were disaggregated by sex. Data available from “The COVID-19 Sex-Disaggregated Data Tracker,” Global Health 50/50, the African Population and Health Research Center, and the International Center for Research on Women, updated September 21, 2020. 127 For example, women outnumber men 10 to 1 among nursing staff in Egypt. See U.N. Women and U.N. Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), “The
~~ Economic Opportunities. Economic opportunities are likely to decrease, especial y for~~
~~women who work as foreign domestic workers or in service industries impacted by travel~~
~~limitations. The United Nations estimates that 700,000 women in the MENA region wil~~
~~lose their jobs as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.113 Women, who make up 68% of~~
~~workers in the informal sector, wil be particularly impacted, as they often lack access to~~
~~protections such as unemployment insurance and health benefits.114 Unpaid domestic~~
~~work is likely to increase as health systems are weakened and women have to care for~~
~~children and sick relatives at home.115~~
~~ Education. With schools closed, girls and boys are missing educational opportunities and~~
~~women are taking on added responsibilities of homeschooling children. While some~~
~~schools and universities turn to virtual classes, access to high-speed internet and~~
~~computers or tablets varies across the region, and may be gendered within the~~
~~household.116~~
~~ Humanitarian Crises. The humanitarian crises and conflicts in Libya, Syria, and Yemen~~
~~have weakened health systems and destroyed medical facilities, and refugees and~~
~~displaced populations have higher rates of underlying health issues due to the impacts of~~
~~war, disease, and famine. Already vulnerable women and girls appear likely to have a~~
~~harder time accessing aid as the virus makes delivery of goods and services more difficult~~
~~for humanitarian organizations, and limits the activities of their personnel on the~~
~~ground.117~~
~~ Sexual and Gender-based Violence. Rates of domestic violence may rise as families are~~
~~asked to shelter in place and face heightened anxiety over physical and financial~~
~~insecurity.118 Furthermore, access to domestic violence assistance services, where~~
~~available, wil likely be reduced due to physical distancing measures, and as healthcare~~
~~systems become overloaded in the crisis.119~~
~~Considerations for Congress~~
~~Given the linkages between overal societal prosperity and the specific status of women, it is~~
~~likely that improvements in either of those would promote positive change in the other. Looking~~
~~ahead, Members of the 116th Congress and beyond may take into account the following issues~~

~~113 UN Women and U.N. ESCWA, “T he Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in the Arab Region,”~~
~~E/ESCWA/2020/Policy Brief.4, April 2020.~~
~~114 Ibid.~~
~~115 David Evans, “How Will COVID-19 Affect Women and Girls in Low- and Middle-Income Countries?” Center for~~
~~Global Development, March 16, 2020.~~
~~116 Rasha Faek and T arek Abd El-Galil, “T he Shift to Online Education in the Arab World Is Intensifying Inequality ,”~~
~~El Fanar Media, April 30, 2020; U.N. Women and U.N. ESCWA, “ T he~~ Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in Impact of COVID-19 on Gender Equality in
~~the Arab Region.”~~
~~117 See for example, International Rescue Committee, “ How the IRC responds to COVID-19 in Syria and other conflict~~
~~zones,” March 25, 2020; U.N. Population Fund, “ Regional Situation Report for the Syria Crisis,” no. 91, March 1 -31,~~
~~2020.~~
~~118 For example, T unisian Minister of Women’s Affairs, Asma Shiri Laabidi, stated there had been a five-fold rise in~~
~~the number of domestic abuse cases reported between March 23 and 29 compared with the same period in 2019.~~
~~“T unisia Offers Free Helpline as Lockdown Sees Abuse Spike,” Asharq Al-Awsat, April 3, 2020.~~
~~119 Mélissa Godin, “As Cities Around the World Go on Lockdown, Victims of Domestic Violence Look for a Way~~
~~Out,” TIME, March 18, 2020.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~

~~and questions as they conduct oversight of and consider U.S. policy addressing both the status of~~
~~women in MENA countries and broader security and policy priorities in the region.~~
~~ Resources and priorities. In a context of competing domestic and foreign policy~~
~~priorities and finite resources, where might U.S. foreign policy, foreign~~
~~assistance, and military cooperation be most usefully directed to address gender~~
~~imbalances in the MENA region? What is the history of performance of U.S.~~
~~efforts to date? Are there specific countries or lines of effort that should be~~
~~prioritized over others, and for what reasons?~~the Arab Region,” E/ESCWA/2020/Policy Brief.4, April 2020. 128 Global Health 5050, International Center for Research on Women, African Population and Health Research Center, “The COVID-19 Sex-Disaggregated Data Tracker,” September 21, 2020; N.M. Kronfol, “Access and barriers to health care delivery in Arab countries: a review,” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 18 (12), 1239-1246, 2012. 129 For example, nearly a decade of war in Syria has destroyed many hospitals, with one source documenting 34 regime attacks between 2014 and 2017 on facilities specializing in women’s or children’s healthcare. See Yasmeen Al-Dimashqi and Florence Massena, “For Many Syrian Women, Healthcare is a Matter of Geography,” Syria Deeply, August 16, 2017. 130 United Nations Secretary General, “Secretary-General's remarks at Town Hall with Young Women from Civil Society Organizations,” August 31, 2020. 131 World Food Program, “Impact of COVID-19 in the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe,” Update #5, September 2020; Hafsa Halawa, “The Gendered Impact of COVID-19 in the Middle East,” Middle East Institute, June 11, 2020. Congressional Research Service 27 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress
  Level of aid. How might the level of U.S. political, military, and economic . How might the level of U.S. political, military, and economic
engagement and assistance, given possible changes over time, affect how MENA engagement and assistance, given possible changes over time, affect how MENA
countries address women’s roles and countries address women’s roles and ~~wel~~ well-being? -being?
