Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

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Financing the U.S. Trade DeficitJuly 17, 2015
            (RL33274)
          
ContentsBackground
Capital Flows and the Dollar
The U.S. Balance of Payments
The U.S. Net International Investment Position
Implications

      Figures
      Figure 1. Foreign Private and Official Purchases of U.S. Treasury Securities, 1997-2014
Figure 2. Net Inflows of Private and Official Sources of Capital, 2006-2014
Figure 3. Foreign Official and Private Investment Positions in the United States, 1994-2013
Figure 4. U.S. and Foreign Investment Position, By Major Component, 2013

    

      Tables
      Table 1. Selected Indicators of the Size of the Global Capital Markets, 2013
Table 2. U.S. International Transactions, Selected Accounts
Table 3. Summary of the Net Balances by Major Accounts in the U.S. Balance of Payments
Table 4. Net Foreign Purchases of Long-Term U.S. Securities
Table 5. U.S. Net International Investment Position

    
SummaryFinancing the U.S. Trade Deficit
James K. Jackson
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
June 11, 2015

Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL33274

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

Summary
The U.S. merchandise trade deficit is a part of the overall U.S. balance of payments, a summary
 statement of all economic transactions between the residents of the United States and the rest of
 the world, during a given period of time. Some Members of Congress and other observers have
 grown concerned over the magnitude of the U.S. merchandise trade deficit and the associated
 increase in U.S. dollar-denominated assets owned by foreigners. International trade recovered
 from the global financial crisis of 2008-2009 and the subsequent slowdown in global economic
 activity that reduced global trade flows and, consequently, reduced the size of the U.S. trade
 deficit. Now, however, U.S. exporters face new challenges with an increase in the international
 exchange value of the dollar relative to other key currencies and the slow rate of economic
 growth in important export markets in Europe and Asia. This report provides an overview of the
 U.S. balance of payments, an explanation of the broader role of capital flows in the U.S.
 economy, an explanation of how the country finances its trade deficit or a trade surplus, and the
 implications for Congress and the country of the large inflows of capital from abroad. The major
 observations indicate that
•

The current account balance, the broadest measure of U.S. trade in goods,
 services, and certain income flows, worsened by 2.63.3% in 2014, after improving
 by over 1318% in 2013. Foreign-owned assets in the United States continued to
 outpace U.S. ownership of foreign assets, reflecting the deficit in the current
 account, but the net amount, or the difference between U.S.-acquisition of foreign
 assets and foreign acquisition of U.S. assets, dropped by nearly three-fourths in
 2014 compared with 2013. The relative decline in foreign acquisitions of U.S. assets in
 2014 reflected a sharp drop in foreign official purchases of U.S. portfolio assets,
 including a decline of 63% in official purchases of U.S. Treasury securities.
 Foreign private purchases of U.S. Treasury securities in 2014 droppedrose slightly
below that above those in 2013, but foreign private purchases of U.S. equities more than
tripled in 2014 compared with 2013. The inflow of capital from abroad
 tripled in 2014 compared with 2013. At the same time, foreign direct investment dropped by more than half, from $287 billion in 2013 to $132 billion in 2014; U.S. direct investment abroad in 2014 dropped 10% below the amount invested in 2013, although U.S. purchases of foreign equities and debt securities increased 13%. The inflow of capital from abroad supplements domestic sources of capital and likely allows the United States to
 maintain its current level of economic activity at interest rates that are below the
 level they likely would be without the capital inflows.

•


    Foreign official and private acquisitions of dollar-denominated assets likely will
 generate a stream of returns to overseas investors that would have stayed in the
 U.S. economy and supplemented other domestic sources of capital had the assets
 not been acquired by foreign investors. In general terms, foreign private holders
 of U.S. Treasury securities are taxed on their interest income, depending on U.S.
tax conventions with other countries.

Congressional Research Service

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

Contents
Background ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Capital Flows and the Dollar ........................................................................................................... 1
The U.S. Balance of Payments ........................................................................................................ 4
The U.S. Net International Investment Position ............................................................................ 10
Implications ................................................................................................................................... 15

Figures
Figure 1. Foreign Private and Official Purchases of U.S. Treasury Securities, 1997-2014 ............. 7
Figure 2. Net Inflows of Private and Official Sources of Capital, 2006-2014................................. 8
Figure 3. Foreign Official and Private Investment Positions
in the United States, 1994-2013.................................................................................................. 14
Figure 4. U.S. and Foreign Investment Position, By Major Component, 2013 ............................. 15

Tables
Table 1. Selected Indicators of the Size of the Global Capital Markets, 2013 ................................ 2
Table 2. U.S. International Transactions, Selected Accounts........................................................... 4
Table 3. Summary of the Net Balances by Major Accounts in the U.S. Balance
of Payments .................................................................................................................................. 6
Table 4. Net Foreign Purchases of Long-Term U.S. Securities ....................................................... 9
Table 5. U.S. Net International Investment Position...................................................................... 11

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 16

Congressional Research Service

  tax conventions with other countries.
    
  Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

Background

  Background
    By standard convention, the balance of payments accounts are based on a double-entry
 bookkeeping system. As a result, each transaction entered as a credit must have a corresponding
 debit and vice versa. This means that a surplus or deficit in one part of the accounts necessarily
 will be offset by a deficit or surplus, respectively, in another account so that, overall, the accounts
 are in balance. This convention also means that a deficit in one account, such as the merchandise
 trade account, is not necessarily the same as a debt.11 The trade deficit can become a debt
 equivalent depending on how the deficit is financed and the expectations of those who hold the
 offsetting dollar-denominated U.S. assets. The balance of payments accounts are divided into
 three main sections: the current account, which includes the exports and imports of goods and
 services and personal and government transfer payments; the capital account, which includes
 such capital transfers as international debt forgiveness; and the financial account, which includes
 official transactions in financial assets and private transactions in financial assets and direct
 investment in businesses and real estate. In these accounts, exports are recorded as a positive
 amount even though they represent an outflow of goods and services from the economy, because
 they represent a credit for which there is a specific obligation of repayment. Similarly, although
 imports represent an inflow of goods and services to the economy, they are recorded as a negative
 amount, because they represent a debt that must be repaid.

    When the basic structure of the balance of payments was established, merchandise trade
 transactions dominated the accounts. Financial transactions recorded in the capital accounts
 generally reflected the payments and receipts of funds that corresponded to the importing and
 exporting of goods and services. As a result, the capital accounts generally represented
“accommodating” "accommodating" transactions, or financial transactions associated directly with the buying and
 selling of goods and services. During this early period, exchange rates between currencies were
 fixed, and private capital flows, such as foreign investment, were heavily regulated so that nearly
 all international flows of funds were associated with merchandise trade transactions and with
 some limited government transactions.

    Since the 1970s, however, private capital flows have grown markedly as countries have
 liberalized their rules governing overseas investing and as nations have adopted a system of
 floating exchange rates, where the rates are set by market forces. Floating exchange rates have
 spurred demand for the dollar. The dollar also is sought for investment purposes as it has become
 a vehicle itself for investment and speculation and it serves as a major trade invoicing currency.
 This means that the balance of payments recordrecords not only the accommodating flows of capital
 which correspond to imports and exports of goods and services, but also autonomous flows of
 capital that are induced by a broad range of economic factors that are unrelated directly to the
 trading of merchandise goods.


    Capital Flows and the Dollar

    Liberalized capital flows and floating exchange rates have greatly expanded the amount of
 autonomous capital flows between countries. These capital transactions are undertaken in
1

For additional information about the causes of the U.S. trade deficit, see CRS Report RL31032, The U.S. Trade
Deficit: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Options, by Craig K. Elwell.

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 response to commercial incentives or political considerations that are independent of the overall
 balance of payments or of particular accounts. As a result of these transactions, national
 economies have become more closely linked, the process some refer to as “"globalization.”" The
 data in Table 1 provide selected indicators of the relative sizes of the various capital markets in
 various countries and regions and the relative importance of international foreign exchange
 markets. In 2013, these markets amounted to over $900 trillion, or more than 50 times the size of
 the U.S. economy. Worldwide, foreign exchange and interest rate derivatives, which are the most
 widely used hedges against movements in currencies, were valued at $655 trillion in 2013, more
 than twice the size of the combined total of all public and private bonds, equities, and bank assets.
 For the United States, such derivatives total more than three times as much as all U.S. bonds,
 equities, and bank assets.

    
      
        Table 1. Selected Indicators of the Size of the Global Capital Markets, 2013
(billions of dollars)
Bonds, Equities, and Bank Assets
Gross
Domestic
Product
(GDP)

Total
Official
Reserves

Total

$75,470.9

$12,127.7

European
Union

16,705.2

Euro
Area

World

United
Kingdom
United
States
Japan
Emerging
markets

Stock Market
Capitalization

Debt
Securities

$286,584.7

$62,552.0

570.0

91,326.4

13,109.7

331.0

2,680.1

Exchange Market Derivatives
OTC
Foreign
Exchange
Derivatives

OTC
Interest
Rate
Derivatives

Bank
Assets

Total

$97,288.6

$126,744.1

$655,352

$70,553

$584,799

12,646.3

29,964.2

48,715.9

NA

NA

NA

66,100.7

7,539.2

22,461.4

36,100.2

266,845

25,177

241,668

92.4

20,207.1

4,035.4

5,750.6

10,421.2

61,415

8,789

52,626

16,768.1

133.5

72,695.5

22,280.7

34,494.3

15,920.5

234,401

61,019

173,382

4,919.6

1,237.2

28,359.7

4,599.3

12,260.7

11,499.7

66,673

14,122

52,551

29,104.8

7,984.4

56,384.1

11,232.7

11,225.1

33,926.3

NA

NA

NA

Source: Global Financial Stability Report, International Monetary Fund, April 2015. Statistical Appendix, Table 1;
Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, March, 2015, Tables 20b and 21b.
Note: “Total derivatives” does not include equity and commodity-linked derivatives.

Another aspect of capital mobility and capital inflows is the impact such capital flows have on the
international exchange value of the dollar. Demand for U.S. assets, such as financial securities,
translates into demand for the dollar, since U.S. securities are denominated in dollars. As demand
for the dollar rises or falls according to overall demand for dollar-denominated assets, the value
of the dollar changes. These exchange rate changes, in turn, have secondary effects on the prices
of U.S. and foreign goods, which tend to alter the U.S. trade balance. At times, foreign
governments intervene in international capital markets to acquire the dollar directly or to acquire
Treasury securities in order to strengthen the value of the dollar against particular currencies. In
addition, various central banks moved aggressively following the Asian financial crisis in the
1990s to bolster their holdings of dollars in order to use the dollars to support their currencies
should the need arise.

