The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
April 4October 2, 2012
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21168
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Summary
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps has sought to meet its legislative mandate of promoting world
peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to serve at the grassroots level in villages
and towns in all corners of the globe. As of end September 2011, about 9,095 volunteers were
serving in 76 nations.
In 2012, the 112th Congress is consideringhas considered the President’s annual funding request for the Peace
Corps, efforts to reauthorize the Peace Corps, and related issues. In February 2012, the
Administration issued its FY2013 budget request, proposing $374.5 million for the Peace Corps,
$500,000 less than the FY2012 level of $375 million approved in December 2011 in the
Consolidated Appropriations Act 2012 (Division I of P.L. 112-74, H.R. 2055). In September
2012, the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (H.J.Res. 117, P.L. 112-175), was
approved by Congress, providing FY2013 funding for the Peace Corps at the level in the FY2012
Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-74) plus .612%. The resolution expires on March 27,
2013.
The last Peace Corps funding authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999, covered the years
FY2000 to FY2003. On July 21, 2012, the House Foreign Affairs Committee reported H.R. 2583, the
the Foreign Relations Authorization for FY2012, which includes language authorizing $375 million
million for the Peace Corps in FY2012 as well as provisions addressing Peace Corps safety and
security.
On July 27, 2011, Senator Kerry introduced S. 1426, the Foreign Relations
Authorization for
FY2012 and FY2013, including language authorizing $439.6 million for the
Peace Corps in
FY2012 and “such sums as may be necessary” for FY2013. Neither bill has
received floor action.
On November 21, 2011, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011 was signed
into law (P.L. 112-57). It puts into place a number of safeguards to address and reduce the
incidence of volunteer rape and sexual abuse.
A comprehensive assessment of Peace Corps operations was published in June 2010. It makes 64
recommendations supporting a six-point strategy to be implemented in the coming years.
Current issues include the extent to which there is available funding for Peace Corps expansion,
whether the Peace Corps has the institutional capacity to expand, and whether volunteers are able
to function in a safe and secure environment.
This report will be updated as events warrant.
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Contents
Recent Developments ...................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Background...................................................................................................................................... 1
Congressional Actions ..................................................................................................................... 2
FY2013 Appropriations ............................................................................................................. 2
FY2012 Appropriations ............................................................................................................. 23
Authorization Legislation.......................................................................................................... 23
Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment........................................................................................ 34
Issues................................................................................................................................................ 67
Peace Corps Funding and Expansion ........................................................................................ 67
Volunteers, Programming, and Support..................................................................................... 7
The Volunteer Force ............................................................................................................ 78
Programming and Support .................................................................................................. 89
Safety and Security Issues ......................................................................................................... 9
Legislative Proposals on Safety and Security ................................................................... 1213
Tables
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2012FY2013.............................................................................. 67
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 1314
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Recent Developments
On February 13, 2012, the Administration issued its FY2013 budget request, proposing $374.5
million for the Peace Corps, $500,000 less than the FY2012 level.
On December 23, 2011, the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2012 (P.L. 112-74, H.R. 2055) was
signed into law. Division I provides $375 million for the Peace Corps, $750,000 more than in
FY2011.
On December 21, 2011, the Peace Corps announced that it would send no new volunteers to
Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador while it conducted a review of its operations and the
security environment in those locations.
On November 21, 2011, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011 was signed
into law (P.L. 112-57). It puts into place a number of safeguards to address and reduce the
incidence of volunteer rape and sexual abuse. The bill, S. 1280 (S.Rept. 112-85), was approved
by the Senate on September 26, 2011, and by the House on November 1, 2011.
On October 6, 2011, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a hearing on the future of the
Peace Corps.
On October 4, 2011, the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee held a hearing on H.R.
854, a bill that would establish a Peace Corps memorialIn September 2012, the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (H.J.Res. 117, P.L. 112-175),
was approved by Congress, providing FY2013 funding for the Peace Corps at the level in the
FY2012 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-74) plus .612%. The resolution expires on
March 27, 2013.
On September 17, 2012, Aaron S. Williams stepped down as Director of the Peace Corps. Deputy
Director Carrie Hessler-Radelet is serving as Acting Director until a nominee is proposed and
confirmed.
On September 14, 2012, the Office of Management and Budget issued its report on possible
sequestration actions that might be taken on January 2, 2013, if requirements of the Budget
Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25) are not met. Under sequestration, the Peace Corps budget
would likely be cut by 8.2%, or about $31 million.
On May 25, 2012, the House Appropriations Committee reported H.R. 5857 (H.Rept. 112-494),
the FY2013 State, Foreign Operations appropriations. It provides $375 million for the Peace
Corps, $500,000 more than the request and the same as in FY2012.
On May 24, 2012, the Senate Appropriations Committee reported S. 3241 (S.Rept. 112-172), the
FY2013 State, Foreign Operations appropriations. It provides $400 million for the Peace Corps,
$25.5 million more than requested and a $25 million increase over the FY2012 level.
On February 13, 2012, the Administration issued its FY2013 budget request, proposing $374.5
million for the Peace Corps, $500,000 less than the FY2012 level.
On December 23, 2011, the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2012 (P.L. 112-74, H.R. 2055) was
signed into law. Division I provides $375 million for the Peace Corps, $750,000 more than in
FY2011.
Introduction
Generally viewed positively by the public and widely supported in Congress, the Peace Corps, the
U.S. agency that provides volunteer skills internationally, drew congressional attention in 2011 on
the issue of volunteer safety and security. In 2012, the 112th Congress will considerhas considered the
President’s FY2013 funding request for the Peace Corps, efforts to reauthorize the Peace Corps,
and related issues. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
Founded 50 years ago, in 1961, the Peace Corps sends American volunteers to serve at the
grassroots level in villages and towns across the globe to meet its three-point legislative mandate
of promoting world peace and friendship by improving the lives of those they serve, helping
others understand American culture, and sharing their experience with Americans back home. To
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date, nearly 200,000 Peace Corps volunteers have served in 139 countries. As of end September
2011, 9,095 volunteers were serving in 76 nations.1 The Peace Corps director isDirector Aaron S.
