Gangs in Central America

Gangs in Central America Clare Ribando Seelke Specialist in Latin American Affairs January 3, 2011November 26, 2012 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov RL34112 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Gangs in Central America Summary Congress has maintained an interest in the effects of gang violence in Central America, and on the expanding activities of transnational gangs with ties to that region operating in the United States. The violent Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and its main rival, the “18th Street” gang (also known as M-18) continue to threaten citizen security and challenge government authority in Central America. Gang-related violence has been particularly acute in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, which have among the highest homicide rates in the world. In recent years, governments in those countries appeared to move away, at least on a rhetorical level, from repressive anti-gang strategies. However, continuing gang-related violence prompted El Salvador to adopt tough new legislation on gangs in September 2010. Guatemala may follow suit. U.S. officials have expressed concerns about the expanding presence of the MS-13 and M-18 in cities across the United States, as well as reports that these gangs may be evolving into more sophisticated transnational criminal enterprises. Between February 2005 and October 2010, U.S. officials arrested some 3,332 alleged MS-13 members in cities across the United States, many of whom were subsequently deported. Evidence suggests, however, that previously deported members of both the MS-13 and the M-18 often reenter the United States illegally. Several U.S. agencies have been actively engaged on both the law enforcement and preventive side of dealing with Central American gangs. An inter-agency committee worked together to develop a U.S. Strategy to Combat Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico, first announced at a July 2007 U.S.-Central American Integration System (SICA) summit on security issues. The strategy, which is now being implemented, states that the U.S. government will pursue coordinated anti-gang activities through five broad areas: diplomacy, repatriation, law enforcement, capacity enhancement, and prevention. An April 2010 study by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) recommended that U.S. federal agencies consider strengthening the aforementioned anti-gang strategy by developing better oversight and measurement tools to guide its implementation. In recent years, Congress has increased funding to support anti-gang efforts in Central America. Between FY2008 and FY2010, Congress appropriated roughly $21Since FY2008, Congress has appropriated significant amounts of funding for anti-gang efforts in Central America, as well as domestic anti-gang programs. Two recent developments may affect congressional interest in Central American gangs: a truce between rival gangs has dramatically lowered violence in El Salvador and the U.S. Treasury Department has designated the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) as a significant transnational criminal organization (TCO). MS-13 and its main rival, the “18th Street” gang (also known as M-18) continue to threaten citizen security and challenge government authority in Central America. Gang-related violence has been particularly acute in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, which have among the highest homicide rates in the world. In recent years, some governments have moved away, at least on a rhetorical level, from repressive anti-gang strategies, with the government of El Salvador now facilitating a historic—and risky—truce involving the country’s largest gangs. The truce has resulted in a dramatic reduction in homicides since March 2012, but carries risks for the Salvadoran government such as what might happen if the gangs were to walk away from the truce and emerge stronger as a result of months of less-stringent prison conditions. U.S. agencies have been engaged on both the law enforcement and preventive sides of dealing with Central American gangs; an inter-agency committee developed a U.S. Strategy to Combat Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico that was first announced in July 2007. The strategy focuses on diplomacy, repatriation, law enforcement, capacity enhancement, and prevention. An April 2010 study by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) recommended that U.S. agencies consider strengthening the anti-gang strategy by developing better oversight and measurement tools to guide its implementation. U.S. law enforcement efforts may be bolstered by the Treasury Department’s October 2012 decision to designate and sanction MS-13 as a major TCO pursuant to Executive Order (E.O.) 13581. In recent years, Congress has increased funding to support anti-gang efforts in Central America. Between FY2008 and FY2012, Congress appropriated roughly $35 million in global International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE) funds for anti-gang efforts in Central America. Congress provided additional support in FY2008 and FY2009 for anti-gang efforts in the region through the Mérida Initiative, a counterdrug and anticrime program for Mexico and Central America. In the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117), Congress