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The dollar is also heavily traded in financial markets around the globe and, at times, plays the role
of a global currency. Disruptions in this role have important implications for the United States
and for the smooth functioning of the international financial system. During the decade preceding
the recent global financial crisis, banks and other financial institutions expanded their global
balance sheets from $10 trillion in 2000 to $34 trillion in 2007. These assets were comprised
primarily of dollar-denominated claims on non-bank entities, including retail and corporate
lending, loans to hedge funds, and holdings of structured finance products based on U.S.
mortgages and other underlying assets. As the crisis unfolded, the short-term dollar funding
markets served as a major conduit through which financial distress was transmitted across
financial markets and national borders, according to analysts with the Bank for International
Settlements (BIS).2 When these short-term dollar funding markets collapsed in the early stages of
the crises, the U.S. Federal Reserve had to engage in extraordinary measures, including a vast
system of currency swap arrangements with central banks around the world, to supply nearly
$300 billion. After initially expanding the then-existing reciprocal currency arrangements (swap
lines) with the European Central Bank, the Bank of England, the Swiss National Bank, and the
Bank of Japan, the Federal Reserve made an unprecedented announcement in October 2008 that it
would provide swap lines to “accommodate whatever quantity of U.S. dollar funding is
necessary” to stem the dollar shortage.3 At the same time, the U.S. Treasury announced a money
market guarantee program to stop the withdrawal of funds from the money markets and to offset
the withdrawals by providing public funds.
The prominent role of the dollar means that the exchange value of the dollar often acts as a
mechanism for transmitting economic and political news and events across national borders.
While such a role helps facilitate a broad range of international economic and financial activities,
it also means that the dollar’s exchange value can vary greatly on a daily or weekly basis as it is
buffeted by international events. A triennial survey of the world’s leading central banks conducted
by the Bank for International Settlements in April 2013 indicates that the daily trading of foreign
currencies through traditional foreign exchange markets4 totaled $5.3 trillion, up 35% from the
$4.0 trillion reported in the previous survey conducted in 2010. In addition to the traditional
foreign exchange market, the over-the-counter (OTC)5 foreign exchange derivatives market
reported that daily turnover of interest rate and non-traditional foreign exchange derivatives
contracts reached $2.7 trillion in April 2013. The combined amount of $8.0 trillion for daily
foreign exchange trading in the traditional and OTC markets is more than four times the annual
amount of U.S. exports of goods and services. The data also indicate that 87.0% of the global
foreign exchange turnover in April 2013 was in U.S. dollars, slightly higher lower than the 84.9%
share reported in a similar survey conducted in 2010.6

2

McGuire, Patrick, and Gotz von Peter, “The US Dollar Shortage in Global Banking and the International Policy
Response,” BIS Working Paper No. 291, the Bank For International Settlements, October 2009; McGuire, Patrick, and
Goetz von Peter, “The U.S. Dollar Shortage in Global Banking,” BIS Quarterly Review, March 2009.
3
Ibid., p. 76.
4
Traditional foreign exchange markets are organized exchanges which trade primarily in foreign exchange futures and
options contracts where the terms and condition of the contracts are standardized.
5
The over-the-counter foreign exchange derivatives market is an informal market consisting of dealers who customtailor agreements to meet the specific needs regarding maturity, payments intervals or other terms that allow the
contracts to meet specific requirements for risk.
6
Rime, Dagfinn, and Andreas Schrimpf, The Anatomy of the Global FX Market Through the Lens of the 2013
Triennial Survey, Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, December 2013.

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The U.S. Balance of Payments
Table 2 presents a summary of the major accounts in the U.S. balance of payments over the four
quarters of 2014. The data indicate that in 2012, 2013, and 2014 the U.S. current account, or the
balance of exports and imports of goods, services and transfers, was in deficit, or the United
States imported more goods and services than it exported. On a quarterly basis, the deficit in the
current account has varied from quarter to quarter, although remaining negative, reflecting a
broad range of economic activities. According to the balance of payments accounts, the United
States experienced deficits in the merchandise trade goods accounts through the four quarters of
2014 in the range of $97 billion to $113 billion and a surplus in the services accounts during the
same period in the range of about $58 billion. In the income accounts, which represent inflows of
income on U.S. assets abroad relative to outflows of income earned on U.S. assets owned by
foreigners, the net balance of the accounts was in surplus throughout the period.
Table 2. U.S. International Transactions, Selected Accounts
(billions of dollars)
2014
2012

2013

2014

I

II

$-460.7

$-400.3

-537.6

III

IV

$-410.6

$-101.0

$-97.3

$-98.9

$-113.5

-476.4

-504.7

-123.5

-130.2

-123.9

-127.0

-742.1

-701.7

-735.8

-181.3

-188.2

-181.1

-185.2

Exports

1,561.7

1,592.8

1,635.1

400.4

409.6

415.0

410.1

Imports

2,303.8

2,294.5

2,370.9

581.7

597.9

596.1

595.3

204.5

225.3

231.1

57.8

58.0

57.2

58.2

Exports

654.9

687.4

709.4

174.6

177.8

176.6

180.4

Imports

450.4

462.1

478.3

116.8

119.8

119.5

122.3

203.0

199.7

217.9

52.5

54.9

59.8

50.6

Income Receipts

762.9

780.1

819.7

200.3

204.7

211.7

203.0

Income Payments

559.9

580.5

601.8

147.8

149.8

151.8

152.4

203.0

199.7

217.9

52.5

54.9

59.8

50.6

6.9

-0.4

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

-423.5

-370.7

-141.6

-88.8

-20.1

-22.0

-10.8

171.4

644.8

820.5

146.4

243.9

353.0

77.2

615.3

898.1

900.6

135.3

289.0

258.2

218.1

Direct investment

375.5

408.2

353.2

34.6

93.5

96.8

128.3

Portfolio investment

239.8

489.9

547.4

100.7

195.5

161.5

89.8

103.3

275.2

437.1

81.3

91.5

128.0

136.4

Current account
Balance on current account
Balance on goods and services
Balance on goods

Balance on services

Balance on primary income

Unilateral current transfers
Capital account
Capital account transactions, net
Financial account
Balance on financial account
U.S.-owned assets abroad, net
increase / outflow (-)
Private assets

Equities

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2014
2012
Debt securities

2013

2014

I

II

III

IV

136.5

214.6

110.3

19.4

104.0

33.5

-46.6

-448.4

-250.3

-76.5

12.0

-45.8

95.7

-138.4

-363.0

-247.3

-83.6

10.8

-48.5

94.7

-140.6

-286.7

-121.9

-7.6

-23.0

14.1

11.9

-10.6

-76.4

-125.4

-76.0

33.8

-62.6

82.8

-130.0

-85.3

-3.0

7.1

1.3

2.7

1.0

2.2

4.5

-3.1

-3.6

-1.0

0.8

-0.9

-2.5

Foreign-owned assets in the U.S.
net increase / inflow (+)

602.0

1,017.7

908.6

240.4

261.3

350.7

56.2

Private foreign-owned assets

567.7

499.8

670.3

88.5

93.5

279.9

208.4

Direct investment

217.8

295.0

93.1

-121.1

78.0

86.4

49.7

Portfolio investment

350.0

204.9

577.2

209.5

15.5

193.5

158.7

Equities

178.0

-66.8

177.7

74.6

14.5

87.5

1.1

Debt securities

180.0

330.0

407.5

129.7

30.4

90.8

156.6

156.0

193.2

187.3

104.0

-11.6

14.7

80.2

397.0

286.1

115.1

28.3

52.3

47.6

-12.9

389.0

227.8

107.4

33.6

22.8

62.8

-11.9

61.1

-18.6

-7.8

19.0

-11.1

-2.1

-13.7

327.9

246.4

115.2

14.5

33.9

64.9

1.8

433.8

238.0

88.8

18.1

35.5

44.4

-9.2

-121.8

-30.2

-9.9

-11.7

-6.7

3.7

4.7

15.7

38.2

36.0

8.0

5.1

16.8

6.2

-362.8

231.8

123.0

123.6

115.5

23.2

-139.3

Private

-441.9

171.2

55.9

116.9

88.9

21.7

-171.6

Banks

-398.7

199.4

-69.4

3.6

74.7

28.8

-176.5

-43.2

-28.1

125.3

113.3

14.2

-7.1

4.9

79.1

60.5

67.1

6.7

26.6

1.5

32.3

7.1

2.2

-53.5

5.3

-2.8

-24.3

-31.7

30.4

30.0

269.0

12.2

77.1

76.9

102.7

Other assets
Private assets
Banks
Non-bank financial
Official assets
U.S. official reserve assets

Treasury securities
Official foreign-owned assets
Portfolio investment
Equities
Debt securities
Treasury securities
Other Govt. agencies
Corporate bonds
Other foreign-owned assets

Non-bank financial inst.
Official
Financial derivatives
Statistical discrepancy

Source: Zeile, William, U.S. International Transactions: Fourth Quarter and Year 2014, BEA Release, March 19,
2015.
Note: By convention, an increase in U.S.-owned assets abroad is represented in the financial accounts by an
outflow, or a negative sign (-), and an increase in foreign-owned assets in the U.S. by an inflow, or a positive sign
(+).