Williams, a former volunteer.
1
Supporting Peace Corps operations are about 853 U.S. direct hire staff, 190 of whom are overseas, and about 2,000
locally hired employees at overseas locations.
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former volunteer, resigned effective September 17, 2012. Deputy Director Carrie Hessler-Radelet,
also a former volunteer, is serving as Acting Director until a nominee is proposed and confirmed.
In addition to its basic two-year tour of duty, the Peace Corps introduced in 1996 an initiative
called Peace Corps Response (formerly Crisis Corps), drawing on former volunteers, and recently
expanded to include non-volunteers, to provide to provide
short-term (usually three to six months)
emergency, humanitarian, and reconstruction assistance
at the community level with non-governmentalnongovernmental relief and development organizations. More than
1,000 Peace Corps Response
volunteers have served in 45 countries, including post-tsunami
Thailand and Sri Lanka and post-earthquakepostearthquake Haiti. In September 2005, Peace Corps Response
volunteers were deployed to assist
Hurricane Katrina relief, the first time in Peace Corps history
that volunteers were used
domestically.
Congressional Actions
FY2013 Appropriations
In February 2012, the Administration issued its FY2013 budget request, proposing $374.5 million
for the Peace Corps, $500,000 less than the FY2012 level of $375 million. On May 25, 2012, the
House Appropriations Committee reported H.R. 5857 (H.Rept. 112-494), the FY2013 State,
Foreign Operations appropriations. It provides $375 million for the Peace Corps, $500,000 more
than the request and the same as in FY2012. On May 24, 2012, the Senate Appropriations
Committee reported S. 3241 (S.Rept. 112-172), the FY2013 State, Foreign Operations
appropriations. It provides $400 million for the Peace Corps, $25.5 million more than requested
and a $25 million increase over the FY2012 level. Neither bill has received further consideration.
In September 2012, the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (H.J.Res. 117, P.L. 112-175),
was approved by Congress, providing FY2013 funding for the Peace Corps at the level in the
FY2012 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-74) plus .612%. The resolution expires on
March 27, 2013.
The funding level approved in the Continuing Resolution, effectively putting the Peace Corps at
$377.3 million in FY2013, could, however, be altered by any new continuing resolution or
conclusive appropriations bill. Also, pending sequestration would likely severely cut the current
Peace Corps funding level. On September 14, 2012, the Office of Management and Budget issued
its report on possible sequestration actions that might be taken on January 2, 2013, if
requirements of the Budget Control Act of 2011 (P.L. 112-25) are not met. Under sequestration,
the Peace Corps budget would possibly be cut by 8.2%, or about $31 million.
1
Supporting Peace Corps operations are about 853 U.S. direct hire staff, 190 of whom are overseas, and about 2,000
locally hired employees at overseas locations.
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FY2012 Appropriations
In February 2011, the Obama Administration issued its FY2012 budget request, proposing $439.6
million for the Peace Corps, a 17% increase over the final FY2011 appropriation.
On July 27, 2011, the State, Foreign Operations subcommittee of the House Committee on
Appropriations marked up an FY2012 bill, providing $374.3 million for the Peace Corps, equal to
the FY2011 level. The full committee did not take up the bill. On September 22, 2011, the Senate
Appropriations Committee reported S. 1601, the FY2012 State, Foreign Operations
Appropriations, providing $375 million for the Peace Corps, $750,000 more than the FY2011
level. The committee report on the bill, S.Rept. 112-85, contains a number of directives, on the
implementation of which the committee requires reporting from the Peace Corps. The Peace
Corps was directed to consult with the committee regarding any plans to open, close, or
significantly reduce any office or country program; to take further steps to maximize volunteer
safety; to adjust volunteer placement to ensure that they serve U.S. interests; to solicit volunteer
and former volunteer views through regular surveys; to make statistics and information on the
Peace Corps more publicly available; to adopt procedures to ensure the confidentiality of
whistleblowers; and to review the capacity of volunteers to use PEPFAR (President’s Emergency
Program for AIDS Relief) funds effectively.
On December 23, 2011, the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2012 (P.L. 112-74, H.R. 2055) was
signed into law. Division I provides $375 million for the Peace Corps, $750,000 more than in
FY2011 and $64.6 million below the President’s request.
Authorization Legislation
Both House and Senate took action in 2011 to authorize funding levels for the Peace Corps. On
July 27, 2011, Senator Kerry introduced S. 1426, the Foreign Relations Authorization for FY2012
and FY2013, including language authorizing $439.6 million for the Peace Corps in FY2012 and
“such sums as may be necessary” for FY2013. On July 21, 2011, the House Foreign Affairs
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Committee reported H.R. 2583 (H.Rept. 112-223), the Foreign Relations Authorization for
FY2012, which includes language authorizing $375 million for the Peace Corps in FY2012.
Despite repeated efforts during the past nine years, Congress has not enacted a new Peace Corps
funding authorization. The last such Peace Corps authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999,
covered the years FY2000 to FY2003. Appropriations bills, however, routinely waive the
requirement of authorization of appropriations for foreign aid programs, as the FY2012
Continuing Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-36, Sec. 113) did in the case of FY2012 unauthorized
foreign aid program appropriations, including those for Peace Corps.
