Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview

Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Jessica Tollestrup Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process February 24April 20, 2011 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov RS20348 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Summary The Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. 1341-1342, 1511-1519) generally bars agencies from continued operation the obligation of funds in the absence of appropriations. Exceptions are made under the act, including for activities involving “the safety of human life or the protection of property.” The interval during the fiscal year when agency appropriationsappropriations for a particular project or activity are not enacted into law, either in the form of a regular appropriations act or a continuing resolution (CR), is referred to as a funding gap. Although funding gaps may occur at the start of the fiscal year, they also may occur any time a CR expires and another CR (or the regular appropriations bill) is not enacted immediately thereafter. Multiple funding gaps may occur within a fiscal year. When a funding gap occurs, the federal government beginsfederal agencies begin a shutdown of the affected agencies, entailingprojects and activities, which includes the prompt furlough of non-excepted personnel and curtailment of agency activities. The . The general practice of the federal government after the shutdown has ended has been to pay furloughed employees for time missed, even when no work was performed. During the 34-year period covering FY1977-FY2010Although a shutdown may be the result of a funding gap, the two events should be distinguished. This is because a funding gap may result in a total shutdown of all affected projects or activities in some instances, but not others. For example, when funding gaps are of a short duration, agencies may not have enough time to complete a shutdown of affected projects and activities before funding is restored. In addition, the Office of Management and Budget has previously indicated that a shutdown of agency operations within the first day of the funding gap may be postponed if a resolution appears to be imminent. During the 35 fiscal years between FY1977-FY2011, 17 funding gaps occurred, ranging in duration from one day to 21 full days. About half of these funding gaps were brief (i.e., three days or less in duration). Of these, most occurred over a weekend, and the disruption in federal operations was minimal. Almost all of the funding gaps occurred during the first half of the 34-35 fiscal year period between FY1977 and FY2010FY2011. During the 16-18 fiscal year period covering FY1977-FY1992FY1994, 15 funding gaps gaps occurred. However, only two funding gaps occurred during the remaining 1817 years, covering FY1993-FY2010FY2011. The most controversial funding gaps since FY1977 occurred in late 1995 and early 1996, when President Bill Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress engaged in difficult and protracted negotiations over budget policy, resulting in the veto of a continuing resolution and several regular appropriations acts for FY1996. Two funding gaps, amounting to five days and 21 days, ensued leading to the initial furlough of about 800,000 federal employees. As of the end of the 2010 calendar yeardate of this report, there have been no funding gaps since the two that occurred during FY1996. This report will be updated as events warrant. Congressional Research Service Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Contents Background ................................................................................................................................1 Funding Gaps: FY1977-FY2010FY2011 .................................................................................................2 Tables Table 1. Appropriations Funding Gaps: FY1977-FY2010FY2011 ............................................................43 Contacts Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................56 Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................56 Congressional Research Service Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Background The routine activities of most federal agencies are funded annually by one or more of the regular appropriations acts. When action on the regular appropriations acts is delayed, a continuing appropriations act, also sometimes referred to as a continuing resolution or CR, is used to provide interim fundingbudget authority. Measures providing continuing appropriations usually take the form of a joint resolution, (rather than a bill) and are referred to as continuing resolutions (or CRs).. 