provided $83 million for combating gangs and drug trafficking under a new Central America, and, more recently, through the Central American Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), splitting Central America from the Mérida Initiative. The Obama Administration asked for $100 million for CARSI in its FY2011 budget request. In the absence of FY2011 appropriations legislation, Congress has passed a series of continuing resolutions (P.L. 111-242 as amended) to fund government programs, with the latest extension set to expire on March 4, 2011. The continuing resolution, as amended, continues funding most foreign aid programs at the FY2010-enacted level, with some exceptions Initiative (CARSI). Congressional oversight may focus on the efficacy of anti-gang efforts in Central America; the interaction between U.S. domestic and international anti-gang policies, and the impact of the Treasury Department’s TCO designation on law enforcement efforts against MS-13. This report describes the gang problem in Central America, discusses country and regional approaches to deal with the gangs, and analyzes U.S. policy with respect to gangs in Central America. Also see: CRS Report R41731, Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress, by Peter J. Meyer and Clare Ribando Seelke. Congressional Research Service Gangs in Central America Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................1 Background on Violent Crime.... 1 Scope of the Gang Problem in Central America .......................................................................2 Scope of the Gang Problem in Central America .............. 1 Defining Gangs ....................................................................3 Defining Gangs...................................................... 1 Gangs in Central America ...............................................................4 Transnational Gangs in Central America................................................................................4 2 Factors Exacerbating the Gang Problem in Central America ..................................................6.. 5 Poverty and a Lack of Educational and Employment Opportunities .................................6. 5 Societal Stigmas ...............................................................................................................7... 5 Role of the Media ................................................................................................................ 67 Anti-gang Law Enforcement Efforts ................................................................................7... 6 Prisons in Need of Reform ..............................................................................................8.... 6 U.S. Deportations to Central America and the Gang Problem ................................................8.. 7 Country Anti-Gang Efforts .............................................................................................................. 9 10 Mano Dura (Heavy-Handed) Anti-Gang Policies ..................................................................... 9 Military Involvement in Public Security 10 What Have Been the Effects of Mano Dura Policies? .......................................................... 11 Alternative Approaches ..................................... 10 Approaches in Other Central American Countries .................................................................. 11 Prospects for Country Prevention and Rehabilitation EffortsGang Truce in El Salvador ................................................ 12 Selected Regional and Multilateral Efforts...................................................... 11 Prospects for Country Prevention and Rehabilitation Efforts .......................................... 13 Central American Integration System (SICA) .............................. 13 U.S. Policy .................................. 13 Organization of American States (OAS) ........................................................................ 13 Inter-American Coalition for the Prevention of Violence (IACPV) ................................ 14 Multilateral Banks and U.N. Assistance. 14 Congressional Interest and Appropriations for Anti-Gang and Related Security Efforts in Central America........................................................................ 14 U.S. Policy.................................................... 14 Evolution of U.S. International Anti-Gang Efforts .................................................................. 15 State Department .................... 14 Congressional Interest and Appropriations for Anti-Gang Efforts......................................... 15 Evolution of U.S. International Anti-Gang Efforts ............................................................... 16 State Department 17 Department of Justice ........................................................................................................... 17 Department of Justice....................... 17 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) ............................................................................. 17 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE 18 U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) ....................................................... 18 U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) 18 U.S. Treasury Department ................................................... 