In 2011, Congress took a number of steps to address Peace Corps volunteer safety and security
concerns in authorization measures. H.R. 2583, noted above, contains provisions addressing
Peace Corps safety and security. On September 26, 2011, the Senate approved S. 1280 (S.Rept.
112-82), the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011, addressing safety and
security. On September 21, 2011, the House Foreign Affairs Committee ordered reported both
H.R. 2337, the companion bill to S. 1280, and H.R. 2699, the Peace Corps Volunteer Service
Improvement Act of 2011. The House approved S. 1280 on November 1, 2011, and it was signed
into law on November 21, 2011. These bills are discussed in the “Safety and Security Issues”
section below.
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In addition to safety provisions, H.R. 2699 contains other program-related requirements. The nonsafety provisions would exempt the agency Inspector General from the “five-year rule” and
would require regular country portfolio reviews, evaluating the need for assistance, program
costs, safety and security concerns, and the effectiveness of the post’s management, among other
issues. Title V of the Foreign Relations Authorization, S. 1426, contains the “Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act of 2011,” requiring the Peace Corps to submit a report on
progress made toward implementing the recommendations of the comprehensive assessment
issued in 2010 (see section below).
On October 4, 2011, the Senate Energy and Natural Resources Committee held a hearing on H.R.
854 (Farr), a bill that would establish a Peace Corps memorial.
Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment
In June 2010, the Peace Corps submitted to Congress a “comprehensive agency assessment” in
response to a directive included in the FY2010 State, Foreign Operations appropriations (P.L.
111-117, Division F).2 As requested by the conferees (H.Rept. 111-366), the 204-page document
specifically addressesaddressed a range of issues of concern to Congress regarding Peace Corps operations
and procedures. While the report iswas thorough in its treatment of these issues, it should be noted
that some points on which Congress hashad expressed an interest in recent years were not requested
to be substantively addressed in the report. The report doesdid not address such issues as safety and
security, deferment of student loans, utilization of information technology, mechanisms for
soliciting volunteer views, the adequacy and impact of post-service benefits, and the
accomplishments and plans of the Peace Corps Response Program.
The assessment report doesn’tdid not just discuss a wide range of issues—it iswas a blueprint for change in
in the agency. The assessment team’s 64 recommendations were approved in principle by the Peace
Peace Corps director. All recommendations were placed in an implementation matrix with lead offices
2
The report can be found at http://multimedia.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/opengov/
PC_Comprehensive_Agency_Assessment.pdf.
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offices and proposed timing for implementation identified. Only a few of the recommendations required
required legislative action and, therefore, most could be launched immediately. As a result of the
assessment team’s findings, the Peace Corps adopted a strategy to guide its operations in the
future, some key elements of which are noted below.
Country selection. The Peace Corps has moved to rationalize its selection of host countries by
establishing clear criteria for entry. In part, this move seekseffort sought to address congressional concerns that
that the selection of Peace Corps host countries may not sufficiently reflect U.S. interests. Since 2002,
From
2002 to 2010, the Peace Corps has received letters of request or inquiry from 27 countries where
there is no
was no current program. How the agency determinesdetermined whether to establish a program has had
not been a
transparent and well-documented process, leading some to conclude that it was not a rational
rational process. The assessment team found that certain essential conditions havehad always been
applied to
the question of country entry—the extent of host country commitment, the safety and
security of
volunteers, and the level of resources available to the Peace Corps. Other key considerations have
considerations had included compatibility of country objectives with those of Peace Corps,
presence of potential
projects, cost effectiveness, and congruence with U.S. national interests.
2
The report can be found at http://multimedia.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/opengov/
PC_Comprehensive_Agency_Assessment.pdf.
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The assessment team recommended that the Peace Corps conduct a formal annual portfolio
review that would look not just at applicant countries but at all existing programs and apply
specific criteria to judge where the agency should operate. In addition to existing criteria, the
team recommended that two new criteria be introduced into deliberations on country entry and
termination—a measure of the level of development, such as the U.N. Development Program’s
Human Development Index, and a measure of potential volunteer impact. The first portfolio
review has been conducted andPeace Corps conducted
a second portfolio review in 2011, which informed the agency’s strategic planning and budget
guidance to
country posts in 20112012; a third review is underway.
Volunteer skill composition: generalists. The new Peace Corps strategy chose to recognize and
make the best use of one of its most notable characteristics—a volunteer force composed largely
of generalists. Today, as has largely been the case throughout its history, 85% of volunteers are
recent college graduates and 84% are under the age of 30. While some have argued that the Peace
Corps should alter its composition to meet the increasing needs of developing countries for
educated specialists, the assessment team determined, with some exceptions noted below, to
accept demographic reality and the constraints of career paths in the United States that would
likely limit the number of older specialists available to it. Instead, the team recommended steps
be taken to strengthen the quality of the volunteer force available by improving its technical,
language, and cultural training. It called for hiring full-time training staff at country posts and
providing more training time to volunteers.
Volunteer project focus. The new strategy suggested that, in order to maximize the effectiveness
of the large pool of generalists recruited by the Peace Corps, it would be best to focus on a more
limited range of project areas. CurrentlyIn the period leading up to the report, volunteers arewere assigned to
one of six broad technical
sectors—education, health, agriculture, environment, youth
development, and business/IT. Within
those sectors, volunteers workworked in 50 different technical
programs, from which 211 different
project plans havehad been developed, perhaps meeting specific
needs in a developing country, but
for each of which volunteers in that project musthad to be trained.
The assessment team argued that by
focusing more on what volunteers do best, what communities
most want, and what volunteers can
best be trained to do, the agency cancould maximize the capacity
of volunteers and the impact they
may have. The recommendation, therefore, iswas that Peace
Corps management assess and determine
a more narrow framework of work assignments and
strengthen technical training in those areas.
