Updated November 1, 2017
Kyrgyz Republic
region (1924), then as the Kyrgyz Autonomous Republic
(1926), and finally as the Kyrgyz Republic (1936). During
the Soviet era, the Kyrgyz Republic produced agricultural
goods and mineral and military products.
Source: Graphic created by Hannah Fischer at CRS.
Political Background
Government: The Kyrgyz Republic (or “Kyrgyzstan”)
gained its independence in 1991 after the fall of the Soviet
Union. That same year, the United States established
diplomatic relations with the country. Askar Akayev was
elected the first president of Kyrgystan, and he remained in
power until 2005. Revolutions in 2005 and 2010 led to the
overthrow of two presidents, including Akayev, and the
adoption of a newly drafted constitution in 2010. The 2010
constitution established a hybrid parliamentary system that
balances power between the president, prime minister, and
legislature. Changes to the constitution in December 2016
transferred power from the president to the legislature and
prime minister. Kyrgyzstan is seen by many as hobbled by
corruption, regional disputes, and poor economic output.
Recent Elections: Kyrgyzstan held presidential elections
on October 15, 2017. The race, which featured more than
50 candidates, resulted in a first round victory for the
incumbent party candidate Sooronbai Jeenbekov.
Jeenbekov, who recently served as prime minister, was
favored to win the race. However, many expected stronger
challenges to Jeenbekov’s candidacy, particularly from
Respublika party leader Omurebek Babanov. Presidentelect Jeenbekov is to assume office on December 4, 2017.
He is expected to closely follow his predecessor’s agenda,
which featured strong political and economic ties to
Russia. Although experts point to irregularities in the lead
up to the election that may have unfairly aided
Jeenbekov’s candidacy, the election process is being hailed
by some as a milestone in Kyrgyzstani politics. Analysts
view the result as a sign of political maturity, particularly
given the country’s recent history and the region’s tradition
of autocratic rule.
History: Most of Kyrgyzstan was annexed by Russia in
1876. The Kyrgyz people staged a revolt against the Tsarist
Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the native
population was killed. After the Bolshevik Revolution of
1917, the territory of what is now Kyrgyzstan became part
of the Soviet Union, first as the Kara-Kyrghyz Autonomous
Human Rights: According to the Department of State, the
most significant human rights problems in Kyrgyzstan
include a lack of due process, harassment of local activists,
journalists, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs),
and police-driven violence and discrimination against
sexual and ethnic minority groups. In 2010, jailed Uzbek
activist Azimjon Askarov was sentenced to life in prison; in
2015, he was given a Human Rights Defender Award by
the Department of State—a decision that created substantial
friction in the U.S.-Kyrgyzstan relationship. The central
government appears not to prosecute human rights violators
consistently, contributing to the persistence of abuses by
security forces and law enforcement. From 2013 to 2016,
some Kyrgyz lawmakers pushed for the adoption of a
Russian-style “foreign agents law” that would classify
many NGOs as foreign agents. Both foreign and domestic
critics noted that such a policy would inhibit the growth of
Kyrgyzstan’s civil society. The national parliament voted
on the law in May 2016 and rejected it 65-46, a move
praised by international rights organizations such as Human
Rights Watch.
Kyrgyz Republic at a Glance
Land area and geography: Mountainous, with land area
199,951 km2 (slightly smaller than South Dakota)
Population: 6.08 million
Ethnicity: 73% Kyrgyz, 15% Uzbek, 6% Russian, 6% other
Religion: 75% Sunni Muslim, 20% Russian Orthodox, 5% other
GDP (2016): $6.55 billion, per capita GNI is $3,410 at PPP
Major resources: Gold, rare earth metals, hydropower
Political structure: Hybrid parliamentary system with
president (elected to 6 year term, next election in 2023), prime
minister, and unicameral legislature (elected to 5-year terms,
next legislative elections in 2020)
Political Leaders: President Sooronbai Jeenbekov. Prime
Minister Sapar Isakov
Data from U.N., World Bank (2016)
Drug Trafficking: According to reports, about a quarter of
the world’s heroin passes through Central Asia—including
Osh, a Kyrgyz city—on its way to Russia and Europe. Yet,
corruption and limited institutional capacity have hampered
Kyrgyz efforts to tackle the drug trade. The United States
has provided counternarcotic assistance and equipment to
the country’s law enforcement forces. The United States
also helped to develop the Kyrgyz State Service for Drug
Control, an independent drug enforcement body.
Terrorism: Violent extremism is a major concern in
Kyrgyzstan. The country has, in large part, not worked with
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Kyrgyz Republic
the United States on counterterrorism issues, although in
2016 Kyrgyz law enforcement bodies participated in the
State Department’s Antiterrorism Assistance program.