18 Policy Approaches and Concerns.............................................. 19 Possible Questions for Oversight ........................................... 19 Tables Table 1. Estimated Homicide Rates Per 100,000 Inhabitants.........................................................2 Table 2 20 Figures Figure 1. Estimated Gang Membership in the Northern Triangle of Central America, 2012 .......... 3 Tables Table 1. U.S. Deportations to Top Receiving Countries: FY2008-FY2010 FY2009-FY2011....................................9. 8 Contacts Author Contact Information ........................................................................................................... 20 Congressional Research Service Gangs in Central America Introduction In recent years, analysts and U.S. officials have expressed ongoing concerns about the increasing rates of violent crimes committed by drug traffickers, organized criminal groups, and gangs in Central America.1 Central American governments, the media, and some analysts have attributed a significant proportion of violent crime in that region to youth gangs or maras, many of which have ties to the United States. U.S. concerns about gangs have accelerated as the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13), a particularly violent group with ties to Central America, has increased its presence and illicit activities in the United States.2 Policy-makers in countries throughout the region, including in the United States, are struggling to find the right mix of suppressive and preventive policies to confront the gang problem. Most agree that a comprehensive, regional approach to gangs is necessary to prevent further escalation of the problem. The 112th Congress is likely to maintain an interest in crime and gang violence in Central America, and inas well as the related activities of Central American gangs in the United States. In recent years, Congress has considered what level of U.S. assistance is most appropriate to help Central American American countries combat gang activity and what types of programs are most effective in that effort. Members of Congress have also taken an interest in the effectsimpact of U.S. deportations of individuals with criminal records to Central America on the gang problem, as well as the evolving relationship between Mexican drug trafficking organizations and the gangs. Congress has funded anti-gang efforts in Central America through global funds appropriated to the State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE), as well as through bilateral and regional programs (see “Congressional Interest and Appropriations for Anti-Gang Efforts”). In June 2008, Congress increased country and regional anti-gang assistance by approving initial funding for the Mérida Initiative, an anti-crime and counterdrug foreign aid package for Mexico and Central America.3 Congress appropriated additional Mérida funding in the FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8). Many Mérida-related programs in Central America are just getting underway after a number of implementation delays. 4 Beginning in the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111117), Congress separated Central America from the Merida Initiative and began funding a new Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI). The Obama Administration asked for $100 million for CARSI in its FY2011 budget request. In the absence of FY2011 appropriations legislation, Congress has passed a series of continuing resolutions (P.L. 111-242 as amended) to fund government programs, with the latest extension set to expire on March 4, 2011. The continuing resolution, as amended, continues funding most foreign aid programs at the FY2010enacted level, with some exceptions. 1 The Central American countries include Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. This report focuses on the “northern triangle” countries of Central America where the gang problem has been most acute, which include El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. It refers to the other countries and governments in the region periodically for comparative purposes. 2 U.S. Department of Justice, National Gang Intelligence Center, National Gang Threat Assessment (NGTA) 2009, January 2009. 3 For historical information on the Mérida Initiative, see CRS Report R40135, Mérida Initiative for Mexico and Central America: Funding and Policy Issues, by Clare Ribando Seelke. 4 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Mérida Initiative: The United States has Provided Counternarcotics and Anticrime Support, but Needs Better Performance Measures, 10-837, July 21, 2010, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10837.pdf. Congressional Research Service 1 Gangs in Central America individuals with criminal records to Central America on the gang problem, as well as the evolving relationship between Mexican drug trafficking organizations and the gangs. More recently, there has been congressional interest in the gang truce in El Salvador and the potential implications that its success or failure might have for anti-crime efforts in other countries. In the coming year, Congress may also examine how anti-gang efforts have been affected by the Treasury Department’s October 2012 decision to designate and sanction the MS-13 as a significant Transnational Criminal Organization (TCO).3 This