The data also indicate that the U.S. financial accounts were in surplus throughout the period,
because they represent the opposite and offsetting transactions to the deficits in the current
account. Indeed, the accounting of the balance of payments is such that the surplus in the
financial accounts is equivalent to the deficit in the combined balance in the capital account, the

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statistical discrepancy, and the balance on the current account. The balance in the financial
accounts represents the difference between the capital outflows associated with U.S. investments
abroad, which are recorded as a negative value, and the capital inflows associated with foreign
investment in the United States, which are recorded as a positive value. This investment is a
combination of both private and official investments, or investments by private individuals and
institutions and investments by governments and governmental institutions, respectively. The
balance on the financial account in 2014 fell from that recorded in 2013 due to an increase in U.S.
net purchases of assets abroad and a drop in foreign net purchases of assets in the United States.
Foreign official and private purchases of U.S. Treasury securities dropped in 2014, compared
with purchases in 2013, likely reflecting the continued scaling back of Treasury securities by
foreign official sources following the 2008-2009 financial crises. Foreign private purchase of
U.S. debt securities, other than Treasury securities, and equities both increased in 2014 over the
net amount acquired in 2013.
The data in Table 2 also indicate that in 2014, net U.S. private and official inflows were positive,
compared with 2013, in which total net private flows were negative. The net balance in direct
investment in 2014 doubled to more than $260 billion in 2014, reflecting an increase in U.S.
direct investment abroad compared with foreign direct investment in the United States. Portfolio
investments indicate that foreign acquisitions of U.S. assets fell in 2014 compared with 2013,
reflecting a sharp drop in foreign official purchases of U.S. portfolio assets, including a decline of
63% in official purchases of U.S. Treasury securities. Foreign private purchases of U.S. Treasury
securities in 2014 dropped slightly below that in 2013, but foreign private purchases of U.S.
equities more than tripled in 2014 compared with 2013.
(billions of dollars) 
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
Total Official Reserves
Bonds, Equities, and Bank Assets
Exchange Market Derivatives
Total
Stock Market Capitalization
Debt Securities
Bank Assets
Total
OTC Foreign Exchange Derivatives
OTC Interest Rate Derivatives
World 
$75,470.9 
$12,127.7 
$286,584.7 
$62,552.0 
$97,288.6 
$126,744.1 
$655,352 
$70,553 
$584,799 
European Union 
16,705.2 
570.0 
91,326.4 
12,646.3 
29,964.2 
48,715.9 
NA 
NA 
NA 
Euro Area 
13,109.7 
331.0 
66,100.7 
7,539.2 
22,461.4 
36,100.2 
266,845 
25,177 
241,668 
United Kingdom 
2,680.1 
92.4 
20,207.1 
4,035.4 
5,750.6 
10,421.2 
61,415 
8,789 
52,626 
United States 
16,768.1 
133.5 
72,695.5 
22,280.7 
34,494.3 
15,920.5 
234,401 
61,019 
173,382 
Japan 
4,919.6 
1,237.2 
28,359.7 
4,599.3 
12,260.7 
11,499.7 
66,673 
14,122 
52,551 
Emerging markets 
29,104.8 
7,984.4 
56,384.1 
11,232.7 
11,225.1 
33,926.3 
NA 
NA 
NA 
Source: Global Financial Stability Report, International Monetary Fund, April 2015. Statistical Appendix, Table 1; Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, March, 2015, Tables 20b and 21b.
Note: "Total derivatives" does not include equity and commodity-linked derivatives.
Another aspect of capital mobility and capital inflows is the impact such capital flows have on the international exchange value of the dollar. Demand for U.S. assets, such as financial securities, translates into demand for the dollar, since U.S. securities are denominated in dollars. As demand for the dollar rises or falls according to overall demand for dollar-denominated assets, the value of the dollar changes. These exchange rate changes, in turn, have secondary effects on the prices of U.S. and foreign goods, which tend to alter the U.S. trade balance. At times, foreign governments intervene in international capital markets to acquire the dollar directly or to acquire Treasury securities in order to strengthen the value of the dollar against particular currencies. In addition, various central banks moved aggressively following the Asian financial crisis in the 1990s to bolster their holdings of dollars in order to use the dollars to support their currencies should the need arise.
The dollar is also heavily traded in financial markets around the globe and, at times, plays the role of a global currency. Disruptions in this role have important implications for the United States and for the smooth functioning of the international financial system. During the decade preceding the recent global financial crisis, banks and other financial institutions expanded their global balance sheets from $10 trillion in 2000 to $34 trillion in 2007. These assets were comprised primarily of dollar-denominated claims on non-bank entities, including retail and corporate lending, loans to hedge funds, and holdings of structured finance products based on U.S. mortgages and other underlying assets. As the crisis unfolded, the short-term dollar funding markets served as a major conduit through which financial distress was transmitted across financial markets and national borders, according to analysts with the Bank for International Settlements (BIS).2 When these short-term dollar funding markets collapsed in the early stages of the crises, the U.S. Federal Reserve had to engage in extraordinary measures, including a vast system of currency swap arrangements with central banks around the world, to supply nearly $300 billion. After initially expanding the then-existing reciprocal currency arrangements (swap lines) with the European Central Bank, the Bank of England, the Swiss National Bank, and the Bank of Japan, the Federal Reserve made an unprecedented announcement in October 2008 that it would provide swap lines to "accommodate whatever quantity of U.S. dollar funding is necessary" to stem the dollar shortage.3 At the same time, the U.S. Treasury announced a money market guarantee program to stop the withdrawal of funds from the money markets and to offset the withdrawals by providing public funds. 
The prominent role of the dollar means that the exchange value of the dollar often acts as a mechanism for transmitting economic and political news and events across national borders. While such a role helps facilitate a broad range of international economic and financial activities, it also means that the dollar's exchange value can vary greatly on a daily or weekly basis as it is buffeted by international events. A triennial survey of the world's leading central banks conducted by the Bank for International Settlements in April 2013 indicates that the daily trading of foreign currencies through traditional foreign exchange markets4 totaled $5.3 trillion, up 35% from the $4.0 trillion reported in the previous survey conducted in 2010. In addition to the traditional foreign exchange market, the over-the-counter (OTC)5 foreign exchange derivatives market reported that daily turnover of interest rate and non-traditional foreign exchange derivatives contracts reached $2.7 trillion in April 2013. The combined amount of $8.0 trillion for daily foreign exchange trading in the traditional and OTC markets is more than four times the annual amount of U.S. exports of goods and services. The data also indicate that 87.0% of the global foreign exchange turnover in April 2013 was in U.S. dollars, slightly higher lower than the 84.9% share reported in a similar survey conducted in 2010.6

    The U.S. Balance of Payments
    Table 2 presents a summary of the major accounts in the U.S. balance of payments over the four quarters of 2014 and the first quarter of 2015. The data indicate that in 2013, 2014, and the first quarter of 2015, the U.S. current account, or the balance of exports and imports of goods, services and transfers, was in deficit, or the United States imported more goods and services than it exported. The current account balance, which is the broadest measure of U.S. trade in goods, services, and certain income flows, worsened by 3.3% in 2014, after improving by over 18% in 2013. On a quarterly basis, the deficit in the current account has varied from quarter to quarter, although remaining negative, reflecting a broad range of economic activities. According to the balance of payments accounts, the United States experienced deficits in the merchandise trade goods accounts over the last five quarters in the range of $92 billion to $113 billion and a surplus in the services accounts during the same period in the range of about $58 billion. In the income accounts, which represent inflows of income on U.S. assets abroad relative to outflows of income earned on U.S. assets owned by foreigners, the net balance of the accounts was in surplus throughout the period.
    
      
        Table 2. U.S. International Transactions, Selected Accounts
        (billions of dollars) 
2014
2015
2013
2014
I
II
III
IV
I
Current account
Balance on current account
$-376.8
$-389.5
$-96.4
$-92.0
$-97.9
$-103.1
$-113.3
Balance on goods and services
-478.4
-508.3
-125.4
-128.7
-125.9
-128.3
-130.3
  Balance on goods
-702.6
-741.5
-184.3
-188.1
-183.1
-186.0
-189.0
    Exports
1,592.0
1,632.6
401.4
409.2
412.9
409.1
382.7
    Imports
2,294.6
2,374.1
585.7
597.3
596.0
595.1
571.7
  Balance on services
224.2
233.1
58.9
59.4
57.2
57.6
58.7
    Exports
687.9
710.6
175.7
178.7
176.3
179.8
181.5
    Imports
463.7
477.4
116.8
119.3
119.1
122.2
122.8
Balance on primary income
224.5
238.0
58.3
57.9
61.7
60.0
50.8
  Income Receipts
794.8
823.4
202.2
204.9
209.7
206.6
196.6
  Income Payments
570.2
585.4
143.9
146.9
148.0
146.5
145.8
Unilateral current transfers
-122.9
-119.2
-29.3
-21.3
-33.8
-34.8
-33.8
Capital account
Capital account transactions, net
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Financial account
Balance on financial account
-370.7
-141.6
-114.1
-48.6
-29.2
-47.8
-47.9
U.S.-owned assets abroad, net increase / outflow (-)
643.9
792.1
151.7
239.1
359.6
41.7
325.1
Private assets
875.4
895.2
154.0
285.4
262.2
193.7
305.8
  Direct investment
399.2
357.2
55.1
90.3
99.3
112.5
75.6
  Portfolio investment
476.2
538.1
99.0
195.1
162.9
81.1
230.2
    Equities
273.2
437.2
82.8
90.7
131.6
131.5
168.1
    Debt securities
214.6
110.3
16.2
104.4
31.3
-50.3
62.0
Other assets
-227.5
-99.6
-1.3
-47.0
98.2
-149.4
23.4
  Private assets
-224.5
-106.7
-2.6
-49.7
97.2
-151.6
21.5
    Banks
-122.8
-16.0
-27.2
12.5
12.2
-13.5
-7.2
    Non-bank financial
-102.7
-90.7
24.5
-62.1
85.0
-138.1
28.8
  Official assets
-3.0
7.1
1.3
2.7
1.0
2.2
1.9
U.S. official reserve assets
-3.1
-3.6
-1.0
0.8
-0.9
-2.5
-4.2
Foreign-owned assets in the U.S. net increase / inflow (+)
1,042.0
977.4
271.9
283.3
364.5
57.7
332.8
Private foreign-owned assets
468.6
724.0
116.8
122.9
296.6
200.2
242.4
  Direct investment
287.2
131.8
-105.4
78.4
106.5
52.4
186.2
  Portfolio investment
181.5
592.2
222.2
44.5
190.1
147.8
56.2
    Equities
-67.6
180.4
83.9
25.3
77.2
-20.8
22.0
    Debt securities
311.0
420.8
133.3
48.7
97.8
168.2
90.0
      Treasury securities
178.2
187.1
111.6
2.4
23.1
91.3
-12.3
Official foreign-owned assets
309.5
100.4
20.4
44.1
50.8
-14.9
44.6
  Portfolio investment
247.6
91.3
25.4
14.5
65.8
-14.5
-11.2
    Equities
-17.8
-10.5
15.2
-10.2
-1.7
-13.9
10.2
    Debt securities
265.4
101.8
10.2
24.8
67.5
-0.6
-21.3
      Treasury securities
253.0
89.0
16.8
31.7
47.7
-7.2
-19.5
      Other Govt. agencies
-25.6
-21.0
-14.2
-11.3
3.9
0.5
-6.8
      Corporate bonds
37.5
33.5
7.4
4.4
15.7
6.0
4.9
Other foreign-owned assets
252.8
140.6
134.7
116.3
17.1
-127.6
45.9
   Private
192.2
72.5
127.9
89.6
15.5
-160.6
-12.8
     Banks
216.1
-63.0
2.7
74.6
21.8
-162.1
-19.5
     Non-bank financial inst.
-23.9
135.5
125.2
15.0
-6.2
1.5
6.7
   Official
60.6
68.1
6.8
26.7
1.6
33.0
58.7
Financial derivatives
2.2
-54.7
-6.1
4.5
24.3
31.7
40.1
Statistical discrepancy
-18.7
149.9
-17.6
43.4
68.7
55.4
65.5
Source: Zeile, William, Paul W. Farello, U.S. International Transactions: First Quarter 2015 and Annual Revisions, BEA Release, June 18, 2015.
Note: By convention, an increase in U.S.-owned assets abroad is represented in the financial accounts by an outflow, or a negative sign (-), and an increase in foreign-owned assets in the U.S. by an inflow, or a positive sign (+).
The data also indicate that the U.S. financial accounts were in surplus throughout the period, because they represent the opposite and offsetting transactions to the deficits in the current account. Indeed, the accounting of the balance of payments is such that the surplus in the financial accounts is equivalent to the deficit in the combined balance in the capital account, the statistical discrepancy, and the balance on the current account. The balance in the financial accounts represents the difference between the capital outflows associated with U.S. investments abroad, which are recorded as a negative value, and the capital inflows associated with foreign investment in the United States, which are recorded as a positive value. This investment is a combination of both private and official investments, or investments by private individuals and institutions and investments by governments and governmental institutions, respectively. 
The balance on the financial account in 2014 fell from that recorded in 2013 due to an increase in U.S. net purchases of assets abroad and a drop in foreign net purchases of assets in the United States. The relative decline in foreign acquisitions of U.S. assets in 2014 below those recorded in 2013 reflects a sharp drop in foreign official purchases of U.S. portfolio assets, including a decline of 63% in official purchases of U.S. Treasury securities. Foreign private purchases of U.S. Treasury securities in 2014 rose slightly above those in 2013, while foreign private purchases of U.S. equities more than tripled in 2014 compared with purchases in 2013.7 During the same period, U.S. purchases of foreign equities and debt securities increased by 13%.