Kyrgyzstan also has taken part in counterterrorism trainings
organized by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and NATO. An estimated 600 Kyrgyz
citizens have left the country to join international terrorist
groups, such as the Islamic State. But according to some
observers, the real number may be higher. The Kyrgyz
government recently enacted a law, allowing it to revoke a
person’s citizenship if he or she is convicted of receiving
terrorist training or fighting abroad. The main drivers of
radicalization, according to the government, are lack of
economic opportunities and the country’s minority ethnic
groups, especially Uzbeks, feeling marginalized.
Economic upturn: In July 2017, Kyrgyzstan’s year-to-year
real GDP growth was 6.9%, according to the World Bank.
The uptick resulted largely from the country’s gold
production, which expanded by 43%. In 2018, the World
Bank expects the country’s economy to grow by 4.2%.
Kyrgyzstan’s economic potential is tied to its
hydroelectricity and tourism sectors. However, the
country’s economy faces several challenges, including
corruption and weak governance.
Figure 1. Personal Remittances from Russia to
Kyrgyzstan
Economy
Trade: Kyrgyzstan is one of the poorest countries of
Central Asia. Soviet-era infrastructure and state-owned
enterprises distort the economy. It possesses minor oil and
gas reserves but relies on imports to meet its energy needs.
Gold is Kyrgyzstan’s main export commodity, making up
more than 60% of all exports for 2015. Yet, the gold mining
industry is a politically sensitive topic due to profit-sharing
disputes between the national government and the
Canadian-operated Kumtor Mine which led to the
resignation of the country’s prime minister in April 2015. In
2016, the government banned the use of foreign currency in
all domestic transactions—possibly to make the country
less reliant on foreign currencies and to make goods and
services more affortable. The new regulation is expected to
mainly affect sectors where most dealings were in U.S.
dollars or euros, such as the Kygryz property market.
Multilateral Organizations: Kyrgyzstan is a member of
the World Trade Organization (WTO), as well as the
Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In August 2014,
Kyrgyzstan joined the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)
with Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Armenia and
formally became a full member in August 2015. Due in part
to its perceived negative impacts on the reexport sector, the
EAEU has proven politically controversial in Kyrgyzstan.
A WTO member since the 1990s, Kyrgyzstan has fostered a
reputation as a relatively liberal trade environment. For this
reason, the country has become a regional exchange hub,
with many traders earning a living importing and
reexporting goods from China. Kyrgyzstan’s status as a
trade hub may be threatened, however, due to the uniform
standards adopted under the Russian-led EAEU.
Kyrgyzstan is also seen as a site for potential projects under
China’s “Belt and Road Initiative,” which promotes
economic connectivity across three continents.
Economic dependence on Russia: According to official
government statistics, imports come mainly from Russia
(55%), which sold approximately $683 million in petroleum
to Kyrgyzstan in 2015. By contrast, U.S. total exports to
Kyrgyzstan were about $10.2 million in 2015. Kyrgyzstan
also relies heavily on personal remittance payments from
Kyrgyz migrant workers in Russia. Although real wages
have fallen due to Russia’s economic downturn, the EAEU
partnership has protected many Kyrgyz migrants from
losing their jobs and tighter immigration laws in Russia.
Source: Central Bank of Russia.
Kyrgyzstan Relations
Foreign policy: Kyrgyzstan, like other Central Asian
countries, has traditionally rejected foreign powers’efforts
to cultivate strong bilateral relations. According to some
analysts, nationalism plays a central role in shaping the
country’s foreign policy, and Kyrgyzstan has historically
preferred to balance Russian, Chinese, and Western
influences, while maintaining a semblance of independence.
Under the Atambayev administration, however,
Kyrgyzstan’s foreign policy tipped in Russia’s direction. It
joined the Russian-led EAEU, and Russia canceled $240
million in Kyrgyz sovereign debt in May 2017. Following
the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Kyrgyzstan
agreed to the creation of the U.S. Transit Center (formerly
Manas Air Base) at Manas International Airport in Bishkek
to support U.S. operations in Afghanistan. In 2014, U.S.
troops turned over the Center to the Kyrgyz.
U.S. Foreign Assistance: U.S. foreign assistance focuses
on strengthening Kyrgyzstan’s democratic process,
encouraging economic growth, improving governance, and
enhancing the security services. The FY2018 U.S. foreign
operations assistance request for Kyrgyzstan is $19.47
million, down from $46.38 million in FY2016 (actual).
Economic Support and Development Funds account for
most (77%) of the FY2018 request ($15 million).