1 During the 5960-fiscal-year period covering FY1952-FY2010FY2011, all of the regular appropriations acts were were enacted on time in only four instances (FY1977, FY1989, FY1995, and FY1997). No continuing resolutions CRs were enacted for three of these fiscal years, but continuing resolutionsCRs were enacted for FY1977 to fund certain unauthorized programs whose funding had been dropped from the regular appropriations acts.2 Further, no continuing resolutionsCRs were enacted for FY1953, even though all but one of the regular appropriations were enacted late. 3 The Antideficiency Act (31 U.S.C. 1341-1342, 1511-1519) generally bars agencies from continued operationthe obligation or expenditure of federal funds in the absence of appropriations.4 Exceptions are made under the act, including for activities involving “the safety of human life or the protection of property.”5 The interval during the fiscal year when agency appropriations are not appropriations for a particular project or activity are not enacted into law, either in the form of a regular appropriations act or a CR, is referred to as a funding gap.6 Although funding gaps may occur at the start of the fiscal year, they also may occur any time a CR expires, and another CR (or the relevant regular appropriations bill) is not enacted immediately thereafter. Multiple funding gaps may occur within a fiscal year. In 1980 and 1981, Attorney General Benjamin Civiletti issued opinions clarifying the need for the federal agenciesgovernment to begin terminating regular activities immediately upon the occurrence of a funding gap.7 Consequently, when a funding gap occurs, the federal government begins a federal agencies begin a shutdown of the affected agencies. A shutdown entails projects and activities, which includes the prompt furlough of non-excepted personnel and curtailment of agency activities, including the provision of many services to the personnel. The 1 For a discussion of continuing resolutions generally, see CRS Report RL30343, Continuing Resolutions: Latest Action and Brief Overview of Recent Practices, by Sandy Streeter. 2 P.L. 94-473 made continuing appropriations through March 31, 1977. P.L. 95-16 extended the date of the budget authority contained within P.L. 94-473 through April 30, 1977. 3 Section 1414 of P.L. 82-547 (66 Stat. 661) made regular appropriations enacted late available as of July 1, 1952 (the first day of FY1953) and ratified any obligations incurred before their enactment. 4 The Antideficiency Act is discussed in CRS Report RL30795, General Management Laws: A Compendium, by Clinton T. Brass et al. In addition, the Government Accountability Office provides information about the act online at http://www.gao.gov/ada/antideficiency.htm. 5 See 31 U.S.C. §1342. 6 In most cases, funding provided in regular appropriations acts is available to be obligated only in a single fiscal year, so that in the event that no subsequent budget authority is provided, agencies may not enter into further obligations. In these instances, budget authority that had previously been enacted and available for obligation for longer periods (e.g., multi-year or “no-year” appropriations) would generally remain available. For further information on multi-year and no-year appropriations, see CRS Report RS20441, Advance Appropriations, Forward Funding, and Advance Funding, by Sandy Streeter. 7 The text of the opinions is included in AppendixTable 1 IV and Appendix VIII to then General Accounting Office (now Government Accountability Office) report PAD-81-31, Funding Gaps Jeopardize Federal Government Operations, March 3, 1981. Congressional Research Service 1 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview public. The general practice of the federal government after the shutdown has ended has been to pay furloughed employees for time missed, even when no work was performed. 8 To avoid funding gaps and their unwanted consequences, proposals have been offered from time to time to establish an “automatic continuing resolution” (ACR) that would provide a fallback source of funding for activities, at a restricted level, in the event the timely enactment of appropriations is disrupted.9 pay furloughed employees for time missed, even when no work was performed. 