  Effectiveness. Which types of . Which types of ~~policies, and particularly~~ policy approaches and foreign assistance foreign assistance
programs programs, appear to have been the most effective in improving conditions for appear to have been the most effective in improving conditions for
women? What women? What ~~has~~have been the been the ~~impact~~effects of U.S. programs in specific MENA of U.S. programs in specific MENA
countriescountries~~, such as the aforementioned USAID programs described in Egypt,~~
~~Jordan, and Morocco~~? Could such programs be expanded to other MENA states? ? Could such programs be expanded to other MENA states?
  ~~Whole of government approach~~Congressional mandates. What are the pros and cons of using . What are the pros and cons of using
~~legislation to~~ legislation to mandate the incorporation of gender elements into broader foreign mandate the incorporation of gender elements into broader foreign
policy initiatives, foreign assistance programs, and military cooperation policy initiatives, foreign assistance programs, and military cooperation
activities? activities?
  ~~Funding conditions~~Conditionality. What are the pros and cons of conditioning U.S. financial . What are the pros and cons of conditioning U.S. financial
support support tofor and security cooperation with authoritarian states on respect for women’s rights and gender equality? authoritarian states on respect for women’s rights and gender equality?
What metrics would be appropriate for gauging What metrics would be appropriate for gauging ~~the latter~~progress? ?
  Best practices.. To what extent, if any, To what extent, if any, ~~is the United States sharing best practices~~
~~within the U.S. government and among~~are elements of the U.S. government sharing best practices among themselves and with other international actors? Would efforts other international actors? Would efforts
such as such as ~~the~~ congressional congressional ~~steps to encourage~~advocacy encouraging women’s participation in peace women’s participation in peace
negotiations in Afghanistan be applicable to MENA conflicts such as those in negotiations in Afghanistan be applicable to MENA conflicts such as those in
Syria, Yemen, and Libya? Syria, Yemen, and Libya?
  Cultural sensitivities and resistance to change. How can U.S. and international . How can U.S. and international
assistance and programs be structured to maximize local ownership of initiatives assistance and programs be structured to maximize local ownership of initiatives
for women and girls and minimize the perception of outside interference? for women and girls and minimize the perception of outside interference?
  Other international efforts. What programs and initiatives do other . What programs and initiatives do other
governments and governments and regional and multilateral organizations have for addressing gender issues in multilateral organizations have for addressing gender issues in
the MENA region? How the MENA region? How ~~wel~~ well coordinated are coordinated are ~~international~~global efforts, and what efforts, and what
opportunities are there for greater coordination and/or burden-sharingopportunities are there for greater coordination and/or burden-sharing?  COVID-19. In what ways might the COVID-19 pandemic worsen the status and conditions of women in the region, and are there ways to target U.S. policy and/or assistance that might help mitigate those trends? Congressional Research Service 28?
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link to page link to page 3133 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

Appendix. Legislation in the 116th Congress
In recent Congresses, Members have introduced and passed a number of In recent Congresses, Members have introduced and passed a number of ~~bil s~~bills and resolutions and resolutions
related to the status of women’s rights related to the status of women’s rights ~~global y~~globally, some of which may directly or indirectly address , some of which may directly or indirectly address
gender inequality in the MENA region. Some Members gender inequality in the MENA region. Some Members ~~have also~~ also have raised the issue in oversight raised the issue in oversight
hearings. Selected hearings and relevant legislationhearings. Selected hearings and relevant legislation introduced during the 116th Congress related introduced during the 116th Congress related
to legal rights, economic empowerment, political representation, girls’ education, sexual and to legal rights, economic empowerment, political representation, girls’ education, sexual and
gender-based violence, and conflict resolution are catalogued in further detail below.gender-based violence, and conflict resolution are catalogued in further detail below.