However, the —a so-called Focus in/Train up strategy. However, the
assessment did not suggest which technical sectors or program areas should be
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eliminated or
maintained. Since the report, an agency workshop proposed reducing the number of
activities from 211 to 60, new training curricula for teaching English and for HIV/AIDS
education are being developed, and an Africa focus on malaria prevention is being formulated activities
from 211 to 60. The Peace Corps has developed over 100 volunteer training packages based on
best practices along with guidance to field staff on implementing effective training.
Volunteer skill composition: specialists. The assessment addressed the exception to the rule of
use of generalists. Both to meet needs of countries that might require greater expertise and
experience and to best attract and utilize those volunteer applicants that possess a higher level of
skills than the norm, the assessment team recommendsrecommended that some innovations be made in Peace
Corps programs. In particular, it suggestssuggested that the Peace Corps Response Program be expanded in
in size and be open to highly qualified individuals without previous Peace Corps experience. The
It
recommended that the Response Program should also maintain its current flexible time commitments
(i.e., less than the
usual 27 months for regular volunteers) and be used in both regular Peace
Corps countries as well
as in countries where there is no standard Peace Corps presence. Since
the report was issued, the
number of Peace Corps Response volunteers more than doubled and
extensions of service for
high performing volunteers have been encouraged. A pilot program to
utilize others besides
former volunteers for short-term, highly technical service is being developed.
Volunteer recruitment. To meet the strategy’s callunderway.
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Volunteer recruitment. As part of the strategy’s support for efforts to better meet developing country
country volunteer needs and attract the best volunteer candidates, the agency has sought to
improve its
recruitment and placement process and strengthen diversity outreach. A new online
application platform has been launched and a new medical review management system
established to facilitate medical clearance.
“Third goal.” The strategy called
“Third goal.” The strategy calls for efforts to more fully and effectively address the so-called
“third goal,” the legislative mandate that Peace Corps volunteers “help promote a better
understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans” (Peace Corps Act, P.L. 87-293, Sec. 2).
This objective has always received less attention and funding ($1.9 million of the $400 million
FY2010 budget) than the other two goals of assisting development and promoting understanding
of Americans to the people served, both aspects which focus on the agency’s work abroad. In
2010, the “third goal” was singled out as an area of emphasis by the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee in its report on
the Peace Corps Improvement and Expansion Act (S. 1382, and
incorporated into S. 2971), the committee arguing that the “third goal” as an
area that had not received enough
priority. “Third goal” activities include efforts by volunteers
and former volunteers, sometimes
forming country member groups, to convey their experiences
through blogs, public talks,
community service in the United States, and charitable fundraising.
Most prominent among Peace
Corpsagency-sponsored activities is the Paul D. Coverdell World Wise Schools
program, which connects
volunteers with school classrooms throughout the United States. The
assessment report
recommendations includeincluded increasing funding for these purposes; establishing
an intern program
that would place exceptional volunteers in international NGOs, business, and
U.S. agencies; and
developing an agency-wide strategy to achieve “third goal” objectives. Since
the report was
published, the agency has promoted the “third goal” through a campaign to
encourage greater
participation by volunteers and former volunteers. The Peace Corps invited all
U.S. graduate
schools to participate in the Paul Coverdell Fellows Program, through which the
schools offer
financial assistance to returned volunteers—in December 2010, nine new graduate
schools joined
the program. the program. However, third goal funding has not increased; it was estimated at
$1.8 million for FY2012.
Management and operations. In addition to policy decisions encompassed by the report, the
assessment callscalled for strengthening of Peace Corps management and operations. It recommendsrecommended
updating the agency’s strategic plan to include the new strategies in the assessment report and a
wide range of improvements to the planning and budgeting process, staffing, evaluation and
oversight, recruitment procedures, training, and provision of health care to volunteers. Since the
report was issued, a new monitoring and evaluation policy for the whole agency and an overseas
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staff orientation guide for host country national staff are being developed. Efforts are being made
has been
developed, including agency-wide standard indicators to allow reporting on common results
across projects and countries. Efforts are being made to build new partnerships with international
organizations, U.S. government agencies, and others.
In an effort to strengthen volunteer medical
care, new Regional Medical Officers were hired and a
Quality Improvement Council was
established. A number of changes have also been made to
safety and security operations
(discussed below).
Congressional reaction to the assessment report and strategy. In its report accompanying the
FY2011 State, Foreign Operations Appropriations (S.Rept. 111-237), the Senate Appropriations
Committee noted support for several of the assessment report’s recommendations, including
incorporating U.S. national interests and budget considerations into new criteria for volunteer
placement, focusing resources on key areas, and attracting a wider diversity of highly skilled
volunteers by establishing new technical programs through an expanded Peace Corps Response
Program. As noted above, S. 1426, the Foreign Relations Authorization, introduced on July 27,
2011, would require submission of a report detailing the progress of implementation of the
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assessment recommendations, including the impact of the portfolio review on planned
distribution of volunteers throughout the world.
Issues
Peace Corps Funding and Expansion
It is difficult to define a trend over the past decade in Peace Corps funding and volunteer
numbers. Despite a 2002 expansion initiative by President Bush to double its size to about 14,000
volunteers within five years, the Peace Corps saw only a 16% increase in end of fiscal year
volunteer numbers between 2002 and 2009. In early 2010, the Obama Administration proposed a
more modest objective of a 9,400-volunteer force by 2012 and 11,000 by 2016. Annual
incremental increases and a significant congressional bump-up in FY2010 funding helped lead to
an end of FY2010 volunteer level of 8,655, a 13% increase from the previous year, and the
highest level since 1970. At end of September 2011, volunteer numbers had reached 9,095.