    The data in Table 2 also indicate that in 2014, net private inflows increased by more than 50%, while net official inflows, although positive, fell by two-thirds. The flows in direct investment also experienced significant changes from those in 2013, with U.S. direct investment abroad falling by 10% below that reached in 2013 and foreign direct investment in the United States falling by more than half to $132 billion. The decline in foreign direct investment in 2014 likely reflects a $130 billion stock repurchase transaction that occurred between Verizon and the French-owned Vodafone. 
    Another way of viewing the balance of payments data is presented in Table 3, which shows the
net net amount of the flows in the major accounts, or the difference between the inflows and
 outflows. In 2014 for instance, total net capital inflows representing the net balance on the current
 account, the capital account, and the statistical discrepancy, were a negative $141239.6 billion, which
 was equivalent to the offsetting recorded in the financial accounts and is about halfone-third of that recorded
 in 2013. These totals are subject to periodic revisions.

    
      
        Table 3. Summary of the Net Balances
by Major Accounts in the U.S. Balance of Payments
(billions of dollars)
2014
2012

2013

2014

I

II

III

IV

$-423.5

$-370.7

$-141.6

$-88.8

$-20.1

$-22.0

$-10.8

Total Net Goods

-742.1

-701.7

-735.8

-181.3

-188.2

-181.1

-185.2

Total Net Services

204.5

225.3

231.1

57.8

58.0

57.2

58.2

Total Net Income

203.0

199.7

217.9

52.5

54.9

59.8

50.6

-126.1

-123.5

-123.8

-30.0

-22.0

-34.8

-37.0

6.9

-0.4

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

30.4

30.0

269.0

12.2

77.1

76.9

102.7

423.5

370.7

141.6

88.8

20.1

22.0

10.8

-157.8

-113.3

-260.1

-155.7

-15.5

-10.4

-78.5

Total Net Capital Inflows

Total Net Transfers
Total Net Capital Account
Statistical Discrepancy
Total Net Financial Account
Total Net Direct Investment

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6

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

2014
2012
Total Net Portfolio Invest.

2013

2014

I

II

III

IV

507.2

1.1

145.1

137.2

-127.7

79.7

56.0

Total Private

110.2

-285.0

29.8

108.9

-180.0

32.0

68.9

Total Official

397.0

286.1

115.3

28.3

52.3

47.6

-12.9

Total Net Other

85.6

482.0

199.5

111.6

161.3

-72.4

-0.9

Total Net Official Reserves

4.5

-3.1

-3.6

-1.0

0.8

-0.9

-2.5

Financial Derivatives

7.1

2.2

-53.5

5.3

-2.8

-24.3

-31.7

Source: Data developed by CRS from data published by the Department of Commerce.

Commerce Department data indicate that foreign private net purchases of Treasury securities have
shifted between positive and negative changes at various times since the late 1990s, as indicated
in Figure 1. Foreign official net acquisitions of Treasury securities have also tended to change
abruptly on an annual basis, although they have not posted an actual sell-off of Treasury
securities. In 2009, foreign private investors sold off $15 billion in Treasury securities, down
sharply from the $197 billion they accumulated in 2008. Foreign governments, however,
increased their net purchases of Treasury securities in 2009, which rose from $478 billion in 2008
to $570 billion in 2009. Foreign official purchases of U.S. Treasury securities exceeded foreign
private purchases in 2010, 2012, and in 2013. In 2014, foreign official purchases of treasury
securities fell to $88.8 billion, about half the $187 billion in purchases by private investors. Over
the 2001-2014 period, net foreign official purchases of treasury securities were more than twice
as large as net foreign private purchases.
Figure 1. Foreign Private and Official Purchases of
U.S.Treasury Securities, 1997-2014

Source: Department of Commerce.

As the data in Table 3 indicate, a deficit in the net capital inflow account is financed by an
offsetting net inflow in the financial account. One striking feature of the financial flows over the

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7

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

2006-2014 period is the way the composition of the balances in the net financial account has
changed. Net private and net official capital inflows have changed abruptly, as indicated in
Figure 2.
Private capital flows shifted from a net inflow of $123 billion in 2007 to a net outflow of $265
billion in 2008, reflecting the financial turmoil during that period. Net private inflows by U.S.
citizens, however, resumed in the 2009 to 2014 period. During the same period, U.S. official
inflows increased from $494 billion in 2007 to $995 billion in 2008, shifting to a net outflow in
2009 of $175 billion. Since then, net official inflows have been positive, but have fallen annually
in amount from $365 billion in 2010 to $59 billion in 2014.
Figure 2. Net Inflows of Private and Official Sources of Capital, 2006-2014

Source: Department of Commerce.

The data in Table 4 show the total net accumulation of long-term U.S. securities, or the amount
of securities purchased less those that were sold, by foreign private and official sources from
2006-2013. The data indicate that in 2008, the net foreign private accumulation of U.S. securities
dropped by three-fourths from that recorded in 2007 as foreign private investors withdrew funds
from the U.S. during the financial crisis. In 2009, however, total foreign private and official
purchases of U.S. securities increased to reach $485 billion, propelled primarily by net foreign
official purchases. Total foreign purchases of U.S. securities grew to reach $573 billion in 2010,
reflecting increased net purchases of U.S. corporate stocks and U.S. Treasury securities. Such
foreign purchases continued to grow in 2012 to reach $726 billion, before falling in 2013 to $435
billion. Similarly, total private purchases of Treasury securities dropped in 2011 and 2012, but
rebounded somewhat in 2013, reaching $205 billion. In 2013, private foreign investors decreased
their net purchases of U.S. corporate stock, while increasing their net purchases of corporate
bonds. Investors in Europe nearly doubled their net purchases of Treasury securities in 2013 from
the amount they purchased in 2012.

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 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

Table 4. Net Foreign Purchases of Long-Term U.S. Securities
(billions of dollars)
2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

$1,099.1

$989.6

$236.3

$484.8

$573.2

$412.9

$726.4

$435.1

Total private purchases

611.4

644.8

-186.5

51.1

414.5

92.4

354.8

249.4

Corporate stocks

139.7

230.5

57.5

163.4

139.2

60.9

173.3

-71.0

Europe

92.6

90.5

-2.1

79.6

81.3

-13.8

55.3

1.2

United Kingdom

73.2

67.9

28.4

33.3

35.0

9.1

25.9

-2.9

Canada

12.6

9.8

6.7

9.5

17.3

20.9

52.4

41.9

Caribbean financial centers

34.4

95.4

1.7

34.2

23.0

40.3

33.3

-29.0

1.8

1.1

3.5

5.2

4.9

2.0

14.6

-4.7

Asia

-2.2

27.9

50.7

31.4

11.0

8.6

11.8

-71.6

Of which: Japan

-1.2

-5.6

21.8

20.6

11.6

7.4

-8.4

-59.4

0.0

-0.4

-4.7

-0.8

-0.4

0.9

0.4

0.5

Corporate bonds

517.8

383.7

-51.4

-117.3

-24.5

-106.3

-33.2

177.3

Europe

332.1

225.9

-80.4

-105.7

-64.5

-123.5

-46.2

133.4

United Kingdom

203.6

130.5

-46.3

-56.1

-30.7

-59.0

-55.3

-7.8

7.9

12.4

-2.0

-0.1

9.8

-2.1

4.0

18.0

106.9

61.9

12.1

-7.4

21.4

9.1

5.5

20.0

9.3

4.7

-13.7

-4.5

3.4

3.4

0.1

-2.1

Asia

53.7

72.8

32.4

1.6

6.8

11.6

6.8

2.3

Japan

12.2

39.5

21.7

-1.6

0.8

7.1

-2.1

-5.2

Africa

0.2

-0.4

-0.4

0.1

0.1

0.0

-0.2

0.3

Other

7.7

6.4

0.7

-1.3

-1.4

-4.8

-2.7

5.4

U.S. Treasury bonds

-71.9

39.2

-20.0

49.2

273.6

146.8

157.9

205.1

Europe

-61.9

57.8

-43.5

-38.0

105.0

137.9

75.7

145.4

Canada

14.7

-1.9

-6.2

19.7

35.9

-18.2

25.6

-11.8

-10.9

-6.2

2.6

-13.8

22.1

6.7

-14.7

5.1

-2.1

9.8

-5.0

6.1

0.4

-5.7

1.2

4.3

-10.7

-20.8

29.3

71.9

111.0

26.2

52.2

62.5

Africa

1.1

1.5

7.0

1.1

5.5

0.1

-1.4

0.0

Other

-2.1

-1.1

-4.3

2.3

-6.4

-0.2

19.3

-0.5

Federal agency bonds

25.8

-8.6

-172.6

-44.3

26.2

-9.1

56.7

-62.0

Total private and official net
purchases of U.S. securities

Latin America

Africa

Canada
Caribbean financial centers
Latin America

Caribbean financial centers
Latin America
Asia

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 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Europe

-8.1

42.3

-17.4

-46.6

1.1

-10.3

12.0

1.8

United Kingdom

-8.8

70.9

42.4

-30.4

25.0

4.9

-2.0

14.6

9.7

3.0

5.0

1.8

8.1

3.5

1.3

-0.1

31.3

-21.6

-75.8

7.9

-14.5

2.9

13.7

-32.9

3.4

2.8

0.8

0.8

5.0

3.6

-0.5

-1.4

-10.8

-34.6

-81.4

-3.7

28.7

-8.1

30.8

-28.0

Japan

2.9

-14.9

-39.0

-1.2

21.7

4.8

23.6

-50.6

Africa

-0.3

-0.6

-2.9

-2.0

-0.9

-0.2

-0.4

-0.3

Other

0.6

0.1

-1.0

-2.4

-1.2

-0.4

-0.2

-1.2

Total official purchases

487.7

344.8

422.8

433.7

458.7

320.5

371.6

185.8

U.S. Treasury bonds

233.5

76.6

276.2

512.7

506.9

273.5

417.5

209.8

Other U.S. Government
securities

219.8

171.5

42.7

-132.6

-88.7

-20.7

-118.5

-30.9

Corporate bonds

28.6

51.6

35.0

-2.3

0.8

-5.1

13.9

26.0

Corporate stocks

5.8

45.1

68.9

55.9

39.7

72.8

58.7

-19.2

Canada
Caribbean financial centers
Latin America
Asia

Source: Scott, Sarah P., “U.S. International Transactions: Fourth Quarter and Year 2013, BEA Release, March 9,
2014. Table 8a.