report describes the gang problem in Central America, discusses country and regional approaches to deal with the gangs, and analyzes U.S. policy with respect to gangs in Central America. It concludes with a discussion of policy issues that members of Congress may consider as they exercise oversight over the implementation of the Mérida Initiative and CARSI, with a particular interest in how agencies are coordinating their various anti-gang efforts. Background on Violent Crime in Central America Latin America has among the highest homicide rates in the world, and in recent years homicide rates in several Central American countries have significantly exceeded the regional average (see Table 1). According to figures cited in a 2009 U.N. Development Program (UNDP) report, Latin America’s average homicide rate in 2005 stood at roughly 25 homicides per 100,000 people, almost three times the world average of 9 homicides per 100,000 people. 5 That same year, average homicide rates per 100,000 people in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras reached approximately 62, 44, and 37, respectively. Whereas homicide rates in Colombia, historically the most violent country in Latin America, have fallen in the past few years, homicide rates have remained at elevated levels in El Salvador, Guatemala, and, to a lesser extent, Belize. Homicide rates have increased significantly in Honduras. By 2008, the estimated murder rate per 100,000 people stood at roughly 32 in Belize, 52 in El Salvador, 48 in Guatemala, and 58 in Honduras. In Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Panama, the corresponding figures were 11, 13, and 11, respectively. 6 Homicide rates in the region have generally continued to trend upwards since 2008. Table 1. Estimated Homicide Rates Per 100,000 Inhabitants (2000-2008) Country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Belize 19 25 30 24 27 28 31 30 32 Costa Rica 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 11 El Salvador 45 40 39 40 49 62 65 57 52 Guatemala 28 30 32 37 38 44 47 45 48 Honduras n/a n/a 69 65 35 37 46 50 58 Nicaragua 9 10 10 12 12 13 13 13 13 Panama 10 10 12 11 10 11 11 13 19 Source: U.N. Development Program, Informe Sobre Desarrollo Humano Para América Central 2009-2010: Abrir Espacios a la Seguridad Ciudadana y el Desarrollo Humano, October 2009. Central America—particularly the “northern triangle” countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras—exhibits many risk factors that have been linked to high violent crime rates. For example, studies have shown that high levels of income inequality are often strong predictors of 5 U.N. Development Program (UNDP), Informe Sobre Desarrollo Humano Para América Central 2009-2010: Abrir Espacios a la Seguridad Ciudadana y el Desarrollo Humano, October 2009. This report also contains sections on other types of violent crime in Central America, including rape, kidnapping, assault, and domestic violence. 6 Ibid. Congressional Research Service 2 Gangs in Central America high violent crime rates.7 Latin America has been among the most unequal regions in terms of income and levels of social exclusion. The linkage between inequality and high crime rates holds true in Central America except for the case of El Salvador, a country with relatively low inequality but high crime rates.8 With the exceptions of Belize and Costa Rica, Central American countries have also had a long history of armed conflicts and/or dictatorships, which has inhibited the development of democratic institutions and respect for the rule of law. Protracted armed conflicts also resulted in the widespread proliferation of illicit firearms in the region, as well as a cultural tendency to resort to violence as a means of settling disputes.9 Other traits that make some Central American countries at risk for violent crime include highly urbanized populations, growing youth populations, and high unemployment rates. Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador, which have large percentages of their populations living in the United States, have reportedly suffered more from the negative effects of emigration (such as family disintegration and deportations) than other countries.10 According to the U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Central American countries are particularly susceptible to violent crime fueled by drug trafficking and corruption because they are geographically located between the world’s largest drug producing and drug consuming countries.11 Stepped up enforcement efforts in Mexico have reportedly led traffickers to use Central America, particularly Guatemala and Honduras, as a transshipment point for U.S.-bound Andean cocaine. According to 2008 estimates, 90% of all cocaine entering the United States flowed through Mexico or its territorial waters, with at least 42% of that cocaine having first stopped in Central America.12 Low criminal justice capacity, corruption, and an absence of political will to fight crime in a holistic manner have hindered countries’ abilities to respond to violent crime. These problems may be most pronounced in Guatemala, a country struggling, with U.N. assistance, to confront sophisticated organized criminal groups and drug traffickers that have been aligned with some of the country’s most powerful political, military, and business actors.13 Scope of the Gang Problem in Central America In recent years, Central American governments, the media, and some analysts have attributed, sometimes erroneously, a significant proportion of violent crime in the region to youth gangs or maras, many of which have ties to the United States. 