Congress approved an FY2011 appropriation of $374.3 million for the Peace Corps, a 6% cut
from FY2010, and the FY2012 level is nearly unchanged from the previous year. Peace Corps
projections based on these recent funding levels suggest a decline in volunteer numbers to an
estimated 8,540 in FY2012 and 7,400 in FY2013. The FY2013 continuing resolution level equal
to the FY2012 level and the prospective sequester suggest that Peace Corps volunteer numbers
are not likely to rise for the foreseeable future.
Although there appears to be broad support for the agency, when considering funding increases,
Congress has had to weigh whether sufficient funds were available vis-à-vis other foreign aid
priorities to warrant appropriating the amounts sought by both Bush and Obama Administrations.
In addition, some Members have questioned the managerial capacity of the agency to implement
an expansion while maintaining an effective volunteer force.
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2013
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2012
Fiscal Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Request ($ mil)
275.0
317.0
359.0
401.0
345.0
336.7
333.5
343.5
373.4
446.2
439.6
374.5
Appropriation
($ mil)
278.7
295.1
309.3
317.4
319.9
319.6
330.8
340.0
400.0
374.3
375.0
—377.3a
Total
Volunteers
6,636
7,533
7,733
7,810
7,749
8,079
7,876
7,671
8,655
9,095
n/a
—
Sources: Peace Corps and CRS.
Notes: Figures reflect across-the-board rescissions and supplemental appropriations. Total volunteers are
number at end of the fiscal year.
Although there appears to be broad support for the agency, when considering funding increases,
Congress has had to weigh whether sufficient funds were available vis-à-vis other foreign aid
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priorities to warrant appropriating the amounts sought by both Bush and Obama Administrations.
In addition, some Members have questioned the managerial capacity of the agency to implement
an expansion while maintaining an effective volunteer force
a.
The FY2013 figure represents the continuing resolution level (H.J.Res. 117, P.L. 112-175), which expires on
March 27, 2013.
Volunteers, Programming, and Support
A continual concern for Congress over the years has been how the Peace Corps addresses the
make-up of the volunteer force, programming of volunteer projects assignments, and support of
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volunteers in implementing those projects. This concern is particularly acute in the context of
expansion efforts as it was used as an argument for not meeting the George W. Bush
Administration’s funding requests that would enable doubling the size of the agency. With this
concern in mind, the 2009 House Appropriations Committee report on the FY2010 State, Foreign
Operations appropriations (H.Rept. 111-187) asked the Peace Corps to review its management
practices in order to accommodate larger numbers of volunteers, and the Senate’s Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act of 2009 (S. 1382) similarly aimed to ensure that the Peace
Corps is prepared to deal with the whole range of management issues. As noted above, the
FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117, Division F) required the Peace Corps to
submit a report assessing its operational model and proposing a strategy for reform.
The Volunteer Force
The volunteer force is the Peace Corps. Aspects of its composition have been a focus of interest in
Congress over the years. In FY2011, 61% of volunteers were women, 20% were minorities, 93%
were single, and the average age was 28.3
In the past several years, Peace Corps made an objective of increasing the number of volunteers
aged 50 and older, which, some would argue, might lead to a more specialized work-experienced
volunteer force. However, the proportion of volunteers aged 50 or over appears to have changed
in a positive direction only slightly. In FY2010 and FY2011, only 7% of volunteers were 50 or
older, compared with 5% in FY2008 (the number of older applicants represented 7% of
applicants in FY2011).4
Volunteers work in a range of sectors—in FY2011, 40% in education, 23% in health and
HIV/AIDS, 12% in business development, 12% in the environment, 5% in youth, 4% in
agriculture, and 4% in other activities. According to the June 2010 assessment report, 85% of
volunteers were recent college graduates with little professional experience. The Peace Corps,
while adept at recruiting generalists and providing them with sufficient training to carry out
useful assignments in these fields, has not emphasized the provision of highly skilled
professionals, such as doctors, agronomists, or engineers, which, many argue, more accurately
reflects the current needs of developing countries and which the agency may be under greater
pressure to supply if it intends to expand volunteer numbers.5 Weighed against this view is the
belief that the Peace Corps is an agency of public diplomacy as much as it is a development
3
Peace Corps volunteers are 4% African American, 5% Asian American, and 7% Hispanic/Latino origin.
Peace Corps Fact Sheet, October 25, 2011 and Peace Corps communications with CRS.
5
In its Mexico program, launched in 2004, the Peace Corps has been able to provide more specialized technical
volunteers offering skills in water and environmental engineering.
4
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organization, and personal interaction and demonstration of U.S. values is as important as
providing specialized technical expertise.
As noted earlier, the assessment team has recommended that the Peace Corps accept the
demographic demographic
features that have long characterized the volunteer force and, while embracing the
use of
generalists, seek to strengthen their capabilities through better training and more focused
sector sector
activities. At the same time, the team has recommended continued efforts to utilize
experienced and
skilled volunteers through innovative approaches. In particular, it suggests that
suggested that the Peace Corps
Response Program be used as a platform for new, more flexible, programs that
may accommodate
different types of volunteers.
Such a program is in a pilot stage.
3
Peace Corps volunteers are 4% African American, 5% Asian American, and 7% Hispanic/Latino origin.
Peace Corps Fact Sheet, October 25, 2011 and Peace Corps communications with CRS.
5
In its Mexico program, launched in 2004, the Peace Corps has been able to provide more specialized technical
volunteers offering skills in water and environmental engineering.
4
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Whatever the skill sets and demographic characteristics sought by the agency, it is the recruitment
of volunteers with appropriate skills and willingness to live in unfamiliar and sometimes
uncomfortable conditions that is essential to the overall mission of the Peace Corps. A substantial
spike in applicants and those expressing interest in applying since September 11, 2001, has made
it easier for the Peace Corps to meet its recruitment goals. In FY2011, about 12,206 applied to be
volunteers, compared to 8,897 in FY2001, but a 10% decrease from FY2010.