8 Although a shutdown may be the result of a funding gap, the two events should be distinguished. This is because a funding gap may result in a total shutdown of all affected projects or activities in some instances, but not in others. For example, when a funding gap is of a short duration, agencies may not have enough time to complete a shutdown of affected projects and activities before funding is restored. In addition, the Office of Management and Budget has previously indicated that a shutdown of agency operations within the first day of a funding gap may be postponed if it appears that an additional CR or regular appropriations is likely to be enacted that same day.9 To avoid funding gaps and their unwanted consequences, proposals have previously been offered to establish an “automatic continuing resolution” (ACR) that would provide a fallback source of funding for activities, at a specified formula or level, in the event the timely enactment of appropriations is disrupted.10 The funding would become available automatically and remain available as long as needed so that a funding gap would not occur and the furlough of federal employees would be avoided (or at least severely limited). Although the House and Senate have considered ACR proposals in the past, none have been enacted into law. Funding Gaps: FY1977-FY2010 As Table 1 showsFY2011 As illustrated in Table 1, there were 17 funding gaps during the 3435-fiscal-year period beginning with FY197710 with FY197711 and continuing through FY2010FY2011. The enactment of a CR on the day after the budget authority in the previous previous CR expired, which has occurred often, is not counted as involving a funding gap. During the past 11 12 fiscal years (covering FY2000-FY2010FY2011), for example, “next-day” CRs were enacted 1417 times. Almost all of the funding gaps occurred during the first half of the 3435-fiscal-year period. During the 16year the 18-fiscal-year period covering FY1977-FY1992FY1994, 15 funding gaps occurred. However, only two funding gaps occurred during the remaining 1817 fiscal years, covering FY1993-FY2010FY1995-FY2011. Multiple funding gaps during a single fiscal year occurred in four instances: (1) three gaps covering a total of 28 days in FY1978; (2) two gaps covering a total of four days in FY1983; (3) two gaps covering a total of three days in FY1985; and (4) two gaps covering a total of 26 days in FY1996. FY1996. 8 For a discussion of federal government shutdowns, see CRS Report RL34680, Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects, by Clinton T. Brass. 9 See, for example, Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, “Planning for Agency Operations During a Lapse in Government Funding,” memorandum from Jacob J. Lew, director of Office of Management and Budget, M-11-13, April 7, 2011, p. 3 and Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, “Anticipated Enactment of a Continuing Resolution,” memorandum from Jacob J. Lew, director of Office of Management and Budget, M-11-14, April 8, 2011. 10 For more information on this topic, see CRS Report RL30339, Preventing Federal Government Shutdowns: Proposals for an Automatic Continuing Resolution, by Robert Keith. 11 FY1977 marked the first full implementation of the congressional budget process established by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, which moved the beginning of the fiscal year to October 1. Congressional Research Service 2 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Table 1. Appropriations Funding Gaps: FY1977-FY2011 Fiscal Year Final Date of Budget Authoritya Full Day(s) of Gapsb Date Gap Terminatedc 1977 Thursday, 09/30/76 10 Monday, 10/11/76 Friday, 09/30/77 12 Thursday, 10/13/77 Monday, 10/31/77 8 Wednesday, 11/09/77 Wednesday, 11/30/77 8 Friday, 12/09/77 1979 Saturday, 09/30/78 17 Wednesday, 10/18/78 1980 Sunday, 09/30/79 11 Friday, 10/12/79 1981 — — — 1982 Friday, 11/20/81 2 Monday, 11/23/81 Thursday, 09/30/82 1 Saturday, 10/02/82 Friday, 12/17/82 3 Tuesday, 12/21/82 Thursday, 11/10/83 3 Monday, 11/14/83 Sunday, 09/30/84 2 Wednesday, 10/03/84 Wednesday, 10/03/84 1 Friday, 10/05/84 1986 — — — 1987 Thursday, 10/16/86 1 Saturday, 10/18/86 1988 Friday, 12/18/87 1 Sunday, 12/20/87 1989 — — — 1990 — — — 1991 Friday, 10/05/90 3 Tuesday, 10/09/90 1992 — — — 1993 — — — 1994 — — — 1995 — — — Monday, 11/13/95 5 Sunday, 11/19/95 Friday, 12/15/95 21 Saturday, 01/06/96 1997 — — — 1998 — — — 1999 — — — 2000 — — — 2001 — — — 2002 — — — 2003 — — — 2004 — — — 2005 — — — 2006 — — — 1978 1983 1984 1985 1996 Congressional Research Service 3 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Fiscal Year 2007 Final Date of Budget