7 Pablo Fajnzylber, Daniel Lederman, and Norman Loayza, "Inequality and Violent Crime," Journal of Law and Economics, August 2001. 8 UNDP, October 2009. 9 Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO), Armas Pequeñas y Livianas: Amenaza a la Seguridad Hemisférica, 2007. 10 UNDP, October 2009. 11 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Crime and Development in Central America: Caught in the Crossfire, May 2007. See also: Stephen S. Dudley, Drug Trafficking Organizations in Central America: Transportistas, Mexican Cartels, and Maras, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, May 2010. 12 U.S. Department of State, International Narcotics Control Strategy Report (INCSR), Vol. 1, March 2010. 13 Ivan Briscoe, A Criminal Bargain: The State and Security in Guatemala, Fundación Para las Relaciones Internacionales y El Diálogo Exterior, September 2009. Congressional Research Service 3 Gangs in Central America Defining Gangs Academics and other experts on gangs continue to debate the formal definition of the term “gang” and the types of individuals that should be included in definitions of the term.14 There is general agreement that most gangs have a name and some sense of identity that can sometimes be with possible questions for oversight that Congress may consider. Scope of the Gang Problem in Central America Defining Gangs Academics and other experts on gangs continue to debate the formal definition of the term “gang” and the types of individuals that should be included in definitions of the term. There is general agreement that most gangs have a name and some sense of identity that can sometimes be 1 The Central American countries include Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. This report focuses on the “northern triangle” countries of Central America where the gang problem has been most acute, which include El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. It refers to the other countries and governments in the region periodically for comparative purposes. For more information, see: CRS Report R41731, Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress, by Peter J. Meyer and Clare Ribando Seelke. 2 U.S. Department of Justice, National Gang Intelligence Center, National Gang Threat Assessment (NGTA) 2011: Emerging Trends, 2011. 3 U.S. Department of Treasury, “Treasury Sanctions Latin American Criminal Organization,” press release, October 11, 2012. Congressional Research Service 1 Gangs in Central America indicated by symbols such as clothing, graffiti, and hand signs that are unique to the gang. Gangs are thought to be composed of members ranging in age from 12 to 24, but some gang members are adults well over the age of 24. Typically, gangs have some degree of permanence and organization and are generally involved in delinquent or criminal activity. Gangs may be involved in criminal activities ranging from graffiti, vandalism, petty theft, robbery, and assaults to more serious criminal activities, such as drug trafficking, drug smuggling, money laundering, alien smuggling, extortion, home invasion, murder, and other violent felonies. Gangs are generally considered to be distinct from organized criminal organizations because they typically lack the hierarchical leadershipThe lines between transnational gang activity and organized crime are blurry. Many gangs lack the organizational structure, capital, and manpower required to run a sophisticated criminal enterprise schemes or to penetrate state institutions at high levels. Gangs are generally more horizontally organized, with lots of small subgroups and no central leadership generally feature horizontal power structures, with many small subgroups (semi-independent “franchises”) and little central leadership setting strategy and enforcing discipline. Although many gangs are involved in the street-level distribution of drugs and in extortion rackets, few gangs or gang members are involved in higherlevelhigher-level criminal drug distribution or production enterprises run by drug trafficking organizations, syndicates, or other sophisticated other criminal organizations. When referring to gangs in Central America, some studies use the term pandillas and maras interchangeably, while others distinguish between the two.154 Studies that make a distinction between the two types of Central America gangs generally define pandillas as localized groups that have long been present in the region, and maras as a more recent phenomenon that has some transnational roots. Some have more recently classified gangs into “first generation” (localized groups), “second generation” (national groups with some transnational links), and “third generation” gangs. Those analysts have augured that some gangs in the region may be evolving into “third generation” gangs that are “internationalized, networked, and complicated structures that sometimes evolve political aims.”16 Transnational .”5 Gangs in Central America The major gangs operating in Central America with ties to the United States are the “18th Street” gang (also known as M-18), and their main rival, the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13).176 