Programming and Support
The Peace Corps has been criticized in the past for providing inadequate programming and
support of volunteers. This view was reflected in a 1990 Government Accountability Office
(GAO) investigation.6 It noted that some volunteers had little or nothing to do or had spent six or
more months developing their own assignments, without benefit of site visits by Peace Corps
staff. The GAO attributed the programming problem to a failure of planning, evaluation, and
monitoring systems. Since then, the Peace Corps has addressed these weaknesses with systematic
approaches to project development, annual project reviews, and increased opportunities for site
visits and volunteer feedback. While most volunteers do rate their overall experience highly,
volunteer anecdotal accounts suggesting poor programming and staff support still occur, and the
2010 the 2010
volunteer survey found that 21% and 27% of volunteers were dissatisfied with regard to
support support
received from Peace Corps staff in site selection and job assignment respectively, and recurrent
problems identified in Inspector General country program evaluations are site development,
volunteer training, and coordination with country ministries and project partners.7 One .7 One
sign of
volunteer dissatisfaction—the resignation rate—has improved in recent years, with 6.0%
resigning in FY2011 versus 9.8% in FY2001.8
The assessment report discusses but does not thoroughly explore causes of volunteer
dissatisfaction and resignation, noting that 97 recommendations to reduce it have been made in
previous studies since 1969, many of which have been adopted. It also does not address questions
regarding the quality of volunteer assignments. However, the report does offer possible avenues
that might help correct these concerns, such as improving volunteer and staff training, developing
initiatives to better utilize skilled and experienced volunteers, encouraging third-year extensions,
and strengthening program evaluation and oversight.
6
Peace Corps: Meeting the Challenges of the 1990s, May 1990, NSIAD-90-122
Peace Corps 2010 Annual Volunteer Survey, October 2010, p. 20.
8
“A resignation is a decision made by the volunteer and trainee who no longer wish to continue in the Peace Corps.”
Assessment Report, pp. 171-172.
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Safety and Security Issues
The safety and security of volunteers has long been a prime concern of the Peace Corps. Because
of where they live and work, Peace Corps volunteers appear to many Americans to be especially
vulnerable to crime. The threat of anti-American terrorism in the years following the terrorist
attacks on September 11, 2001, has increased that perception. Fears were further raised in 2003
when the Dayton (Ohio) Daily News ran a series of reports suggesting that the Peace Corps was
failing in its obligation to provide adequate security; a congressional hearing was held and
6
Peace Corps: Meeting the Challenges of the 1990s, May 1990, NSIAD-90-122
Peace Corps 2010 Annual Volunteer Survey, October 2010, p. 20; Peace Corps Office of Inspector General,
Recurring Issues: OIG Post Audits and Evaluations Fiscal Years 2009-2011, April 2012, p. 6.
8
“A resignation is a decision made by the volunteer and trainee who no longer wish to continue in the Peace Corps.”
Assessment Report, pp. 171-172.
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legislation was approved by the House (H.R. 4060, June 2004) that sought to address this
concern.9
In January 2010, the issue of safety and security received renewed public attention due to two
reports on the ABC television newsmagazine 20/20, one concerning the 2009 murder of volunteer
Kate Puzey in Benin and the other addressing the rape of volunteers. The stories catalogued
incidents illustrating failure of some Peace Corps staff to maintain whistleblower confidentiality,
inaction in response to volunteer reports of threatening behavior, a lack of compassion for victims
of crime, a tendency to blame the victim, and insensitivity to the parents of a crime victim. Since
the 20/20 reports and a House hearing on the subject held on May 11, 2011, more rape victims
have come forward with stories further suggesting disregard for the victims and a possible
institutional failure to offer adequate support. While expressing support for the Peace Corps
mission, First Response Action, an organization representing volunteer victims, sought stronger
actions to reduce assault incidents and better address the needs of victims where assaults occur. In
2011, several pieces of legislation were introduced in the House and Senate that sought to answer
this call. On November 21, 2011, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011
was signed into law (P.L. 112-57).
Peace Corps IG report. The concerns generated by the 20/20 reports and victims’ accusations
followed on the heels of a Peace Corps IG report on volunteer safety and security released in
April 2010.10 While noting that the Peace Corps had made significant changes in its safety and
security program since 2002 and “maintained a much larger safety and security workforce than
comparable international non-governmental organizations,” the IG “identified multiple areas
where Peace Corps needed to improve” (page i), mostly including a lack of effective processes,
standardized training, and skilled personnel to manage and implement discrete aspects of its
safety and security programs. Perhaps most troubling, the IG found numerous instances between
FY2004 and FY2009 of re-occurring evaluation findings, such as posts not thoroughly
completing housing/site inspections, volunteers engaged in unsafe behaviors, various cities where
volunteers were in locations considered unsafe, and inadequate emergency action plans,
suggesting problems in safety and security program compliance over the long-term.11
The IG report made 28 recommendations. Among these are that the Peace Corps Director should
establish clear lines of authority to ensure that the Office of Safety and Security can manage the
safety and security program; that the Director adequately track Safety and Security Officer
recommendations to make sure they are being met; that the chief compliance officer establish a
9
ACasualties of Peace,@ Dayton Daily News, October 26-November 1, 2003.
10
Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010.
11
Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010, page 17.