Authoritya Full Day(s) of Gapsb Date Gap Terminatedc — — — — — — 2009 — — — 2010 — — — 2011 — — — 2008 Source: Compiled by CRS with data from the Legislative Information System of the U.S. Congress. a. Budget authority expired at the end of the date indicated. For example, for the first FY1996 funding gap, budget authority expired at the end of the day on Monday, November 13, 1995, and the funding gap of five full days commenced on Tuesday, November 14, 1995. The enactment of a CR on the day after the previous CR expired, which has occurred often, is not counted as involving a funding gap. b. Full days are counted as beginning after the final day on which budget authority was available, and ending the day before the gap terminated. For example, for the first FY1996 funding gap, the full days of the gap were from November 14, 1995, through November 18,1995, for a total of five full days. c. Gap terminated due to the enactment of a continuing resolution, or one or more regular appropriations acts. Six of the funding gaps commenced with the beginning of the fiscal year on October 1. The remaining 11 funding gaps occurred at least several days after the fiscal year had begun. Nine of the funding gaps ended in October, four ended in November, three ended in December, and one ended in January.1112 Funding gaps ranged in duration from one to 21 full days. Six of the seven lengthiest funding gaps, lasting between 8 and 17 days, occurred between FY1977 and FY1980, before the Civiletti opinions were issued. After the issuance of these opinions, the duration of funding gaps in general shortened considerably, typically ranging from one to three days. Of these, most occurred over a weekend and the disruption in federal operations was minimal. An important exception to this trend was in late 1995 and early 1996, during the two most recent funding gaps that occurred between November 13-19, 1995, and December 15, 1995, through 8 For a discussion of federal government shutdowns, see CRS Report RL34680, Shutdown of the Federal Government: Causes, Processes, and Effects, by Clinton T. Brass. 9 For more information on this topic, see CRS Report RL30339, Preventing Federal Government Shutdowns: Proposals for an Automatic Continuing Resolution, by Robert Keith. 10 FY1977 marked the first full implementation of the congressional budget process established by the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, which moved the beginning of the fiscal year to October 1. 11 The enactment of a series of continuing resolutions for a fiscal year is discussed in CRS Report RL32614, Duration of Continuing Resolutions in Recent Years, by Jessica Tollestrup. Congressional Research Service 2 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview January 6, 1996. In the lead-up to the first funding gap, only three out of the 13 yearly appropriations acts had been signed into law12 and budget authority, which had been provided by a CR13 since the start of the fiscal year, expired at the end of the day on November 12. On November 13, President Clinton vetoed a CR14 that would have extended budget authority through December 1, 1995, because of the Medicare premium increases contained within the measure.15 The ensuing funding gap resulted in the furlough of around 800,000 federal workers. After five days, a deal was reached to end the shutdown and extend funding via a CR through December 15. 16January 6, 1996. In the lead-up to the first funding gap, only three out of the 13 yearly appropriations acts had been signed into law13 and budget authority, which had been provided by 12 The enactment of a series of continuing resolutions for a fiscal year is discussed in CRS Report RL32614, Duration of Continuing Resolutions in Recent Years, by Jessica Tollestrup. 13 The Military Construction Appropriations Act, H.R. 1817 (P.L. 104-32), was enacted on October 3, 1995. The Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 1976 (P.L. 104-37), was enacted on October 21, 1995. The Energy and Water Development Appropriations Act, H.R. 1905 (P.L. 104-46), was enacted on November 13, 1995. The Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, H.R. 1854 (104th Cong.) was vetoed on October 12, 1995. As of the end of the day on November 13, 1995, the ten regular appropriations bills that had yet to be enacted were the (1) Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, (2) Treasury, Postal Service, and General Government Appropriations Act, (3) Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, (4) Department of Defense Appropriations