Legal Rights
The 116th Congress has engaged on the topic of global legal protections for women, in particular The 116th Congress has engaged on the topic of global legal protections for women, in particular
those related to preventing and addressing gender-based violence. Harmful practices that occur in those related to preventing and addressing gender-based violence. Harmful practices that occur in
several MENAseveral MENA countries, such as female genital mutilation/cutting (e.g., H.Res. 106), and child, countries, such as female genital mutilation/cutting (e.g., H.Res. 106), and child,
early, and forced marriage (discussed below in early, and forced marriage (discussed below in “Sexual and Gender-based Violence”)), have been , have been
of particular interest. Some Members of particular interest. Some Members ~~have also~~also have voiced concerns about the detention of women’s voiced concerns about the detention of women’s
rights advocates in Saudi Arabia (S.Res. 73 and H.Res. 129).rights advocates in Saudi Arabia (S.Res. 73 and H.Res. 129).~~120~~
132 H.Res. 106, passed in the House, H.Res. 106, passed in the House, ~~denounces~~and S.Res. 494 denounce the practice of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting the practice of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting
(FGM/C) as a “violation of the human rights of women and girls” and urges the State Department (FGM/C) as a “violation of the human rights of women and girls” and urges the State Department
and USAID to incorporate coordinated efforts to eliminate FGM/C in their gender and USAID to incorporate coordinated efforts to eliminate FGM/C in their gender
programming.programming.~~121~~133 This mirrors language incorporated into appropriations This mirrors language incorporated into appropriations ~~bil s~~bills or accompanying or accompanying
explanatory statements since FY2014, which states that State Department and USAID “gender explanatory statements since FY2014, which states that State Department and USAID “gender
programs programs ~~shal~~ shall incorporate coordinated efforts to combat a variety of forms of gender-based incorporate coordinated efforts to combat a variety of forms of gender-based
violence, including child marriage, rape, female genital cutting and mutilation, and domestic violence, including child marriage, rape, female genital cutting and mutilation, and domestic
violence, among other forms of gender-based violence in conflict and non-conflict settings.”violence, among other forms of gender-based violence in conflict and non-conflict settings.”~~122~~
134 The Trump Administration requested bilateral economic assistance in FY2019 and The Trump Administration requested bilateral economic assistance in FY2019 and ~~FY2020~~
~~specifical y~~FY2020 specifically to combat FGM/C in Egypt, where the practice is reported to be most prevalent in the to combat FGM/C in Egypt, where the practice is reported to be most prevalent in the
region; the FY2021 request did not make the same request.region; the FY2021 request did not make the same request.~~123~~
135 Economic Empowerment
Introduced in the 116th Congress, the Introduced in the 116th Congress, the Women’s Global Empowerment, Development and
Prosperity Act of 2020 (S. (S. ~~3301and~~3301 and H.R. 6117) would require the Secretary of State to establish H.R. 6117) would require the Secretary of State to establish

~~120 Other legislation on Saudi Arabia includes the Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019 (H.R.~~
~~2037), which would allow the President to suspend sanctions on Saudi Arabia if, among other criteria, “ the~~
~~Government of Saudi Arabia has taken verifiable steps t o repeal any law or regulation that requires Saudi women to~~
~~obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the country.” T his provision was included~~ within the Office of Women’s Empowerment an office for the Women’s Global Development and 132 Other legislation on Saudi Arabia includes the Saudi Arabia Human Rights and Accountability Act of 2019 (H.R. 2037), which would allow the President to suspend sanctions on Saudi Arabia if, among other criteria, “the Government of Saudi Arabia has taken verifiable steps to repeal any law or regulation that requires Saudi women to obtain approval from a male guardian in order to leave the country.” This provision was included in the House version in the House version
of the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act (of the FY2020 National Defense Authorization Act ( H.R. 2500), but was not incorporated into H.R. 2500), but was not incorporated into ~~the final law (~~P.L. 116-P.L. 116-
~~92)~~92. .
~~121~~133 H.Res. 106 defines FGM/C H.Res. 106 defines FGM/C as “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, as “all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia,
or other injury to the female genital organs for nonmedical or other injury to the female genital organs for nonmedical ~~reason s.”~~
~~122~~reasons.” 134 Final FY2020 SFOPS Final FY2020 SFOPS appropriations (Division G, P.L. 116-94) does not contain this language, however the appropriations (Division G, P.L. 116-94) does not contain this language, however the
explanatory statement accompanying the act states that “gender programs should incorporate coordinated efforts to explanatory statement accompanying the act states that “gender programs should incorporate coordinated efforts to
combat a variety of forms of gender-basedcombat a variety of forms of gender-based violence, includingviolence, including child, early, and forced marriage, rape, female genital child, early, and forced marriage, rape, female genital
cutting and mutilation, and domestic violence, in conflict and noncutting and mutilation, and domestic violence, in conflict and non -conflict settings.” For prior year appropriations see-conflict settings.” For prior year appropriations see:
FY2019 (P.L. 116-6), FY2018 (P.L. 115-141), FY2017 (P.L. 115-31), FY2016 (P.L. 114-113), FY2015 (P.L. 113-235), FY2019 (P.L. 116-6), FY2018 (P.L. 115-141), FY2017 (P.L. 115-31), FY2016 (P.L. 114-113), FY2015 (P.L. 113-235),
FY2014 (P.L. 113-76). FY2014 (P.L. 113-76).
~~123~~135 UNICEF estimates that 87% of girls aged UNICEF estimates that 87% of girls aged 15 to 49 have undergone FGM/C15 to 49 have undergone FGM/C in Egypt, as compared to 7% in Iraq and in Egypt, as compared to 7% in Iraq and
19% in Yemen. UNICEF, “19% in Yemen. UNICEF, “ Female genital mutilation (FGM),” updatedFemale genital mutilation (FGM),” updated February 2020.February 2020.