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process to identify re-occurring problems and take steps to address them; that the role, number,
and salaries for Safety and Security Coordinators be reviewed to ensure agency needs are met;
that the Office of Safety and Security develop and implement a training program for Officers and
Coordinators based on needed skills; that the Office of Safety and Security develop a
comprehensive plan that includes the agency’s safety and security strategy, risks, and policies to
mitigate those risks; and that volunteers be provided with a consolidated handbook on the basic
9
ACasualties of Peace,@ Dayton Daily News, October 26-November 1, 2003.
10
Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010.
11
Peace Corps, Office of the Inspector General, Final Audit Report: Peace Corps Volunteer Safety and Security
Program, IG-10-08-A, April 2010, page 17.
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principles of volunteer safety during the recruitment and staging process and be required to sign a
code of conduct on basic security principles before departure.12
On April 12, 2010, the Peace Corps Director responded to the IG recommendations, concurring
with 27 of the 28, and partially concurring with the remaining recommendation.13 The agency
reports that implementation of these recommendations is ongoing. Twenty-five recommendations
have been closed, and agency responses to the others had been submitted to the IG for review.
The remaining recommendation, regarding the need for formal documentation to clarify the roles
of the Department of State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security and Peace Corps, has resulted in a
draft memorandum of understanding (MOU), currently under review by the Department of State.
The Peace Corps response to the 20/20 stories and victims’ charges. Following the television
programs, the Peace Corps Director issued statements noting that the programs did not accurately
reflect Peace Corps policy and practice regarding the safety and security of volunteers. The Peace
Corps immediately issued a formal Commitment to Sexual Assault Victims, which included,
among other things, promises to treat victims of sexual assault with dignity and respect, to take
appropriate steps to provide for their safety, to support volunteers in their recovery, and to work
closely with them in decisions regarding continuation of service. The Director of the Peace Corps
also offered apologies to the family and friends of the murder victim if the agency could have
been more compassionate.14
In addition to noting its ongoing efforts to improve on its safety record and better serve
volunteers, the Peace Corps points out that volunteers themselves in their annual survey have
reported feeling “usually safe” or “very safe” where they live and where they work, respectively
87% and 91% in 2010.15 In 2011, the survey showed 97% and 98% felt “adequately safe,” “more
than adequately safe,” or “very safe” where they live and work, respectively.16
The Peace Corps asserts that its operating procedures in response to sexual assault and training
offered to volunteers have resulted in “a significant decline in the incidence of rape and major
sexual assault among Volunteers over the past 14 years.”1617 According to the Peace Corps, between
1997 and 2009 there was a 27% decline in the incidence of rape and attempted rape and a 34%
decline in the incidence of major sexual assault.1718
A statement issued by the Peace Corps claimed that there are procedures in place “to respond
quickly and compassionately to Volunteers.”19 Further, the Peace Corps has taken a number of
steps to improve its procedures in the months following the 20/20 reports. These are discussed
below.
12
Ibid., p. 49-51.
The Director only partially concurred with the recommendation regarding presentation of safety and security
information to volunteers at the staging (pre-departure) step, noting that security mitigation would be better conveyed
in-country as the information is post-specific.
14
Peace Corps Director Aaron S. Williams’ Response to ABC News’ 20/20, January 14, 2011 and January 27, 2011.
15
Peace Corps Statement Issued to ABC News’ 20/20, January 11, 2011.
16
Peace Corps Annual Volunteer Survey Results, October 2011, p. 27.
17
Peace Corps Fact Sheet: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response, January 2011.
1718
Peace Corps Director Aaron S. Williams’ Response to ABC World News, January 27, 2011.
13
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A statement issued by the Peace Corps claimed that there are procedures in place “to respond
quickly and compassionately to Volunteers.”18 Further, the Peace Corps has taken a number of
steps to improve its procedures in the months following the 20/20 reports. These are discussed
below.
19
Peace Corps Fact Sheet: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response, January 2011.
13
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PC processes to address safety and security. The Peace Corps has always had in place various
procedures and processes to address the issues of volunteer safety and security, but such efforts
have been particularly pronounced in the past decade. Following a 2002 Government
Accountability Office (GAO) finding that APeace Corps efforts to ensure effective implementation
of its safety and security policies have produced varying results,@ the Peace Corps launched
numerous initiatives—including establishment of a stand alone Safety and Security Office to
direct and oversee all security programs, deployment of U.S. direct hire field-based safety and
security officers and local hire safety and security personnel, and appointment at headquarters of
regional desk officers and a chief compliance officer to monitor compliance with new security
rules and procedures.1920 Nonetheless, GAO reported on March 24, 2004, that some “unevenness”
in compliance with procedures mandated by headquarters likely remained.2021
Peace Corps has taken additional steps to improve safety and security, most notably, in 2008,
establishing a Sexual Assault Working Group to examine risk factors, analyze training, and adopt
best practices to reduce risk and address victims’ needs. In late 2010, the agency approved
establishment of a victim’s advocate position in response to suggestions from returned volunteers.
The advocate supports volunteer victims of crime, from the crime through post-Peace Corps
service, including helping them sort through the red tape to receive post-service health benefits.
In February 2011, the Office of Safety and Security issued a document on Guidelines for
Responding to Rape and Major Sexual Assault that captures the policies and procedures in place
to assist and respond to volunteer rape or major sexual assault. Peace Corps staff are expected to
serve as advocates for the volunteer and ensure “that what happens next is in the Volunteer’s best
interest.”2122 This includes ensuring a safe environment and emotional stability, providing medical
care and counseling, and helping preserve a volunteer’s right to prosecute.