Jennifer M. Roscoe, Research Assistant
Wil Mackey, Research Assistant
Edward Y. Gracia, Research Assistant
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IF10304
Kyrgyz RepublicAugust 3, 2020
Kyrgyz Republic
Overview
Figure 1. Map of the Kyrgyz Republic
The Kyrgyz Republic (commonly known as Kyrgyzstan) is
a mountainous, landlocked country that borders China and
maintains close ties with Russia. Formerly a constituent
republic of the Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan became
independent in 1991. As a parliamentary republic that holds
contested elections, Kyrgyzstan has long been considered
the most democratic country in Central Asia, with a vibrant
civil society and a higher degree of press freedom than
found elsewhere in the region. Corruption is pervasive,
however, and political institutions remain weak. In recent
years, international observers have voiced concerns about
democratic backsliding in Kyrgyzstan. Some Members of
Congress have also expressed concerns about government
pressure on independent media outlets, including the
congressionally-funded Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
Because Kyrgyzstan is an impoverished country that relies
heavily on foreign remittances, the ongoing Coronavirus
Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is causing significant
economic strain.
Political Background
Government: Kyrgyzstan has twice experienced
revolutions that ousted authoritarian-leaning presidents,
first in 2005 and again in 2010. A new constitution adopted
in 2010 converted the country to a semi-parliamentary
system and imposed a one-term limit on presidents, who are
elected directly via universal suffrage and serve for six
years. The prime minister, nominated by the parliamentary
majority and appointed by the president, shares executive
power. Kyrgyzstan’s unicameral parliament, the Jogorku
Kenesh (“Supreme Council”), has 120 members; deputies
are elected to five-year terms in a closed-list proportional
electoral system.
Political landscape: In recent years, the ruling Social
Democratic Party of Kyrgyzstan (SDPK) has moved to
consolidate its position, using state resources to pressure
political opponents and civil society. Although Kyrgyzstan
enjoys a greater degree of political pluralism than its
Central Asian neighbors, in the assessment of the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe,
“political parties are characterized by the personalities
leading them, rather than by their platforms, which overlap
significantly.” Governing coalitions are frequently unstable,
and the prime minister has been replaced 12 times since the
2010 revolution. Kyrgyzstan’s political landscape is
shifting due in part to an ongoing feud between President
Sooronbai Jeenbekov (in office since 2017) and his
predecessor and former patron, Almazbek Atambayev (in
office 2011-2017), which has led to a split in the SDPK. In
June 2020 Atambayev was sentenced to 11 years and 2
months in prison on corruption-related charges. He also
faces murder charges stemming from an August 2019 law
enforcement raid on his compound that left one member of
the security services dead.
Source: Graphic created by CRS
2020 Parliamentary Elections: The next parliamentary
elections are scheduled for October 4, 2020, but they may
be deferred because of the COVID-19 pandemic. The two
major parliamentary factions have fractured internally and
there are no clear front-runners in the 2020 elections; it is
possible that new groupings will enter the Jogorku Kenesh.
Human Rights: According to the U.S. State Department,
major human rights concerns in Kyrgyzstan include torture
and arbitrary detention, inadequate judicial independence,
severe restrictions on freedom of expression and freedom of
the press, and corruption. In 2015, the State Department
recognized imprisoned activist Azimjon Askarov with its
Human Rights Defender Award, leading to significant
friction in the U.S.-Kyrgyz bilateral relationship. Askarov
died in prison on July 24, 2020, possibly of COVID-19.
In June 2020, Kyrgyzstan’s parliament passed a law that
would enable authorities to censor websites containing
information they determined to be untruthful and require
internet service providers to turn user data over to
government agencies on request. After the bill sparked
protests and drew criticism from international observers, the
president returned it to the legislature for revision. Draft
bills that would impose financial reporting requirements on
nongovernmental organizations and restrict workers’ right
to organize have also drawn international criticism.
Terrorism: Although terrorist attacks within Kyrgyzstan
are rare, about 800 Kyrgyz nationals travelled to Syria and
Iraq to join the Islamic State or other terrorist groups; more
than 200 are estimated to have died over the course of the
Syrian conflict. Government plans to repatriate Kyrgyz
citizens, primarily women and children, were disrupted by
unrest in Iraq and Turkey’s October 2019 military incursion
into northern Syria. Some 300 Kyrgyz nationals have
returned to the country, and about 50 have been imprisoned.
Foreign fighters from Central Asia remain an international
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Kyrgyz Republic
concern due to their ongoing participation in armed groups
active in Syria and Afghanistan.
The Kyrgyz Republic at a Glance
Land area: 199,951 sq. km. (slightly smaller than South
Dakota)
Population: 6.5 million (2020 est.)
Ethnicities: 73.6% Kyrgyz, 14.8% Uzbek, 1.6% Ukrainian, 5.3%
Russian, 6.3% other (2020)
Languages: Kyrgyz (official), Russian (official)
GDP/GDP per capita (2019): $8.5 billion/$1,323
Data from the World Bank and the National Statistical Committee of the
Kyrgyz Republic.