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~~within the Office of Women’s Empowerment an office for the Women’s Global Development and~~
Prosperity Initiative (W–GDP). Congress Prosperity Initiative (W–GDP). Congress ~~funded~~authorized the use of up to $100 up to $100 ~~mil ion~~million for the Women’s Global for the Women’s Global
Development and Prosperity Fund in final FY2020 SFOPS appropriations (Section 7059, Development and Prosperity Fund in final FY2020 SFOPS appropriations (Section 7059,
Division G, P.L. 116-94). The W-GDP annual report 2019/2020 notes that USAID W-GDP Division G, P.L. 116-94). The W-GDP annual report 2019/2020 notes that USAID W-GDP
funding in FY2018 was used for programs in Morocco, Tunisia and Jordan.funding in FY2018 was used for programs in Morocco, Tunisia and Jordan.~~124~~136
Political Representation
Congress in FY2020 appropriated not less than $50 Congress in FY2020 appropriated not less than $50 ~~mil ion~~ million for global programs designed to for global programs designed to
strengthen protections for women’s political status, and to expand women’s participation in strengthen protections for women’s political status, and to expand women’s participation in
political parties and elections in countries where women and girls suffer discrimination due to political parties and elections in countries where women and girls suffer discrimination due to
law, policy or practice (Section 7059, Division G, P.L. 116-94). Congress also continues to fund law, policy or practice (Section 7059, Division G, P.L. 116-94). Congress also continues to fund
gender and women’s empowerment projects through the State Department’s Middle East gender and women’s empowerment projects through the State Department’s Middle East
Partnership Initiative (MEPI), created in 2002 to promote political, economic and educational Partnership Initiative (MEPI), created in 2002 to promote political, economic and educational
reform in the Middle East.reform in the Middle East.~~125~~137 MEPI works “in partnership with local leaders and indigenous MEPI works “in partnership with local leaders and indigenous
organizations to increase women’s political and economic participation, support women organizations to increase women’s political and economic participation, support women
visionaries, provide training to enhance women’s capabilities to contribute to their countries’ visionaries, provide training to enhance women’s capabilities to contribute to their countries’
development, and build the capacity of civil society to secure equal rights and economic development, and build the capacity of civil society to secure equal rights and economic
prosperity for women and their families.”prosperity for women and their families.”~~126~~138 Funding for MEPI, Near East Regional Democracy, Funding for MEPI, Near East Regional Democracy,
and Multinationaland Multinational Force and Observers is included in the State Department’s Bureau of Near Force and Observers is included in the State Department’s Bureau of Near
Eastern Affairs Regional FY2019 Eastern Affairs Regional FY2019 ~~al ocation ($118 mil ion)~~ allocation ($118 million) and the FY2021 request ($121 and the FY2021 request ($121
~~mil ion~~million). Congress funded MEPI at $51 ). Congress funded MEPI at $51 ~~mil ion~~million in FY2017 and $31.6 in FY2017 and $31.6 ~~mil ion~~ million in FY2018.in FY2018.~~127~~
139 Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Conflict and Displacement
The The Preventing Child Marriage in Displaced Populations Act (H.R. 2140, passed in the House, (H.R. 2140, passed in the House,
incorporated as Title IV, Section J in P.L. 116-94) finds that displaced populations are particularly incorporated as Title IV, Section J in P.L. 116-94) finds that displaced populations are particularly
vulnerable to child marriage. The vulnerable to child marriage. The ~~Act cal s~~act calls for the U.S. Permanent Representative to the United for the U.S. Permanent Representative to the United
Nations to Nations to ~~cal~~ call for an agreed-upon definition of “child marriage” across U.N. agencies and for a for an agreed-upon definition of “child marriage” across U.N. agencies and for a
comprehensive strategy to address child marriage in refugee settlements administered by the comprehensive strategy to address child marriage in refugee settlements administered by the
United Nations. The United Nations. The ~~Act~~act finds that rates of child marriage are particularly high in Syria and finds that rates of child marriage are particularly high in Syria and
Yemen. Yemen.
The The Accountability for Sexual and Gender-based Violence as a Tool in Conflict Act of 2019 (H.R. (H.R.
3212 and S. 1777 ) would “amend the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to include in the Annual 3212 and S. 1777 ) would “amend the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to include in the Annual
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices a section on conflict-related sexual and gender-based Country Reports on Human Rights Practices a section on conflict-related sexual and gender-based
violence” and “amend the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act [22 U.S.C. § violence” and “amend the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act [22 U.S.C. §
2656] to authorize the President to impose economic sanctions and a visa ban on the leader of an 2656] to authorize the President to impose economic sanctions and a visa ban on the leader of an
organization that commits sexual or gender-based violence.” The organization that commits sexual or gender-based violence.” The ~~bil~~ bill would find that rape and would find that rape and
sexual assault have been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and sexual assault have been used as tactics of war and terror in conflict zones including Iraq and
~~Syria.~~

~~124 T he~~Syria. 136 The White House, “Women’s Global Development and Prosperity White House, “Women’s Global Development and Prosperity ~~In itiative~~Initiative Annual Report 2019-2020,” February Annual Report 2019-2020,” February
2020, p. 22-23. 2020, p. 22-23.
