September 19, 2019Updated January 7, 2020
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
(JROTC)
Overview and Mission
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
voluntary high school (grades 9-12) program of instruction
administrated administrated
by the Department of Defense (DOD)
through the military
departments. The purpose of JROTC,
according to 10
U.S.C. §2031, is “to instill in students in
United States U.S. secondary
educational institutions the value
of citizenship, service to
the United States, and personal
responsibility and a sense of
accomplishment.” JROTC was
established as an Army
program by the National Defense
Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-85)
and in 1964 expanded to the Navy
and Air Force. Congress
authorized Coast Guard units at
two specific schools: one in
1989 (P.L. 101-225) and one in
2005 (P.L. 109-241).
There are over 3,000 JROTC units operating in every state
and in DOD schools overseas. Estimated enrollment in the
JROTC program is more than 500,000 students. The
FY2020 NDAA (P.L. 116-92) allows for 8th grade students
to participate in JROTC if physically collocated with 9-12th
grade students. The law also requires host schools to allow
homeschooled students to participate in JROTC.
Table 1. Distribution of JROTC Unit Sponsorship
Service
Number of Units
Army
1,701*
Navy
583
Marine Corps
271
Air Force
920
Coast Guard
2
Source: FY2020 budget justification documents (J-books) for the
Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. *Army data is for FY2016;
updated data is not available in Army J-books.
JROTC Instructors
Most JROTC instructors are retired or reserve officers and
enlisted non-commissionednoncommissioned officers (NCOs) who serve as
employees of the school district. Service level policies
require JROTC schools to have a minimum of one officer
(Senior Military Instructor) and one NCO (Junior Military
Instructor) on staff. Requirements to qualify as a JROTC
instructor (e.g., education, certification) are specified in law
(10 U.S.C. §2033). Instructors are also required to abide by
standards set by their parent service, as well as the policies
set by their host institution.
Retired service membersservicemembers who are eligible for retired pay
may continue to receive such pay while employed as an
instructor. By law (10 U.S.C. §2031), military departments
may subsidize instructor positions by reimbursing the host
institution for a portion of the salary. DOD financial
regulations refer to the salary that a school must pay the
instructor as the Minimum Instructor Pay (MIP). The MIP
is the difference between (1) the active duty pay and
allowances the instructor would receive if recalled to active
duty and (2) the instructor’s retired pay entitlement. For
example, if annual military retired pay is $24,000 and total
active duty pay and allowances is $52,000 the institution
would pay the instructor the difference of $28,000. The
military may reimburse the institution $14,000 (one-half of
$28,000). Additional sample salary calculations can be
found in DOD Instruction 1205.13).
Curriculum
JROTC courses are taught over a 3three- or 4four-year period. The
The curriculum typically includes academic coursework on
topics such as leadership and ethics, civics, history, and
health and wellness. There are also service-specific courses
The FY2020 NDAA authorizes
instruction in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also includes servicespecific courses such as Aerospace Science or Seamanship
and Navigation.
In addition, units offer extracurricular
activities such as
color guard/drill team, marksmanship, and
field trips to
military installations.
Establishing a JROTC Program
Educational institutions interested in hosting a unit must
apply to the respective military department. By law,
participating host schools are required to maintain
participation levels of 10% of the student body, or 100
students, whichever is less. The military departments
establish criteria for unit placement. For example, the Army
maintains an Order of Merit List, based on a point system
that awards credit to institutions for categories such as Title
I status under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(P.L. 89-10, as amended), local indicators of need (e.g.,
high unemployment or illiteracy), student enrolment, school
financial solvency, and fair and equitable distribution of
JROTC programs among states.
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
per 10 U.SC. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
responsibility of the host institution and not subsidized by
the government. There are approximately 110 NDCCs
nationwide.
Federal Funding
Beyond instructor salaries mentioned earlier, the military
departments also fund uniforms, cadet travel, training aids,
text books, educational materials, and other unit operating
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
expenses. Host institutions provide classroom space,
facilities, and administrative support for the unit. Congress
annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of DOD’s
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military Personnel
(MILPERS) budget. JROTC funding for all of the Services
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
in FY2019 was $386 million, with the Army program
accounting for about half of the total (see Table 2).