Act, (5) Department of Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, (6) Department of Veterans Affairs and Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Act, (7) Department of Commerce and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, (8) Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, (9) Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, and (10) District of Columbia Appropriations Act. Congressional Research Service 4 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview a CR14 since the start of the fiscal year, expired at the end of the day on November 13. On this same day, President Clinton vetoed a CR15 that would have extended budget authority through December 1, 1995, because of the Medicare premium increases contained within the measure.16 The ensuing funding gap resulted in the furlough of an estimated 800,000 federal workers. After five days, a deal was reached to end the shutdown and extend funding via two CRs through December 15.17 Agencies that had been zeroed out in pending appropriations bills were funded at a rate of 75% of FY1995 budget authority. All other agencies were funded at the lower of the House- or Senate-passed level of funding contained in the FY1996 full-year appropriations bills. The CR additionally contained an agreement between President Clinton and Congress regarding future negotiations to lower the budget deficit within seven years.1718 During the first and prior to the second FY1996 funding gapsgap, an additional four annual appropriations appropriations measures were enacted, and three others were vetoed.18 19 The negotiations on the six remaining remaining bills were unsuccessful before the budget authority contained within the CR expired at the end of the day on December 15, 1995.20 Roughly 280,000 executive branch employees were furloughed furloughed during the funding gap between December 15, 1995, and January 6, 1996, government government contractors were reportedly laid off, and the delivery of government services to the public was delayed. 1921 A CR to provide benefits for veterans and welfare recipients and to keep the District of Columbia government operating was passed and signed into law on December 22, 1995. 20 The 12 The Military Construction Appropriations Act, H.R. 1817 (P.L. 104-32), was enacted on October 3, 1995. The Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 1976 (P.L. 104-37), was enacted on October 21, 1995. The Energy and Water Development Appropriations Act, H.R. 1905 (P.L. 104-46), was enacted on November 13, 1995. The Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, H.R. 1854 (104th Cong.) was vetoed on October 12, 1995. 13 H.J.Res. 108 (P.L. 104-31). 14 H.J.Res. 115 (1044th Cong.). 15 1995.22 The shutdown officially ended on January 6, 1996, when the first of a series of CRs to reopen federal government and provide budget authority through January 26, 1996,23 was enacted.24 14 H.J.Res. 108 (P.L. 104-31). H.J.Res. 115 (1044th Cong.). 16 Message to the House of Representatives Returning Without Approval Continuing Resolution Legislation,” November 13, 1995, William J. Clinton, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States, 1995, Book 2, July 1 to December 31, 1995, p. 1755. See also “Clinton Vetoes Stopgap Bill to Keep Federal Government Open,” CQ Today, November 14, 1995. 16 H.J.Res17 H.J.Res. 123 (P.L. 104-54), H.J.Res. 122 (P.L. 104-56). 1718 For a summary of the first FY1996 funding gap and government shutdown, see “Overview: Government Shuts Down Twice Due to Lack of Funding,” Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 104th Cong., 1st sess. (1995), vol. LI, pp. 11-3 through 11-6; “Special Report – Budget Showdown: Day by Day,” CQ Weekly, November 18, 1995. 1819 The Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 2002 (P.L. 104-50), was enacted on November 15, 1995. The Treasury, Postal Service, and General Government Appropriations Act, H.R. 2020 (P.L. 104-52), was enacted on November 19, 1995. The Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, H.R. 2492 (P.L. 104-53) was enacted on November 19, 1995. The Department of Defense Appropriations Act, H.R. 2126 (P.L. 104-61), was enacted on December 1, 1995. The Department of Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 1977 (104th Cong.), was vetoed on December 18, 1995. The Department of Veterans Affairs and Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 2099 (104th Cong.), was vetoed on December 18, 1995. The Department of Commerce and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, H.R. 2076 (104th Cong.), was vetoed on December 19, 1995. 