~~125 See~~ 137 See out of print CRSout of print CRS Report RS21457, Report RS21457, The Middle East Partnership Initiative: An Overview, by Jeremy M. Sharp, , by Jeremy M. Sharp,
available to congressional clients on requestavailable to congressional clients on request
~~126~~ 138 U.S. U.S. Department of State, “Gender and Women’s Empowerment,” Department of State, “Gender and Women’s Empowerment,” ~~T he~~The U.S.-Middle East Partnership Initiative U.S.-Middle East Partnership Initiative
(MEPI), available at https://mepi.state.gov/about(MEPI), available at https://mepi.state.gov/about -mepi/gender-womens-empowerment/. -mepi/gender-womens-empowerment/.
~~127 T he T rump~~ 139 The Trump Administration has requested $14.5 million for MEPI in FY2021, consistent with the FY2020 request. Administration has requested $14.5 million for MEPI in FY2021, consistent with the FY2020 request.
FundingFunding for MEPI is includedfor MEPI is included in the State Department’s Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Regional FY2019 allocation in the State Department’s Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs Regional FY2019 allocation
($118 million) and the FY2021 request ($121 million). ($118 million) and the FY2021 request ($121 million).
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The The Safe from the Start Act of 2019 (H.R. 4092) (H.R. 4092) ~~seeks to “~~and Keeping Women and Girls Safe from the Start Act of 2020 (S. 4003) seek to improve United States consideration of, improve United States consideration of,
and strategic support for, programs to prevent and respond to gender-based violence from the and strategic support for, programs to prevent and respond to gender-based violence from the
onset of humanitarian emergencies and build the capacity of humanitarian assistance to address onset of humanitarian emergencies and build the capacity of humanitarian assistance to address
the immediate and long-the immediate and long-term challenges~~term chal enges~~ resulting from such violence, and for other purposes. resulting from such violence, and for other purposes.”
The The International Violence Against Women Act of 2019 (H.R. 5267 and S. 3037)(H.R. 5267 and S. 3037)~~, which~~ would would
find that rape and sexual assault are used as tools of war in conflict zones such as Iraq and Syria, find that rape and sexual assault are used as tools of war in conflict zones such as Iraq and Syria,
and would authorize existing appropriations to be used to develop a U.S. strategy to prevent and would authorize existing appropriations to be used to develop a U.S. strategy to prevent and
respond to gender-based violence respond to gender-based violence ~~global y~~globally. .
Girls’ Education
The The Keeping Girls in School Act (S. 1071, H.R. 2153, passed in the House) aims to support (S. 1071, H.R. 2153, passed in the House) aims to support
empowerment, economic security, and educational opportunities for adolescent girls around the empowerment, economic security, and educational opportunities for adolescent girls around the
world. It expresses the sense of Congress that “achieving gender parity in both access to and world. It expresses the sense of Congress that “achieving gender parity in both access to and
quality of educational opportunity contributes significantly to economic growth and development, quality of educational opportunity contributes significantly to economic growth and development,
thereby lowering the risk for violence and instability”thereby lowering the risk for violence and instability” and that achieving gender equality “should and that achieving gender equality “should
be a priority goal of United States foreign policy.” The be a priority goal of United States foreign policy.” The ~~Act~~act would authorize USAID activities that would authorize USAID activities that
address barriers facing adolescent girls in accessing secondary education, including but not address barriers facing adolescent girls in accessing secondary education, including but not
limited to, child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. The limited to, child, early and forced marriage and female genital mutilation. The ~~Act~~act would build on would build on
the the Protecting Girls’ Access to Education in Vulnerable Settings Act (P.L. 115-442) enacted in (P.L. 115-442) enacted in
December 2018, which authorizes the State Department and USAID to prioritize programs that December 2018, which authorizes the State Department and USAID to prioritize programs that
protect displaced children, particularly displaced girls. protect displaced children, particularly displaced girls.