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC
Enacted base funding in thousands, FY2019
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
Army
$178,352
$28,728
$207,080
Navy
$55,097
$15,231
$70,328
Marine
Corps
$24,607
$3,860
$28,467
Air Force
$60,908
$19,205
$80,133
$318,964
$67,024
$386,988
Total
Source: DOD Office of the Comptroller, Budget Documentation
for FY2020.
Considerations for Congress
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing the JROTC
programsJROTC, there
are several potential areas for consideration.
What are some of the program benefits?
While research on comparable student populations has been
limited, several studies have found positive correlations
between JROTC participation and student outcomes,
including school attendance and graduation rates, improved
test performance, higher self-esteem for female students,
and lower rates of disciplinary action.
JROTC funding may also benefit schools through support
for teaching and extracurricular activities. However, some
critics have questioned whether cost-sharing requirements
create a burden for poorer school districts.
How many units should DOD support?
The number of JROTC units that the services can support
depends on annual budget levels and funding priorities.
Statutory limits on the number of JROTC programs were
gradually increased over time, and in 2001, Congress
repealed all limits (P.L. 107-107 §537). Subsequent bills in
2006 (P.L. 109-364 §541) and 2008 (P.L. §548) directed
110-181 §548)
directed the Secretaries of the military departments to
expand the
program to additional schools with a target of
3,700 units
by September 30, 2020.
Is the distribution of units equitable?
A continued concern for Congress has been the equitable
distribution of JROTC units across various demographic,
socioeconomic, and geographic indicators. Language in the
Senate report to accompany the FY2015 DOD
Appropriations Bill (S.Rept. 113-211) expressed concern
about JROTC participation at the individual and school
levels, and asked for DOD to report on “any plans to ensure
adequate representation of all regions in the United States
to ensure the capabilities of the Armed Forces to recruit
from a diverse background to sustain the all-volunteer
force.”
A 2016 report from the RAND Corporation found that
JROTC is generally underrepresented in rural and remote
areas. In addition, JROTC units in public schools are not
evenly distributed geographically and tend to be
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states relative to the
national average. Public high schools with larger-thanaverage minority populations and in schools serving
economically disadvantaged populations are also
overrepresented as JROTC host schools.
Higher representation in economically disadvantaged and
larger/more urban schools has largely been a function of
service-level policy decisions that award preference for
Title I schools and other structural program requirements
(e.g., minimum student participation, availability of
instructors). While advocates for JROTC point to positive
outcomes for high-risk youth, some critics of JROTC have
argued that it unfairly targets low-income and minority
communities for military recruiting.
How does participation affect recruiting?
Participation in JROTC does not incur any military
obligation and military recruitment is not a stated objective
in statute or policy. Nevertheless, the military services
intend to provide favorable exposure to military careers and
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
correlation between JROTC and enlistment while others
have found that the impact of JROTC participation on
military enlistment is negligible when accounting for selfselection into JROTC.
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
as an officer may receive some benefits at the time of entry
into the service. For example, per DOD policy (DODI
1205.13), a student successfully completing at least two
academic years of the JROTC program is entitled to
advanced promotion to the grade of no less than E-2 upon
initial enlistment in an Active or Reserve component. The
military departments may award the grade of E-3 for
successful completion of three academic years. In addition,
the Secretaries of the military departments may nominate
up to 20 honor graduates from JROTC units designated by
the Secretaries as honor schools for appointment to one of
the three military service academies (10 U.S.C.§8454 for
Naval Academy, §7442 for U.S. Military Academy, and
§9442 for Air Force Academy.)).
Other considerations
Some additional questions that Congress may consider
when thinking about future investments in JROTC
programs include:
To what extent does JROTC curriculum help meet
program and national goals? Should additional courses
be required or incentivized?
Should the program be structured or funded differently
to encourage participation or remove entry barriers for
certain types of schools or sub-populations?
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
Xavier L. Arriaga, Research Associate
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IF11313
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
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