1920 As of the end of the day on December 15, 1995, the six regular appropriations bills that had yet to be enacted were the (1) Department of Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, (2) Department of Veterans Affairs and Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Act, (3) Department of Commerce and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, (4) Foreign Operations, Export Financing, and Related Programs Appropriations Act, (5) Departments of Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, and (6) District of Columbia Appropriations Act. 21 For further information on the effects of the second FY1996 funding gap, see Dan Moran and Stephen Barr, “When Shutdown Hit Home Ports, GOP Cutters Trimmed Their Sails,” Washington Post, January 8, 1996. 20 H.J.Res. 136 (P.L. 104-69). Congressional Research Service 3 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview shutdown officially ended on January 6, 1996, when the first of a series of CRs to reopen federal government and provide budget authority through January 26, 1996,21 was enacted.22 As of the end of the 2010 calendar year22 H.J.Res. 136 (P.L. 104-69). 23 H.J.Res. 134 (P.L. 104-94). H.R. 1358 (P.L. 104-91) and H.R. 1643 (P.L. 104-92) were also enacted on January 6. (continued...) 15 Congressional Research Service 5 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview As of the date of this report, there have been no funding gaps since the two that occurred during FY1996. Table 1. Appropriations Funding Gaps: FY1977-FY2010 Fiscal Year Date Gap Commenceda Full Day(s) of Gaps 1977 Thursday, 09-30-76 10 Monday, 10-11-76 Friday, 09-30-77 12 Thursday, 10-13-77 Monday, 10-31-77 8 Wednesday, 11-09-77 Wednesday, 11-30-77 8 Friday, 12-09-77 1979 Saturday, 09-30-78 17 Wednesday, 10-18-78 1980 Sunday, 09-30-79 11 Friday, 10-12-79 1981 — — — 1982 Friday, 11-20-81 2 Monday, 11-23-81 Thursday, 09-30-82 1 Saturday, 10-02-82 Friday, 12-17-82 3 Tuesday, 12-21-82 1984 Thursday, 11-10-83 3 Monday, 11-14-83 1985 Sunday, 09-30-84 2 Wednesday, 10-03-84 Wednesday, 10-03-84 1 Friday, 10-05-84 1986 — — — 1987 Thursday, 10-16-86 1 Saturday, 10-18-86 1988 Friday, 12-18-87 1 Sunday, 12-20-87 1989 — — — 1990 — — — 1991 Friday, 10-05-90 3 Tuesday, 10-09-90 1992 — — — 1993 — — — 1994 — — — 1995 — — — Monday, 11-13-95 5 Sunday, 11-19-95 Friday, 12-15-95 21 Saturday, 01-06-96 1978 1983 1996 Date Gap Terminatedb 21 H.J.Res. 134 (P.L. 104-94). H.R. 1358 (P.L. 104-91) and H.R. 1643 (P.L. 104-92) were also enacted on January 6. FY1996. Author Contact Information Jessica Tollestrup Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process jtollestrup@crs.loc.gov, 7-0941 Acknowledgments The original version of this report was written by Robert Keith, formerly a Specialist in American National Government at CRS. The listed author has revised and updated this report and is available to respond to inquiries on the subject. (...continued) These two CRs provided budget authority for some federal government activities until the end of FY1996. 2224 For a summary of the second FY1996 funding gap and government shutdown, see “Overview: Government Shuts down Twice Due to Lack of Funding,” Congressional Quarterly Almanac, 104th Cong., 1st sess. (1995), vol. LI, pp. 113 through 11-6; “Funding Expires Again in Budget Stalemate.” CQ Weekly, December 23, 1995; “Congress Clears Bills to Reopen Government,” CQ Today, January 8, 1996. Congressional Research Service 4 Federal Funding Gaps: A Brief Overview Fiscal Year Date Gap Commenceda Full Day(s) of Gaps Date Gap Terminatedb 1997 — — — 1998 — — — 1999 — — — 2000 — — — 2001 — — — 2002 — — — 2003 — — — 2004 — — — 2005 — — — 2006 — — — 2007 — — — 2008 — — — 2009 — — — 2010 — — — Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service. a. Gap commenced at midnight of the date indicated. The enactment of a CR on the day after the previous CR expired, which has occurred often, is not counted as involving a funding gap. b. Gap terminated due to the enactment of a continuing resolution or one or more regular appropriations acts. Author Contact Information Jessica Tollestrup Analyst on Congress and the Legislative Process jtollestrup@crs.loc.gov, 7-0941 Acknowledgments The original version of this report was written by Robert Keith, formerly a Specialist in American National Government at CRS. The listed author has revised and updated this report and is available to respond to inquiries on the subject. Congressional Research Service 56