Political instability and terrorism. The Peace Corps has been particularly concerned in recent
years with threats of terrorism and civil strife and has responded by upgrading communications,
testing emergency action plans, and other security measures. The Peace Corps addresses these
larger security concerns, including natural disasters or civil unrest, through country-specific
Emergency Action Plans (EAP) that are to be in place in each Peace Corps country. The plan, to
be tested and revised annually, defines roles and responsibilities for staff and volunteers, explains
standard policies and procedures, and lists emergency contact information for every volunteer in
country. Evacuations and closure of missions to insure the well-being of volunteers in cases of
political instability and civil unrest have constrained the growth of the Peace Corps. In the past 10
years, volunteers have been evacuated from at least 27 countries for these reasons, including three
18
Peace Corps Fact Sheet: Sexual Assault Prevention and Response, January 2011.
19attributed to the events of September 11—Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic
(they have since returned to the latter two countries). In April 2012, volunteers were withdrawn
from Mali and the program suspended in response to the political and security crisis in that
country.
20
Government Accountability Office, Peace Corps: Initiatives for Addressing Safety and Security Challenges Hold
Promise, but Progress Should be Assessed, GAO-02-818, July 2002, p. 2.
2021
Testimony of Jess T. Ford, Director, International Affairs and Trade, General Accounting Office, before the
Committee on International Relations, Peace Corps: Status of Initiatives to Improve Volunteer Safety and Security,
GAO-04-600T, March 24, 2004.
2122
Peace Corps, Office of Safety and Security, Guidelines for Responding to Rape and Major Sexual Assault, February
2011, p.12.
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attributed to the events of September 11—Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic
(they have since returned to the latter two countries).
In a possibly related development, however, the Peace Corps suspended its 117 volunteer
program in Kazakhstan in mid-November 2011 “based on a number of operational
considerations,” according to an agency press release. Volunteer reports suggest that recent rapes
and rapes and
terrorist attacks may be the specific cause.2223 Due to concerns regarding the prevalence of
drug drug
and organized crime-related violence in Central America, the Peace Corps announced in
December 2011 that it would send no new volunteers to Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador
while it conducted a review of its operations and the security environment in those locations. In
the case of Honduras, currently serving volunteers were withdrawn on administrative leave and
completed service while the review was ongoing. The review was completed in February 2012,
and a decision on the future of the Honduras program is pending. Volunteers in Guatemala and El
the program in Honduras was formally suspended in September 2012. Volunteers in
Guatemala and El Salvador are continuing to serve, and the Peace Corps will resume sending new
volunteers to
those countries in 2013. To address safety concerns in Guatemala and El Salvador, volunteer
volunteer operations are being consolidated in safer geographical areas, alternative volunteer transportation
transportation is being devised, and training and support is being enhanced.
Despite the appeal of using Peace Corps volunteers to convey U.S. culture and values directly to
the grassroots of Islamic countries, many of these countries of U.S. foreign policy interest might
be considered unsafe for Americans over the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, it should be noted
that, according to the Peace Corps, about 25% of all volunteers, at this time, are serving in 16
countries with
Muslim populations of over 40%. In FY2010, the Peace Corps launched a program
in Indonesia,
the most populous Muslim country in the world. In general, the Peace Corps has
argued that the
close interpersonal relationship between volunteers and members of their host
country country
community helps to make them safe.
Legislative Proposals on Safety and Security
Congress responded to the safety and security issue by holding a House Foreign Affairs
Committee hearing on May 11, 2011; a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on October
6, 2011; and by introducing several pieces of legislation amending the Peace Corps Act, most
notably S. 1280, the Kate Puzey Peace Corps Volunteer Protection Act of 2011, reported on
September 21, 2011, by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee (S.Rept. 112-82), approved by
the Senate on
September 26, 2011, and by the House on November 1, 2011, and signed into law
on November
21, 2011, as P.L. 112-57.
In addition, Congress considered a companion bill to S. 1280, H.R. 2337, ordered reported by the
House Foreign Affairs Committee on September 21, 2011; Title X of H.R. 2583, the Foreign
Relations Authorization for FY2012, reported on July 21, 2011, by the House Foreign Affairs
Committee; and H.R. 2699, the Peace Corps Volunteer Service Improvement Act of 2011,
reported by the House Foreign Affairs Committee on September 21, 2011.
S. 1280, as approved by Congress and signed into law, pulls together most of the language on
safety and security issues as is contained in these other bills. It specifies that volunteers receive
sexual assault risk reduction and response training, including training tailored to the country of
service covering safety plans in the event of an assault, medical treatments available, medevac
22
See Peace Corps OnLine, November 18, 2011, at http://peacecorpsonline.org/.
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procedures, and information on the legal process for pressing charges. Peace Corps applicants are
to be provided with a historical analysis of crimes and risks in the proposed country of service.
Trainees will be provided with contact information of the Inspector General for purposes of
23
See Peace Corps OnLine, November 18, 2011, at http://peacecorpsonline.org/.
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reporting violations of the sexual assault protocol and of the victims advocate. The bill requires
that sexual assault protocols and guidelines be developed by the Peace Corps director and training
provided to staff regarding implementation of the protocol. Volunteers can request removal from a
site, which would then be evaluated for its safety. Sexual response teams are established to
respond to reports of sexual assault by volunteers. Alternative reporting systems are established
that allow volunteer anonymity. A victims advocate position is established to assist sexually
assaulted volunteers and facilitate access to available services. A Sexual Assault Advisory
Council is established composed of returned volunteers and experts on sexual assault to review
training and policy to ensure they conform to best practices. An annual survey is to be conducted
regarding the effectiveness of Peace Corps programs and safety. A process is established to allow
reports of incidents while protecting the confidentiality of volunteers. It is required that the Peace
Corps and State Department Bureau of Diplomatic Security agree to a memorandum of
understanding on the duties and obligations of each with respect to protection of Peace Corps
volunteers and staff. And, a report on safety and security is to be submitted annually to Congress.
Author Contact Information
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
ctarnoff@crs.loc.gov, 7-7656
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