The U.S. Net International Investment Position
As indicated above, the data in Table 2 and Table 3 show that the trade deficit is accompanied by
an equal capital inflow that represents an accumulation of dollar-denominated assets by
foreigners. Some observers have equated the trade deficit and the associated accumulation of
foreign-owned dollar-denominated assets as a debt that the U.S. economy owes to foreigners that
will have to be repaid. This characterization, however, is not entirely appropriate. The debts
owned by foreign investors represents claims on assets, rather than loans where payments on the
principle and interest are specified according to a fixed schedule and where failure to meet the
repayment schedule can result in the loans being called in and made payable in full. While
foreign investors have expectations of a positive return on their dollar-denominated assets,
returns, except for Treasury securities, are not guaranteed, but are subject to market forces. An
important feature of claims by foreign investors on U.S. assets is that some or all of the profits or
returns on the assets can be repatriated to the home country of the foreign investor, thereby
reducing the returns that otherwise would remain in the U.S. economy. Depending on the tax
convention the United States has with other governments, private foreign investors who own U.S.
Treasury securities will owe taxes on the interest income.
According to the most commonly accepted approach to the balance of payments, macroeconomic
developments in the U.S. economy are the major driving forces behind the magnitudes of capital
flows, because the macroeconomic factors determine the overall demand for and supply of capital
in the economy. Economists generally conclude that the rise in capital inflows can be attributed to
comparatively favorable returns on investments in the United States when adjusted for risk, a
surplus of saving in other areas of the world, the well-developed U.S. financial system, the

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overall stability of the U.S. economy, and the generally held view that U.S. securities, especially
Treasury securities, are high quality financial instruments that are low risk. In turn, these net
capital inflows (inflows net of outflows) bridge the gap in the United States between the amount
of credit demanded and the domestic supply of funds, likely keeping U.S. interest rates below the
level they would have reached without the foreign capital. These capital inflows also allow the
United States to spend beyond its means, including financing its trade deficit, because foreigners
are willing to lend to the United States in the form of exchanging goods, represented by U.S.
imports, for such U.S. assets as stocks, bonds, U.S. Treasury securities, and real estate and U.S.
businesses.
While this exchange of assets is implicit in the balance of payments, the Department of
Commerce explicitly accounts for this broad flow of dollar-denominated assets through the
nation’s net international investment position. The U.S. net international investment position
represents the accumulated value of U.S.-owned assets abroad and foreign-owned assets in the
United States measured on an annual basis at the end of the calendar year. Some observers refer
to the net of this investment position (or the difference between the value of U.S.-owned assets
abroad and the value of foreign-owned assets in the United States) as a debt, or indicate that the
United States is a net debtor nation, because the value of foreign-owned assets in the United
States is greater than the value of U.S.-owned assets abroad.
In fact, the nation’s net international investment position is not a measure of the nation’s
indebtedness similar to the debt borrowed by some developing countries, but it is simply an
accounting of assets. By year-end 2013, the overseas assets of U.S. residents totaled $21.0
trillion, while foreigners had acquired about $26.0 trillion in assets in the United States, with
direct investment measured at historical cost. As a result, the U.S. net international investment
position was about a negative $5.1 trillion in 2013, with direct investment measured at historical
cost, as indicated in Table 5. Preliminary data for 2014 indicate that the U.S. net international
investment position fell to a negative $6.9 trillion, driven by a large increase in the foreign
position in financial derivatives and an increase in the market value of foreign direct investment
in the United States compared to a decline in the market value of U.S. direct investment abroad.
Table 5. U.S. Net International Investment Position
(billions of dollars)
Type of Investment

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Net international investment position of the United States:
With direct investment at current cost

$-2,275.1

$-2,249.2

$-3,669.8

$-3,867.0

$-4,565.3

With direct investment at market value

-2,627.8

-2,511.8

-4,455.0

-4,578.2

-5,383.0

With direct investment at historical cost

-2791.2

-2,614.1

-4,162.5

-4,401.4

-5,051.8

126.3

110.4

86.0

57.8

73.5

With direct investment at current cost

18,558.5

20,555.0

21,593.6

21,554.9

21,913.8

With direct investment at market value

18,803.3

21,091.0

21,508.4

21,778.5

22,905.2

With direct investment at historical cost

17,713.7

19,846.5

20,736.0

20,632.0

21,014.5

3,489.8

3,652.3

4,716.6

3,619.8

2,819.8

403.8

488.7

537.0

572.4

448.3

82.8

75.2

178.9

93.6

96.6

Financial derivatives
U.S.-owned assets abroad:

Financial derivatives
U.S. official reserve assets
U.S. Government assets, other

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 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

Type of Investment

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

U.S. private assets:
With direct investment at current cost

14,582.2

16,338.8

16,161.1

17,269.2

18,555.1

With direct investment at market value

14,826.9

16,874.8

16,075.9

17,492.8

19,546.4

With direct investment at historical cost

13,737.3

15,630.2

15,303.5

16,346.3

17,655.7

—At current cost

4,077.4

4,273.6

4,599.5

4,972.9

5,284.0

—At market value

4,322.1

4,809.6

4,514.3

5,196.5

6,275.4

—At historical cost

3,565.0

3,741.9

4,050.0

4,384.7

4,660.9

Direct investment abroad:

Foreign securities

5,565.6

6,631.6

6,441.4

7,547.2

8,732.2

—Bonds

1,570.3

1,731.3

1,939.9

2,235.7

2,288.0

—Corporate stocks

3,995.3

4,900.2

4,501.4

5,311.5

6,444.2

930.0

879.6

792.8

849.4

931.7

4,009.1

4,554.1

4,327.4

3,899.7

3,607.1

U.S. claims by US nonbanking concerns
U.S. claims reported by US banks
Foreign-owned assets in the United States:
With direct investment at current cost

20,833.7

22,804.2

25,263.3

25,422.0

26,479.2

With direct investment at market value

21,430.9

23,602.8

25,963.4

26,356.7

28,288.2

With direct investment at historical cost

20,504.9

22,460.6

24,898.5

25,033.4

26,066.2

3.363.4

3,541.9

4,630.5

3,562.0

2,746.3

4,402.8

4.911.7

5,244.2

5,681.9

5,945.5

With direct investment at current cost

13,067.5

14,350.5

15,388.6

16,178.1

17,787.3

With direct investment at market value

13,664.7

15,149.2

16,088.7

17,112.8

19,596.4

With direct investment at historical cost

12,738.7

14,006.9

15,023.8

15,789.5

17,374.4

—At current cost

2,398.2

2,623.6

2,798.7

2,994.3

3,176.9

—At market value

2,995.5

3,422.3

3,498.7

3,929.1

4,985.9

—At historical cost

2,069.4

2,280.0

2,433.8

2,605.8

2,764.0

791.0

1,094.1

1,383.8

1,538.6

1,738.6

Financial derivatives
Foreign official assets in the United States
Foreign private assets:

Direct investment in the United States:

U.S. Treasury securities
U.S. other securities

5,319.9

5,934.9

6,152.2

6,896.5

8,004.1

—Corporate and other bonds

2,825.6

2,916.4

2,892.8

3,053.5

3,077.6

—Corporate stocks

2,494.3

3,018.5

3,259.4

3,843.0

4,926.5

U.S. currency

313.8

342.1

397.1

454.2

491.9

U.S. liabilities by U.S. nonbanking concerns

706.7

648.8

631.7

660.9

603.1

3,537.9

3,707.1

4,025.1

3,633.5

3,772.7

U.S. liabilities reported by U.S. banks

Source: Westmoreland, Kyle L., The International Investment Position of the United States at the End of the
Fourth Quarter and Year 2014, Survey of Current Business, April 2015. p. 5.