Economy
Trade: Kyrgyzstan’s 1998 accession to the WTO helped
establish the country as a hub for the re-export of Chinese
goods. Gold is Kyrgyzstan’s main export commodity and is
primarily produced by the Canadian-owned Kumtor gold
mine, which accounted for about one-tenth of GDP in 2019.
The large informal economy is estimated at up to 24% of
GDP. Kyrgyzstan has been a member of the Russia-led
Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) since 2015, but
accession has proven controversial domestically because
EAEU membership introduced new regulatory hurdles
while failing to confer some of the expected benefits.
Chinese investments: China has supported several largescale infrastructure projects in Kyrgyzstan, financed
primarily through concessional loans, as part of Beijing’s
Belt and Road Initiative. China’s Export-Import Bank owns
almost 50% of Kyrgyzstan’s roughly $4 billion of foreign
debt, according to official figures. The expanding Chinese
economic presence in Kyrgyzstan has sparked controversy
and protests, which have sometimes turned violent.
Economic dependence on Russia: Kyrgyzstan is one of
the most remittance-dependent economies in the world,
with remittances, predominantly from Russia, accounting
for roughly 30% of GDP in 2019. As of 2019, there were an
estimated 640,000 to 800,000 Kyrgyz citizens in Russia,
accounting for over 20% of Kyrgyzstan’s working-age
population and rendering the Kyrgyz economy vulnerable
to external shocks from downturns in the Russian economy.
COVID-19: The ongoing pandemic has had a significant
negative impact on Kyrgyzstan’s economy and is straining
the country’s under-resourced healthcare system. The
National Bank projects a 4% decline in GDP in 2020
(previous forecasts had predicted 3.4% growth in 2020;
GDP growth has averaged 4% since 2014). The World
Bank estimates that remittances to Kyrgyzstan will fall
significantly in 2020 as a consequence of the pandemic.
Additionally, large numbers of people either returning from
abroad or unable to migrate for work will likely aggravate
unemployment and place additional stress on the country’s
social services. Kyrgyzstan has received emergency
financial assistance from international financial institutions,
and the Kyrgyz government has requested debt relief from
China. The United States Agency for International
Development has donated personal protective equipment
and has allocated about $1 million to support Kyrgyzstan’s
COVID response.
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations
Foreign policy: Bishkek maintains close political ties with
Moscow and is generally seen as the most Russia-friendly
government in Central Asia. Kyrgyzstan hosts four Russian
military installations, including Kant Air Base. In recent
years, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan have made strides
towards resolving decades-old border disputes, although
clashes periodically break out. Tensions on the partially
undemarcated Kyrgyz-Tajik border also periodically erupt
into violence. Kyrgyzstan is a member of numerous
multilateral organizations, including the Shanghai
Cooperation Organization and the Collective Security
Treaty Organization.
U.S. Relations: The United States was among the first
countries to recognize Kyrgyz independence following the
collapse of the Soviet Union. From 2001 to 2014, the
United States operated a Transit Center at Manas, just
outside the Kyrgyz capital of Bishkek, in support of U.S.
military operations in Afghanistan. U.S. relations with
Kyrgyzstan deteriorated under President Atambayev, at
least in part due to Russian pressure. U.S.-Kyrgyzstan
relations have improved somewhat under current President
Jeenbekov. Although security cooperation has waned since
2014, the State Department is seeking to develop bilateral
cooperation in combatting terrorism and extremism and
promoting regional stability. Other U.S. priorities in
Kyrgyzstan include supporting a more inclusive and
accountable democracy and improving the country’s
business environment.
U.S. Foreign Assistance: In 2015 the Kyrgyz government
terminated the bilateral cooperation agreement (BCA) that
facilitated the provision of U.S. humanitarian and technical
economic assistance to Kyrgyzstan. Aid programs have
continued, however, with $37 million appropriated in
FY2019. According to the State Department, the United
States has provided $1.2 billion in assistance to Kyrgyzstan
over the past 20 years. U.S. officials have been involved in
ongoing efforts to conclude a new BCA.
Travel Restrictions: In January 2020, the Trump
Administration suspended the issuance of most immigrant
visas to Kyrgyz citizens as part of its expansion of the
travel restrictions introduced by Executive Order 13780 of
March 6, 2017, citing Kyrgyzstan’s failure to comply with
information-sharing criteria and deficiencies in the security
of Kyrgyz passports. Kyrgyzstan’s introduction of
biometric passports was delayed in 2019 as the result of a
corruption investigation, and Kyrgyz passports are
notoriously easy to forge or obtain through illegal means.
Kyrgyzstan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs criticized the
travel restrictions, stating that they caused “significant
damage” to U.S.-Kyrgyz relations and noting that more
than 80 countries have yet to introduce biometric passports.
Both U.S. and Kyrgyz authorities have expressed
willingness to cooperate on addressing the passport
deficiencies.
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IF10304
Maria A. Blackwood, Analyst in Asian Policy
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