H.Res. 277 (introduced April 2019) and S.Res. 360 (introduced in October 2019) would affirm the importance of access to safe, quality education, including protection from attacks on education, for children in conflict settings. Conflict Resolution
Some Members of the 116th Congress have cited the Some Members of the 116th Congress have cited the Women, Peace and Security Act of 2017
(WPS Act or P.L. 115-68) to (WPS Act or P.L. 115-68) to ~~cal~~ call for greater participation of Afghan women in the negotiations for greater participation of Afghan women in the negotiations
between the U.S. and the Taliban, but have been less vocal about pushing for women’s between the U.S. and the Taliban, but have been less vocal about pushing for women’s
participation in recent peace negotiations to resolve the ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, and participation in recent peace negotiations to resolve the ongoing wars in Libya, Syria, and
Yemen.Yemen.~~128~~140 Senator Jeanne Shaheen raised the issue with regard to Syria in a June 2019 Senate Senator Jeanne Shaheen raised the issue with regard to Syria in a June 2019 Senate
Foreign RelationsForeign Relations Committee hearing, asserting that, “as we look at stability in Syria, women Committee hearing, asserting that, “as we look at stability in Syria, women
need to be significant part of any resolution to the conflict there.”need to be significant part of any resolution to the conflict there.”~~129~~141 To date, none of the To date, none of the
legislationlegislation introduced in the 116th Congress regarding the conflict in Yemen has discussed the introduced in the 116th Congress regarding the conflict in Yemen has discussed the
meaningful participation of women in managing or resolving the crisis.meaningful participation of women in managing or resolving the crisis.~~130~~142 Legislation supporting Legislation supporting
a diplomatic solution to the conflict in Libya (H.R. 4644 and S. 2934) introduced in November a diplomatic solution to the conflict in Libya (H.R. 4644 and S. 2934) introduced in November
~~2019 does not mention women’s participation.~~
~~Congress previously funded efforts in line with the WPS Act in Syria. Appropriations measures~~
~~for FY2016-FY2018 explicitly made funds available for programs in Syria that sought to~~
~~“empower women through political and economic programs, and address the psychosocial needs~~
~~of women and their families in Syria and neighboring countries” and “expand the role of women~~

~~128~~2019 does not mention women’s participation, nor does H.Res. 1061, introduced in July 2020, which calls for a political solution to the Syrian civil war. 140 Congressional support for women’s inclusion in Afghan peace negotiations was codified Congressional support for women’s inclusion in Afghan peace negotiations was codified in FY2020 appropriations in FY2020 appropriations
and authorization bills. Seeand authorization bills. See Sect. 7044 (a) of Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (Sect. 7044 (a) of Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 ( P.L. 116-94) and Sect. P.L. 116-94) and Sect.
1216 of the National Defense Authorization Act, 2020 (1216 of the National Defense Authorization Act, 2020 ( P.L. 116-92). P.L. 116-92).
~~129~~141 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, ~~T ransnational~~Transnational Crime, Civilian Security, Crime, Civilian Security,
Democracy, Human Rights, and GlobalDemocracy, Human Rights, and Global ~~Women'~~ Women’s Issues,s Issues, ~~Wom en~~ Women in Conflict: Advancing ~~Wom en'~~Women’s Role in Peace and
Security, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., June 13, 2019. 13, 2019.
~~130 See CRS~~ 142 See CRS Report R45046, Report R45046, Congress and the War in Yemen: Oversight and Legislation 2015 ~~-2019~~-2020, by Jeremy M. , by Jeremy M.
Sharp, Christopher M. Blanchard, and SarahSharp, Christopher M. Blanchard, and Sarah R. Collins. R. Collins.
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Congress previously funded efforts in line with the WPS Act in Syria. Appropriations measures for FY2016-FY2018 explicitly made funds available for programs in Syria that sought to “empower women through political and economic programs, and address the psychosocial needs of women and their families in Syria and neighboring countries” and “expand the role of women in negotiations to end the violence and in any politicalin negotiations to end the violence and in any political transition in Syria.”transition in Syria.”~~131~~143 The The Further
Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (Section 7059, Division G, P.L. 116-94) does not specify (Section 7059, Division G, P.L. 116-94) does not specify
funds for WPS implementation in Syria, although it does provide that funds should be made funds for WPS implementation in Syria, although it does provide that funds should be made
availableavailable to support a multi-year strategy to expand and improve coordination of U.S. to support a multi-year strategy to expand and improve coordination of U.S.
government efforts to “empower women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building, government efforts to “empower women as equal partners in conflict prevention, peace building,
transitional processes, and reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political transitional processes, and reconstruction efforts in countries affected by conflict or in political
transition, and to provide the equitable provision of relief and recovery assistance to women and transition, and to provide the equitable provision of relief and recovery assistance to women and
girls.”girls.”
Congress Congress ~~has also~~also has used appropriations legislation to improve the participation and effectiveness used appropriations legislation to improve the participation and effectiveness
of women in foreign partner security forces. The of women in foreign partner security forces. The Enhancing Military and Police Operations
through Women’s Engagement and Recruitment Act of 2016 (S. 3377), which was introduced (S. 3377), which was introduced
during the 114th Congress, cited that approximately 7% of foreign participants in the U.S. during the 114th Congress, cited that approximately 7% of foreign participants in the U.S.
International Military Education and Training (IMET) program were women. Recent International Military Education and Training (IMET) program were women. Recent
appropriations measures have directed international security assistance and cooperation funds to appropriations measures have directed international security assistance and cooperation funds to
be used to support the integration of women into foreign security forces.be used to support the integration of women into foreign security forces.~~132~~144 For example, the For example, the
National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 (P.L. 116-92) mandated that, of funds (P.L. 116-92) mandated that, of funds
made availablemade available for training and equipping Afghan security forces, $10 for training and equipping Afghan security forces, $10 ~~mil ion~~million be used to support be used to support
recruitment, training, and treatment of recruitment, training, and treatment of Afghan women. women.