Foreign investors who acquire U.S. assets do so at their own risk and accept the returns
accordingly, unlike the debt owed by developing countries where principle and debt service
payments are guaranteed in advance. While foreign investors likely expect positive returns from

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 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

their dollar-denominated assets, the returns on most of the assets in the international investment
position, except for bonds, are not guaranteed and foreign investors stand to gain or lose on them
similar to the way U.S. domestic investors gain or lose.
As Table 5 indicates, the investments in the international investment position include such
financial assets as corporate stocks and bonds, government securities, and direct investment7 in
businesses and real estate. The value of these assets, measured on an annual basis, can change as
a result of purchases and sales of new or existing assets; changes in the financial value of the
assets that arise through appreciation, depreciation, or inflation; changes in the market values of
stocks and bonds; or changes in the value of currencies. For instance, by year-end 2013, U.S.
private holdings abroad had risen in value to $17.7 trillion, with direct investment valued at
historical cost, and $19.5 trillion with direct investment valued at market cost, reflecting an
upward revaluation in the values of foreign corporate stocks due to an increase in stock market
values. Similarly, the value of foreign owned corporate stocks in the United States rose in value in
2013, pulling up the overall investment position of foreign investors. The Department of
Commerce uses three different methods for valuing direct investments that can yield different
estimates for the net position, depending on the stock market value of the investments.8
The foreign investment position in the United States continues to increase as foreigners acquire
additional U.S. assets and as the value of existing assets appreciates. These assets are broadly
divided into official and private investments reflecting transactions by governments among
themselves and transactions among the public. While the foreign official share of the overall
 Payments
        (billions of dollars)
2014
2015
2013
2014
I
II
III
IV
I
Total Net Capital Inflows
$-395.8
$-239.6
$-114.1
$-48.6
$-29.2
$-47.8
$-47.9
 Total Net Goods
-702.6
-741.5
-184.3
-188.1
-183.1
-186.0
-189.0
 Total Net Services
224.2
233.1
58.9
59.4
57.2
57.6
58.7
 Total Net Income
224.5
238.0
58.3
57.9
61.7
60.0
50.8
 Total Net Transfers
-122.9
-119.2
-29.3
-21.3
-33.8
-34.8
-33.8
 Total Net Capital Account
-0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
 Statistical Discrepancy
-18.7
149.9
17.6
43.4
68.7
55.4
65.5
Total Net Financial Account
395.8
239.6
114.1
48.6
29.2
47.8
47.9
 Total Net Private Flows
-406.8
-171.3
-37.2
-162.5
34.4
6.5
-63.5
  Total Net Direct Investment
-112.0
-225.4
-160.5
-11.9
7.2
-60.2
110.5
  Total Net Portfolio Invest. 
25.7
167.0
143.6
-106.5
78.0
51.9
-129.4
    Total Net Private
-294.8
54.1
123.3
-150.6
27.2
66.7
-174.0
      Total Net Equity Securities
-342.9
-256.8
1.0
-65.4
-54.4
-152.2
-146.1
      Total Net Debt Securities
96.3
310.6
117.2
-55.7
66.5
218.6
27.9
         Total Net Treasury Sec.
178.2
187.1
111.6
2.4
23.1
91.3
-12.3
         Other Government
-106.8
-0.3
-21.6
-10.1
9.8
12.3
-11.4
         Corporate
21.0
119.8
26.5
-48.5
32.5
113.3
49.6
         Other
3.9
4.0
0.6
0.4
1.2
1.7
2.0
    Total Net Official
309.5
100.4
20.4
44.1
50.8
-14.9
44.6
      Total Net Portfolio
247.6
91.3
25.4
14.5
65.8
-14.5
-11.2
       Total Net Equity Securities
-17.8
-10.5
15.2
-10.2
-1.7
-13.9
10.2
       Total Net Debt Securities
265.4
101.8
10.2
24.8
67.5
-0.6
-21.3
         Total Net Treasury Sec.
253.0
89.0
16.8
31.7
47.7
-7.2
-19.5
         Other Government
-25.6
-21.0
-14.2
-11.3
3.9
0.5
-6.8
         Corporate
37.5
33.5
7.4
4.4
15.7
6.0
4.9
         Other
0.4
0.4
0.1
0.0
0.1
0.1
0.0
      Total Net Other
11.0
12.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
  Total Net Other
481.2
240.1
-136.1
-163.3
81.1
-21.8
-22.4
     Private
417.7
179.2
-130.6
-139.3
81.6
9.0
34.4
       Banks
338.9
-47.0
-29.9
-62.1
-9.5
148.5
12.3
       Other Financial 
78.7
226.2
-100.7
-77.2
91.2
-139.5
22.1
     Other Government
63.6
60.9
-5.5
-24.0
-0.5
-30.8
-56.7
  Total Net Official Reserves
-3.1
-3.6
1.0
-0.8
0.9
2.5
4.2
  Financial Derivatives
2.2
-54.4
-6.1
4.5
24.3
31.7
40.1
Source: Data developed by CRS from data published by the Department of Commerce.

    
    Commerce Department data indicate that foreign private net purchases of Treasury securities have shifted between positive and negative changes at various times since the late 1990s, as indicated in Figure 1. Foreign official net acquisitions of Treasury securities have also tended to change abruptly on an annual basis. During the midst of the financial crisis in 2009, foreign private investors had net sales of $15 billion in Treasury securities, down sharply from the $197 billion they accumulated in 2008. Foreign governments, however, increased their net purchases of Treasury securities in 2009, which rose from $478 billion in 2008 to $570 billion in 2009. Foreign official purchases of U.S. Treasury securities exceeded foreign private purchases in 2010, 2012, and in 2013. In 2014, foreign official purchases of treasury securities fell to $89 billion, about one-third of the $253 billion in purchases by private investors in 2013. Over the 2001-2014 period, net foreign official purchases of treasury securities were more than twice as large as net foreign private purchases. 
    
      

        
          
            Figure 1. Foreign Private and Official Purchases of U.S. Treasury Securities, 1997-2014
          
        
        
          
        
        
          
            Source: Department of Commerce.

          
        
      
    
    As the data in Table 3 indicate, a deficit in the net capital inflow account is financed by an offsetting net inflow in the financial account. One striking feature of the financial flows over the 2006-2014 period is the way the composition of the balances in the net financial account has changed. Net private and net official capital inflows have changed abruptly at times, as indicated in Figure 2. 
    Private capital flows shifted from a net inflow of $123 billion in 2007 to a net outflow of $265 billion in 2008, reflecting the financial turmoil during that period. Net private inflows by U.S. citizens, however, resumed in the 2009 to 2014 period. During the same period, U.S. official inflows increased from $494 billion in 2007 to $995 billion in 2008, shifting to a net outflow in 2009 of $175 billion. Since then, net official inflows have been positive, but have fallen annually in amount from $365 billion in 2010 to $100 billion in 2014. 

      

        
          
            Figure 2. Net Inflows of Private and Official Sources of Capital, 2006-2014
          
        
        
          
        
        
          
            Source: Department of Commerce.

          
        
      
    
    The data in Table 4 show the total net accumulation of long-term U.S. securities, or the amount of securities purchased less those that were sold, by foreign private and official sources from 2006 to 2013. The data indicate that in 2008, the net foreign private accumulation of U.S. securities dropped by three-fourths from that recorded in 2007 as foreign private investors withdrew funds from the United States during the financial crisis. In 2009, however, total foreign private and official purchases of U.S. securities increased to reach $485 billion, propelled primarily by net foreign official purchases. Total foreign purchases of U.S. securities grew to reach $573 billion in 2010, reflecting increased net purchases of U.S. corporate stocks and U.S. Treasury securities. Such foreign purchases continued to grow in 2012 to reach $726 billion, before falling in 2013 to $435 billion. Similarly, total private purchases of Treasury securities dropped in 2011 and 2012, but rebounded somewhat in 2013, reaching $205 billion. In 2013, private foreign investors decreased their net purchases of U.S. corporate stock, while increasing their net purchases of corporate bonds. Investors in Europe nearly doubled their net purchases of Treasury securities in 2013 from the amount they purchased in 2012.
    
      
        Table 4. Net Foreign Purchases of Long-Term U.S. Securities
        (billions of dollars)
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Total private and official net purchases of U.S. securities
$1,099.1
$989.6
$236.3
$484.8
$573.2
$412.9
$726.4
$435.1
Total private purchases
611.4
644.8
-186.5
51.1
414.5
92.4
354.8
249.4
 Corporate stocks
139.7
230.5
57.5
163.4
139.2
60.9
173.3
-71.0
 Europe
92.6
90.5
-2.1
79.6
81.3
-13.8
55.3
1.2
 United Kingdom
73.2
67.9
28.4
33.3
35.0
9.1
25.9
-2.9
 Canada
12.6
9.8
6.7
9.5
17.3
20.9
52.4
41.9
 Caribbean financial centers
34.4
95.4
1.7
34.2
23.0
40.3
33.3
-29.0
 Latin America
1.8
1.1
3.5
5.2
4.9
2.0
14.6
-4.7
 Asia
-2.2
27.9
50.7
31.4
11.0
8.6
11.8
-71.6
 Of which: Japan
-1.2
-5.6
21.8
20.6
11.6
7.4
-8.4
-59.4
 Africa
0.0
-0.4
-4.7
-0.8
-0.4
0.9
0.4
0.5
 
 
 Corporate bonds
517.8
383.7
-51.4
-117.3
-24.5
-106.3
-33.2
177.3
 Europe
332.1
225.9
-80.4
-105.7
-64.5
-123.5
-46.2
133.4
 United Kingdom
203.6
130.5
-46.3
-56.1
-30.7
-59.0
-55.3
-7.8
 Canada
7.9
12.4
-2.0
-0.1
9.8
-2.1
4.0
18.0
 Caribbean financial centers
106.9
61.9
12.1
-7.4
21.4
9.1
5.5
20.0
 Latin America
9.3
4.7
-13.7
-4.5
3.4
3.4
0.1
-2.1
 Asia
53.7
72.8
32.4
1.6
6.8
11.6
6.8
2.3
 Japan
12.2
39.5
21.7
-1.6
0.8
7.1
-2.1
-5.2
 Africa
0.2
-0.4
-0.4
0.1
0.1
0.0
-0.2
0.3
 Other
7.7
6.4
0.7
-1.3
-1.4
-4.8
-2.7
5.4
 
 
 U.S. Treasury bonds
-71.9
39.2
-20.0
49.2
273.6
146.8
157.9
205.1
 Europe
-61.9
57.8
-43.5
-38.0
105.0
137.9
75.7
145.4
 Canada
14.7
-1.9
-6.2
19.7
35.9
-18.2
25.6
-11.8
 Caribbean financial centers
-10.9
-6.2
2.6
-13.8
22.1
6.7
-14.7
5.1
 Latin America
-2.1
9.8
-5.0
6.1
0.4
-5.7
1.2
4.3
 Asia
-10.7
-20.8
29.3
71.9
111.0
26.2
52.2
62.5
 Africa
1.1
1.5
7.0
1.1
5.5
0.1
-1.4
0.0
 Other
-2.1
-1.1
-4.3
2.3
-6.4
-0.2
19.3
-0.5
 
 
 Federal agency bonds
25.8
-8.6
-172.6
-44.3
26.2
-9.1
56.7
-62.0
 Europe
-8.1
42.3
-17.4
-46.6
1.1
-10.3
12.0
1.8
 United Kingdom
-8.8
70.9
42.4
-30.4
25.0
4.9
-2.0
14.6
 Canada
9.7
3.0
5.0
1.8
8.1
3.5
1.3
-0.1
 Caribbean financial centers
31.3
-21.6
-75.8
7.9
-14.5
2.9
13.7
-32.9
 Latin America
3.4
2.8
0.8
0.8
5.0
3.6
-0.5
-1.4
 Asia
-10.8
-34.6
-81.4
-3.7
28.7
-8.1
30.8
-28.0
 Japan
2.9
-14.9
-39.0
-1.2
21.7
4.8
23.6
-50.6
 Africa
-0.3
-0.6
-2.9
-2.0
-0.9
-0.2
-0.4
-0.3
 Other
0.6
0.1
-1.0
-2.4
-1.2
-0.4
-0.2
-1.2
 
 
Total official purchases
487.7
344.8
422.8
433.7
458.7
320.5
371.6
185.8
 U.S. Treasury bonds 
233.5
76.6
276.2
512.7
506.9
273.5
417.5
209.8
 Other U.S. Government securities
219.8
171.5
42.7
-132.6
-88.7
-20.7
-118.5
-30.9
 Corporate bonds
28.6
51.6
35.0
-2.3
0.8
-5.1
13.9
26.0
 Corporate stocks
5.8
45.1
68.9
55.9
39.7
72.8
58.7
-19.2
Source: Scott, Sarah P., "U.S. International Transactions: Fourth Quarter and Year 2013, BEA Release, March 9, 2014. Table 8a.