Countering Violent Extremism Some
Members have sought to highlight the nexus of gender and countering violent extremism as it Members have sought to highlight the nexus of gender and countering violent extremism as it
relates to the MENA region through various hearings. In a House Foreign Affairs Committee relates to the MENA region through various hearings. In a House Foreign Affairs Committee
hearing on the State Department counterterrorism budget in July 2019, two Members asked what hearing on the State Department counterterrorism budget in July 2019, two Members asked what
efforts the Trump Administration was making to engage women in the prevention of terrorism efforts the Trump Administration was making to engage women in the prevention of terrorism
and raised specific concerns about the potential radicalization of women and children held in and raised specific concerns about the potential radicalization of women and children held in
displacement camps in Syria.displacement camps in Syria.~~133~~145 At a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on Syria in At a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on Syria in
September 2019, Senator Jeanne Shaheen asserted that Iraqi partners were concerned “not just September 2019, Senator Jeanne Shaheen asserted that Iraqi partners were concerned “not just
with any fighters who may be in the [displacement] camp but with with any fighters who may be in the [displacement] camp but with al all of the women and children of the women and children
who are being radicalized.”who are being radicalized.”~~134~~146 In response, one of the witnesses, Syria Study Group Co-Chair In response, one of the witnesses, Syria Study Group Co-Chair
Michael Singh, stated that the U.S. government had not yet come up with durable solutions: “You Michael Singh, stated that the U.S. government had not yet come up with durable solutions: “You
have the 70,000 mostly women and children, mostly children frankly, in the [have the 70,000 mostly women and children, mostly children frankly, in the [alAl Hol] camp who Hol] camp who
have grown up in the worst possible conditions and the fact is that we don’t have grown up in the worst possible conditions and the fact is that we don’t ~~real y know how to~~
~~conduct this process of de-radicalization and that’s, again, I think something that is—that~~
~~behooves us, to get on top of.”135~~

~~131 See~~ really know how to 143 See P.L. 115-141, P.L. 115-31, P.L. 114-113. Appropriations acts for FY2016 (P.L. 114-113) and FY2015 (P.L. P.L. 115-141, P.L. 115-31, P.L. 114-113. Appropriations acts for FY2016 (P.L. 114-113) and FY2015 (P.L.
113-235) included the same clause113-235) included the same clause on expanding the on expanding the ~~ro le~~role of women in negotiations. of women in negotiations.
~~132~~144 H.Rept. 116-78, accompanying the House-reported FY2020 SFOPS H.Rept. 116-78, accompanying the House-reported FY2020 SFOPS bill states: “bill states: “~~T he~~The Committee directs that funds Committee directs that funds
made availablemade available to train foreign police, judicial, and military personnel, includingto train foreign police, judicial, and military personnel, including for international peacekeeping, for international peacekeeping,
addressaddress prevention and response to gender-based violence and trafficking in persons, and support integration of women prevention and response to gender-based violence and trafficking in persons, and support integration of women
into security forces. into security forces. ~~T he~~The Committee encourages the Secretary of State to ensure women’s participation is increased in Committee encourages the Secretary of State to ensure women’s participation is increased in
peacekeeping operations and other security assistance programs, as appropriate.” peacekeeping operations and other security assistance programs, as appropriate.”
~~133~~ 145 House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, House Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism, The FY20
Budget: State ~~Departm ent~~Department Counterterrorism and Countering Violent ~~Extrem ism Bureau~~ Extremism Bureau, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., , hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,
JulyJuly 24, 2019. 24, 2019.
~~134~~146 Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism, The Path
Forward: Key Findings from the Syria Study Group Report, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., ~~September 24, 2019.~~
~~135 T estimony of Michael Singh, in Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia,~~
~~and Counterterrorism, The Path Forward: Key Findings from the Syria Study Group Report, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st~~
~~sess., September 24, 2019.~~
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~~Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress~~
September 24, 2019. Congressional Research Service 32 Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress conduct this process of de-radicalization and that’s, again, I think something that is—that behooves us, to get on top of.”147
Two pieces of legislation (one introduced, one passed) in the 116th Congress have Two pieces of legislation (one introduced, one passed) in the 116th Congress have ~~cal ed~~called for for
greater research on the nexus of gender and countering violent extremism and terrorism.greater research on the nexus of gender and countering violent extremism and terrorism. TheThe
Women and Countering Violent Extremism Act of 2019 (H.R. 1653) (H.R. 1653) ~~which~~ would find that the would find that the
Islamic State benefited Islamic State benefited ~~strategical y and financial y~~ strategically and financially from the subjugation of women, from the subjugation of women, ~~would~~
and seeks to “ensure that the United States recognizes women’s varied roles in “ensure that the United States recognizes women’s varied roles in al all aspects of violent extremism aspects of violent extremism
and promote their meaningful participation as full partners in and promote their meaningful participation as full partners in al all efforts to prevent and counter efforts to prevent and counter
violent extremism and terrorism.” The violent extremism and terrorism.” The ~~bil~~ bill would, among other things, require the Secretaries of would, among other things, require the Secretaries of
Defense and State, in conjunction with the Administrator of USAID, to conduct research on Defense and State, in conjunction with the Administrator of USAID, to conduct research on
gender and countering violent extremism and report their findings back to Congress. The gender and countering violent extremism and report their findings back to Congress. The ~~Act~~
act would also authorize assistance to women-led and women’s empowerment organizations in would also authorize assistance to women-led and women’s empowerment organizations in
foreign countries working on countering violent extremism, and would increase training for U.S. foreign countries working on countering violent extremism, and would increase training for U.S.
government officials and for those receiving training under the State Department’s Anti-Terrorism government officials and for those receiving training under the State Department’s Anti-Terrorism
Assistance programs.Assistance programs.
In addition, Section 1047 of the In addition, Section 1047 of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 (P.L. (P.L.
~~116-92)~~ ~~requires~~116-92) required an independent assessment on gender and countering violent extremism, with a an independent assessment on gender and countering violent extremism, with a
report due to Congress not later than September 15, 2020. report due to Congress not later than September 15, 2020. ~~Specifical y~~Specifically, the assessment , the assessment ~~“shal~~
~~consider”~~was required to consider: :
 the probable causes and historical trends of women’s participation in violent  the probable causes and historical trends of women’s participation in violent
extremist organizations, and ways in which that participation is likely extremist organizations, and ways in which that participation is likely to change; to change;
 the relationship between violent extremism and each of the following:  the relationship between violent extremism and each of the following: gender-gender-
based violence, the perceived role or value of women at the community level, based violence, the perceived role or value of women at the community level,
community opinions of community opinions of ~~kil ing~~ killing or harming women, and violations of girls’ rights or harming women, and violations of girls’ rights
(such as child, early and forced marriage and access to education); and (such as child, early and forced marriage and access to education); and
 ways the Department of Defense may engage and support women and girls who  ways the Department of Defense may engage and support women and girls who
are vulnerable to extremist behavior. are vulnerable to extremist behavior.
~~COVID-19~~ Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
Section 233 of the COVID–19 International Response and Recovery Act of 2020 (S. 3669) Section 233 of the COVID–19 International Response and Recovery Act of 2020 (S. 3669)
introduced on May 7, 2020introduced on May 7, 2020, would express the sense of Congress that “credible research indicates would express the sense of Congress that “credible research indicates
that the COVID–19 pandemic has increased exposure to domestic violence, child marriage, that the COVID–19 pandemic has increased exposure to domestic violence, child marriage,
trafficking and other forms of gender-based violence and abuse, and has increased and trafficking and other forms of gender-based violence and abuse, and has increased and
compounded the risks displaced women and girls face in emergencies;” and that the pandemic is compounded the risks displaced women and girls face in emergencies;” and that the pandemic is
disrupting access to sexual and reproductive health care. It also would authorize the State disrupting access to sexual and reproductive health care. It also would authorize the State
Department and USAID to “carry out activities to prevent, mitigate, and respond to gender-based Department and USAID to “carry out activities to prevent, mitigate, and respond to gender-based
violence during and following the COVID–19 pandemic,” and would authorize assistance to the violence during and following the COVID–19 pandemic,” and would authorize assistance to the
U.N. Population Fund for activities such as the “coordination and delivery of information and U.N. Population Fund for activities such as the “coordination and delivery of information and
services to prevent child marriage and female genital mutilation, the incidence of which has services to prevent child marriage and female genital mutilation, the incidence of which has
increased during the COVID–19 pandemic.”increased during the COVID–19 pandemic.”

~~Author Information~~

~~Zoe Danon~~
~~Sarah R. Collins~~
~~Section Research Manager~~
~~Research Assistant~~

~~Congressional Research Service~~
31 The Global Learning Loss Assessment Act of 2020 (H.R. 7911, H.R. 8220, and S. 4548) would require the USAID to report on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on learning and global 147 Testimony of Michael Singh, in Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism, The Path Forward: Key Findings from the Syria Study Group Report, hearing, 116th Cong., 1st sess., September 24, 2019. Congressional Research Service 33

Women in the Middle East and North Africa: Issues for Congress

~~Acknowledgments~~
basic education programs, including identifying any gaps in reaching marginalized populations, such as girls, children with disabilities, or children affected by conflict and crisis. Author Information Zoe Danon Sarah R. Collins Coordinator of Research Planning Research Assistant Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Amber Wilhelm for her help in producing all of the The authors would like to extend their gratitude to Amber Wilhelm for her help in producing all of the
graphics found in this report, as well as to the many people who read and commented on versions of this graphics found in this report, as well as to the many people who read and commented on versions of this
report, including Luisa Blanchfield, Mallary Stouffer, Alexis Arieff, Chris Blanchard, Jeremy Sharp, report, including Luisa Blanchfield, Mallary Stouffer, Alexis Arieff, Chris Blanchard, Jeremy Sharp,
Kenneth Katzman, and Clayton Thomas. Kenneth Katzman, and Clayton Thomas.

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