    
    The U.S. Net International Investment Position
    As indicated above, the data in Table 2 and Table 3 show that the trade deficit is accompanied by an equal capital inflow that represents an accumulation of dollar-denominated assets by foreigners. Some observers have equated the trade deficit and the associated accumulation of foreign-owned dollar-denominated assets as a debt that the U.S. economy owes to foreigners that will have to be repaid. This characterization, however, is not entirely appropriate. The debts owned by foreign investors represent claims on assets, rather than loans where payments on the principal and interest are specified according to a fixed schedule and where failure to meet the repayment schedule can result in the loans being called in and made payable in full. While foreign investors have expectations of a positive return on their dollar-denominated assets, returns, except for Treasury securities, are not guaranteed, but are subject to market forces. An important feature of claims by foreign investors on U.S. assets is that some or all of the profits or returns on the assets can be repatriated to the home country of the foreign investor, thereby reducing the returns that otherwise would remain in the U.S. economy. Depending on the tax convention the United States has with other governments, private foreign investors who own U.S. Treasury securities will owe taxes on the interest income.
    According to the most commonly accepted approach to the balance of payments, macroeconomic developments in the U.S. economy are the major driving forces behind the magnitudes of capital flows, because the macroeconomic factors determine the overall demand for and supply of capital in the economy. Economists generally conclude that the rise in capital inflows can be attributed to comparatively favorable returns on investments in the United States when adjusted for risk, a surplus of saving in other areas of the world, the well-developed U.S. financial system, the overall stability of the U.S. economy, and the generally held view that U.S. securities, especially Treasury securities, are high quality financial instruments that are low risk. In turn, these net capital inflows (inflows net of outflows) bridge the gap in the United States between the amount of credit demanded and the domestic supply of funds, likely keeping U.S. interest rates below the level they would have reached without the foreign capital. These capital inflows also allow the United States to spend beyond its means, including financing its trade deficit, because foreigners are willing to lend to the United States in the form of exchanging goods, represented by U.S. imports, for such U.S. assets as stocks, bonds, U.S. Treasury securities, and real estate and U.S. businesses.
While this exchange of assets is implicit in the balance of payments, the Department of Commerce explicitly accounts for this broad flow of dollar-denominated assets through the nation's net international investment position. The U.S. net international investment position represents the accumulated value of U.S.-owned assets abroad and foreign-owned assets in the United States measured on an annual basis at the end of the calendar year. Some observers refer to the net of this investment position (or the difference between the value of U.S.-owned assets abroad and the value of foreign-owned assets in the United States) as a debt, or indicate that the United States is a net debtor nation, because the value of foreign-owned assets in the United States is greater than the value of U.S.-owned assets abroad.

    In fact, the nation's net international investment position is not a measure of the nation's indebtedness similar to the debt borrowed by some developing countries, but it is simply an accounting of assets. By year-end 2013, the overseas assets of U.S. residents totaled $21.0 trillion, while foreigners had acquired about $26.0 trillion in assets in the United States, with direct investment measured at historical cost. As a result, the U.S. net international investment position was about a negative $5.1 trillion in 2013, with direct investment measured at historical cost, as indicated in Table 5. Preliminary data for 2014 indicate that the U.S. net international investment position fell to a negative $6.9 trillion, driven by a large increase in the foreign position in financial derivatives and an increase in the market value of foreign direct investment in the United States compared to a decline in the market value of U.S. direct investment abroad.
    
      
        Table 5. U.S. Net International Investment Position
        (billions of dollars) 
Type of Investment
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Net international investment position of the United States:
With direct investment at current cost
$-2,275.1
$-2,249.2
$-3,669.8
$-3,867.0
$-4,565.3
With direct investment at market value
-2,627.8
-2,511.8
-4,455.0
-4,578.2
-5,383.0
With direct investment at historical cost
-2791.2
-2,614.1
-4,162.5
-4,401.4
-5,051.8
Financial derivatives
126.3
110.4
86.0
57.8
73.5
U.S.-owned assets abroad:
With direct investment at current cost
18,558.5
20,555.0
21,593.6
21,554.9
21,913.8
With direct investment at market value
18,803.3
21,091.0
21,508.4
21,778.5
22,905.2
With direct investment at historical cost
17,713.7
19,846.5
20,736.0
20,632.0
21,014.5
Financial derivatives
3,489.8
3,652.3
4,716.6
3,619.8
2,819.8
U.S. official reserve assets
403.8
488.7
537.0
572.4
448.3
U.S. Government assets, other
82.8
75.2
178.9
93.6
96.6
U.S. private assets:
With direct investment at current cost
14,582.2
16,338.8
16,161.1
17,269.2
18,555.1
With direct investment at market value
14,826.9
16,874.8
16,075.9
17,492.8
19,546.4
With direct investment at historical cost
13,737.3
15,630.2
15,303.5
16,346.3
17,655.7
Direct investment abroad:
—At current cost
4,077.4
4,273.6
4,599.5
4,972.9
5,284.0
—At market value
4,322.1
4,809.6
4,514.3
5,196.5
6,275.4
—At historical cost
3,565.0
3,741.9
4,050.0
4,384.7
4,660.9
Foreign securities
5,565.6
6,631.6
6,441.4
7,547.2
8,732.2
—Bonds
1,570.3
1,731.3
1,939.9
2,235.7
2,288.0
—Corporate stocks
3,995.3
4,900.2
4,501.4
5,311.5
6,444.2
U.S. claims by US nonbanking concerns
930.0
879.6
792.8
849.4
931.7
U.S. claims reported by US banks
4,009.1
4,554.1
4,327.4
3,899.7
3,607.1
Foreign-owned assets in the United States:
With direct investment at current cost
20,833.7
22,804.2
25,263.3
25,422.0
26,479.2
With direct investment at market value
21,430.9
23,602.8
25,963.4
26,356.7
28,288.2
With direct investment at historical cost
20,504.9
22,460.6
24,898.5
25,033.4
26,066.2
Financial derivatives
3.363.4
3,541.9
4,630.5
3,562.0
2,746.3
Foreign official assets in the United States
4,402.8
4.911.7
5,244.2
5,681.9
5,945.5
Foreign private assets:
With direct investment at current cost
13,067.5
14,350.5
15,388.6
16,178.1
17,787.3
With direct investment at market value
13,664.7
15,149.2
16,088.7
17,112.8
19,596.4
With direct investment at historical cost 
12,738.7
14,006.9
15,023.8
15,789.5
17,374.4
Direct investment in the United States:
—At current cost
2,398.2
2,623.6
2,798.7
2,994.3
3,176.9
—At market value
2,995.5
3,422.3
3,498.7
3,929.1
4,985.9
—At historical cost
2,069.4
2,280.0
2,433.8
2,605.8
2,764.0
U.S. Treasury securities
791.0
1,094.1
1,383.8
1,538.6
1,738.6
U.S. other securities
5,319.9
5,934.9
6,152.2
6,896.5
8,004.1
—Corporate and other bonds
2,825.6
2,916.4
2,892.8
3,053.5
3,077.6
—Corporate stocks
2,494.3
3,018.5
3,259.4
3,843.0
4,926.5
U.S. currency
313.8
342.1
397.1
454.2
491.9
U.S. liabilities by U.S. nonbanking concerns
706.7
648.8
631.7
660.9
603.1
U.S. liabilities reported by U.S. banks
3,537.9
3,707.1
4,025.1
3,633.5
3,772.7
Source: Westmoreland, Kyle L., The International Investment Position of the United States at the End of the Fourth Quarter and Year 2014, Survey of Current Business, April 2015. p. 5.
Foreign investors who acquire U.S. assets do so at their own risk and accept the returns accordingly, unlike the debt owed by developing countries where principal and debt service payments are guaranteed in advance. While foreign investors likely expect positive returns from their dollar-denominated assets, the returns on most of the assets in the international investment position, except for bonds, are not guaranteed and foreign investors stand to gain or lose on them similar to the way U.S. domestic investors gain or lose.

    As Table 5 indicates, the investments in the international investment position include such financial assets as corporate stocks and bonds, government securities, and direct investment8 in businesses and real estate. The value of these assets, measured on an annual basis, can change as a result of purchases and sales of new or existing assets; changes in the financial value of the assets that arise through appreciation, depreciation, or inflation; changes in the market values of stocks and bonds; or changes in the value of currencies. For instance, by year-end 2013, U.S. private holdings abroad had risen in value to $17.7 trillion, with direct investment valued at historical cost, and $19.5 trillion with direct investment valued at market cost, reflecting an upward revaluation in the values of foreign corporate stocks due to an increase in stock market values. Similarly, the value of foreign owned corporate stocks in the United States rose in 2013, pulling up the overall investment position of foreign investors. The Department of Commerce uses three different methods for valuing direct investments that can yield different estimates for the net position, depending on the stock market value of the investments.9
    The foreign investment position in the United States continues to increase as foreigners acquire additional U.S. assets and as the value of existing assets appreciates. These assets are broadly divided into official and private investments, reflecting transactions by governments among themselves and transactions among the public. While the foreign official share of the overall amount of capital inflows has grown sharply as indicated in Table 3, the overall foreign official
 share of foreign-owned assets in the United States has remained relatively modest.

    As Figure 3 indicates, foreign official asset holdings were valued at about $5.9 trillion in 2013, or
 about 26% of the total foreign investment position, a share that rose above 20% in 2008 as
 foreign official holdings of U.S. Treasury securities rose during the global financial crisis.
 Official assets include such monetary reserve assets as gold, the reserve position with the
 International Monetary Fund (IMF), and holdings of foreign currency. An important component
 of foreign official holdings in the United States is the acquisitions of U.S. Treasury securities by
 foreign governments. At times, such acquisitions are used by foreign governments, either through
 coordinated actions or by themselves, to affect the foreign exchange price of the dollar. Foreign
currency holdings account for a relatively small share of the total foreign investment position.9

7

The United States defines foreign direct investment as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one foreign
person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an
incorporated U.S. business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated U.S. business enterprise. 15 CFR
§806.15 (a)(1). Similarly, the United States defines direct investment abroad as the ownership or control, directly or
indirectly, by one person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting
securities of an incorporated business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated business enterprise. 15
CFR §806.15 (a)(1).
8
For additional information, see CRS Report RL32964, The United States as a Net Debtor Nation: Overview of the
International Investment Position, by James K. Jackson.
9
For additional information, see CRS Report RL32462, Foreign Investment in U.S. Securities, by James K. Jackson.

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13

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

 currency holdings account for a relatively small share of the total foreign investment position.10
      
Figure 3. Foreign Official and Private Investment Positions
in the United States, 1994-2013

 in the United States, 1994-2013
          
        
        
          
        
        
          
            Source: Department of Commerce.


          
        
      
    
    Private asset holdings are comprised primarily of direct investment in businesses and real estate,
 purchases of publicly traded government securities, and corporate stocks and bonds. As indicated
 in Figure 4, the composition of U.S. assets abroad and foreign-owned assets in the United States
differ differs in a number of ways. The strength and uniqueness of the U.S. Treasury securities markets
 make these assets sought after by both official and private foreign investors, whereas U.S.
 investors hold few foreign government securities. As a result, foreign official assets in the United
 States far outweigh U.S. official assets abroad. Both foreign private and official investors have
 been drawn at times to U.S. government securities as a safe haven investment during troubled or
 unsettled economic conditions.

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14

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit


      
Figure 4. U.S. and Foreign Investment Position, By Major Component, 2013


          
        
        
          
        
        
          
            Source: Department of Commerce.

Implications

          
        
      
    
    Implications
    The persistent U.S. trade deficit raises concerns in Congress and elsewhere due to the potential
 risks such deficits may pose for the long-term rate of growth for the economy. In particular, some
 observers are concerned that foreigner investors’' portfolios will become saturated with dollardenominateddollar-denominated assets and foreign investors will become unwilling to accommodate the trade deficit
 by holding more dollar-denominated assets. The shift in 2004 in the balance of payments toward
 a larger share of assets being acquired by official sources generated speculation that foreign
 private investors had indeed reached the point where they were no longer willing to add more
 dollar-denominated assets to their portfolios. This shift was reversed in 2005, however, as foreign
 private investments rebounded.

    Another concern is with the outflow of profits that arise from the dollar-denominated assets
 owned by foreign investors. This outflow stems from the profits or interest generated by the
 assets and representrepresents a clear outflow of capital from the economy that otherwise would not occur if
 the assets were owned by U.S. investors. These capital outflows represent the most tangible cost
 to the economy of the present mix of economic policies in which foreign capital inflows are
 needed to fill the gap between the demand for capital in the economy and the domestic supply of
 capital.

    Indeed, as the data presented indicate, it is important to consider the underlying cause of the trade
 deficit. According to the most commonly accepted economic approach, in a world with floating
 exchange rates and the free flow of large amounts of dollars in the world economy and international
 access to dollar-denominated assets, macroeconomic developments, particularly the demand for
 and supply of credit in the economy, are the driving forces behind the movements in the dollar’s
's international exchange rate and, therefore, the price of exports and imports in the economy. As a
 result, according to this approach, the trade deficit is a reflection of macroeconomic conditions
 within the domestic economy, and an attempt to address the issue of the trade deficit without

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15

 Financing the U.S. Trade Deficit

 addressing the underlying macroeconomic factors in the economy likely would prove to be of
 limited effectiveness.

    In addition, the nation’'s net international investment position indicates that the largest share of
 U.S. assets owned by foreigners is held by private investors who acquired the assets for any
 number of reasons. As a result, the United States is not in debt to foreign investors or to foreign
 governments similar to some developing countries that run into balance of payments problems,
 because the United States has not borrowed to finance its trade deficit. Instead the United States
 has traded assets with foreign investors who are prepared to gain or lose on their investments in
 the same way private U.S. investors can gain or lose. It is certainly possible that foreign investors,
 whether they are private or official, could eventually decide to limit their continued acquisition of
 dollar-denominated assets or even reduce the size of their holdings, but there is no firm evidence
 that such presently is the case.

Author Contact Information
James K. Jackson
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
jjackson@crs.loc.gov, 7-7751

Congressional Research Service

16

 
    Footnotes
    
      
        1.
            
         For additional information about the causes of the U.S. trade deficit, see CRS Report RL31032, The U.S. Trade Deficit: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Options, by [author name scrubbed].

      

        2.
            
         McGuire, Patrick, and Gotz von Peter, "The US Dollar Shortage in Global Banking and the International Policy Response," BIS Working Paper No. 291, the Bank For International Settlements, October 2009; McGuire, Patrick, and Goetz von Peter, "The U.S. Dollar Shortage in Global Banking," BIS Quarterly Review, March 2009.

      

        3.
            
         Ibid., p. 76.

      

        4.
            
         Traditional foreign exchange markets are organized exchanges which trade primarily in foreign exchange futures and options contracts where the terms and condition of the contracts are standardized.

      

        5.
            
         The over-the-counter foreign exchange derivatives market is an informal market consisting of dealers who custom-tailor agreements to meet the specific needs regarding maturity, payments intervals, or other terms that allow the contracts to meet specific requirements for risk.

      

        6.
            
         Rime, Dagfinn, and Andreas Schrimpf, The Anatomy of the Global FX Market Through the Lens of the 2013 Triennial Survey, Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, December 2013.

      

        7.
            
         According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), data on financial transactions that are reported in the balance of payments do not correspond directly to data in the U.S. Department of the Treasury's International Capital (TIC) report. BEA adjusts the TIC data on the differences in the outstanding amount, or holdings, of securities between the beginning and end of the reporting period, whether quarterly or annually, to account for changes in the value in the outstanding amount of securities that reflect (1) changes in prices; (2) changes in exchange rates; and (3) changes caused by other changes in the volume and value of securities. BEA also adjusts the TIC data to remove changes that are reflected in other data sources for direct investment and official reserve assets. BEA also reclassifies short-term securities and negotiable certificates of deposit of any maturity that are classified as other investment to portfolio investment. In addition, certain U.S. financial intermediaries that are not banks, securities brokers, bank holding companies, or financial holding companies report their holdings of debt with affiliates on BEA surveys of direct investment rather than to the TIC system; these data are added as financial intermediaries. BEA also uses partner country counterparty claims and liabilities provided by foreign banking authorities to close gaps in coverage of U.S. nonbanking concerns. Finally, BEA collects and adds holdings in other investment claims and liabilities of the U.S. central bank sector (Federal Reserve System) and the U.S. general government. "How BEA Aligns and Augments Source Data From the U.S. Treasury Department for Inclusion in the International Transactions Accounts," Survey of Current Business, September 2014.

      

        8.
            
         The United States defines foreign direct investment as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one foreign person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an incorporated U.S. business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated U.S. business enterprise. 15 CFR §806.15 (a)(1). Similarly, the United States defines direct investment abroad as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an incorporated business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated business enterprise. 15 CFR §806.15 (a)(1).

      

        9.
            
         For additional information, see CRS Report RL32964, The United States as a Net Debtor Nation: Overview of the International Investment Position, by [author name scrubbed].

      

        10.
            
         For additional information, see CRS Report RL32462, Foreign Investment in U.S. Securities, by [author name scrubbed].

      

  
1.	For additional information about the causes of the U.S. trade deficit, see CRS Report RL31032, The U.S. Trade Deficit: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Options, by [author name scrubbed].
2.	McGuire, Patrick, and Gotz von Peter, "The US Dollar Shortage in Global Banking and the International Policy Response," BIS Working Paper No. 291, the Bank For International Settlements, October 2009; McGuire, Patrick, and Goetz von Peter, "The U.S. Dollar Shortage in Global Banking," BIS Quarterly Review, March 2009.
3.	Ibid., p. 76.
4.	Traditional foreign exchange markets are organized exchanges which trade primarily in foreign exchange futures and options contracts where the terms and condition of the contracts are standardized.
5.	The over-the-counter foreign exchange derivatives market is an informal market consisting of dealers who custom-tailor agreements to meet the specific needs regarding maturity, payments intervals, or other terms that allow the contracts to meet specific requirements for risk.
6.	Rime, Dagfinn, and Andreas Schrimpf, The Anatomy of the Global FX Market Through the Lens of the 2013 Triennial Survey, Quarterly Review, Bank for International Settlements, December 2013.
7.	According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), data on financial transactions that are reported in the balance of payments do not correspond directly to data in the U.S. Department of the Treasury's International Capital (TIC) report. BEA adjusts the TIC data on the differences in the outstanding amount, or holdings, of securities between the beginning and end of the reporting period, whether quarterly or annually, to account for changes in the value in the outstanding amount of securities that reflect (1) changes in prices; (2) changes in exchange rates; and (3) changes caused by other changes in the volume and value of securities. BEA also adjusts the TIC data to remove changes that are reflected in other data sources for direct investment and official reserve assets. BEA also reclassifies short-term securities and negotiable certificates of deposit of any maturity that are classified as other investment to portfolio investment. In addition, certain U.S. financial intermediaries that are not banks, securities brokers, bank holding companies, or financial holding companies report their holdings of debt with affiliates on BEA surveys of direct investment rather than to the TIC system; these data are added as financial intermediaries. BEA also uses partner country counterparty claims and liabilities provided by foreign banking authorities to close gaps in coverage of U.S. nonbanking concerns. Finally, BEA collects and adds holdings in other investment claims and liabilities of the U.S. central bank sector (Federal Reserve System) and the U.S. general government. "How BEA Aligns and Augments Source Data From the U.S. Treasury Department for Inclusion in the International Transactions Accounts," Survey of Current Business, September 2014.
8.	The United States defines foreign direct investment as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one foreign person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an incorporated U.S. business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated U.S. business enterprise. 15 CFR §806.15 (a)(1). Similarly, the United States defines direct investment abroad as the ownership or control, directly or indirectly, by one person (individual, branch, partnership, association, government, etc.) of 10% or more of the voting securities of an incorporated business enterprise or an equivalent interest in an unincorporated business enterprise. 15 CFR §806.15 (a)(1).
9.	For additional information, see CRS Report RL32964, The United States as a Net Debtor Nation: Overview of the International Investment Position, by [author name scrubbed].
10.	For additional information, see CRS Report RL32462, Foreign Investment in U.S. Securities, by [author name scrubbed].