The 18th Street Street gang was formed by Mexican youth in the Rampart section of Los Angeles in the 1960s who who were not accepted into existing Hispanic gangs. It was the first Hispanic gang to accept members members from all races and to recruit members from other states. MS-13 was created during the 1980s by Salvadorans in Los Angeles who had fled the country’s civil conflict. Both gangs later expanded expanded their operations to Central America. This process accelerated after the United States 14 This section was drawn from CRS Report RL33400, Youth Gangs: Background, Legislation, and Issues. began deporting illegal immigrants, many with criminal convictions, back to the region after the passage of the Illegal Immigrant Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996.7 Many 4 See, for example, Demoscopia S.A., Maras y Pandillas: Comunidad y Policía en Centroamérica, October 2007, as opposed to Dennis Rodgers et al., “Gangs of Central America: Causes, Costs, and Interventions,” Small Arms Survey Occasional Paper 23, May 2009. 165 John P. Sullivan and Adam Eikus, “Global Cities, Global Gangs,” Open Society Net, December 2, 2009. 176 For the history and evolution of these gangs in the United States, see Tom Diaz, No Boundaries: Transnational Latino Gangs and American Law Enforcement, (Ann Arbor, M.I.: University of Michigan Press, 2009). For a cross-national comparison of gang development, see: Maras: Gang Violence and Security in Central America, eds. Thomas Bruneau, Lucía Dammert, and Elizabeth Skinner (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2011). Hereinafter: Bruneau, 2011. 7 IRIRA expanded the categories of illegal immigrants subject to deportation and made it more difficult for immigrants to get relief from removal. Congressional Research Service 2 Gangs in Central America contend that gang-deportees “exported” a Los Angeles gang culture to Central America and recruited new members from among the local populations.Ann Arbor, M.I.: University of Michigan Press, 2009. 15 Congressional Research Service 4 Gangs in Central America began deporting illegal immigrants, many with criminal convictions, back to the region after the passage of the Illegal Immigrant Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) of 1996.18 Between 2000 and 2004, an estimated 20,000 criminals were sent back to Central America, many of whom had spent time in U.S. prisons for drug and/or gang-related offenses. Many contend that gang-deportees have “exported” a Los Angeles gang culture to Central America and that they have recruited new members from among the local populations. 19 Estimates of the overall number of gang members in Central America vary widely, but the U.S. Southern Command has placed that figure at around 70,000, a figure also cited by the United Nations. The gang problem is most severe in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Estimates of Central American gang membership by country also vary considerably, but UNODC has cited country membership totals of some 10,500 in El Salvador, 36,000 in Honduras, and 14,000 in Guatemala. These figures are compared to 4,500 in Nicaragua, 1385 in Panama, and 2,660 in Costa Rica.20 Nicaragua has a significant number of gang members, but does not have large numbers of MS-13 or M-18 members, perhaps due to the fact that Nicaragua has had a much lower deportation rate from the United States than the “northern triangle” countries.21 While MS-13 and M-18 began as loosely structured street gangs, there is with a top State Department official recently estimating that there may be 85,000 MS-13 and 18th Street gang members in the northern triangle countries (El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras).8 U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) recently estimated total MS-13 and M-18 membership in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras at a more modest 54,000 (see Figure 1 below).9 According to UNODC, in 2012 there are roughly 20,000 gang members in El Salvador, 12,000 in Honduras, and 22,000 in Guatemala. El Salvador has the highest concentration of gang members, with some 323 mareros (gang members) for every 100,000 citizens, double the level of Guatemala and Honduras. In comparison, in 2007, UNODC cited country membership totals of 10,500 in El Salvador, 36,000 in Honduras, and 14,000 in Guatemala.10 Figure 1. Estimated Gang Membership in the Northern Triangle of Central America, 2012 25,000 20,000 5,000 15,000 12,000 10,000 17,000 7,000 5,000 5,000 8,000 0 Guatemala Honduras M-18 El Salvador MS-13 Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean: a Threat Assessment, September 2012. Nicaragua has a significant number of gang members, but does not have large numbers of MS-13 or M-18 members, perhaps due to the fact that Nicaragua has had a much lower deportation rate from the United States than the “northern triangle” countries.11 Costa Rica, Panama, and Belize also have local gangs, but no significant MS-13 or M-18 presence. 8 U.S. Department of State, “Gangs, Youth, and Drugs – Breaking the Cycle of Violence,” Remarks by William R. Brownfield, Assistant Secretary, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, at the Institute of the Americas, press release, October 1, 2012. Hereinafter Brownfield, 2012. 9 U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Transnational Organized Crime in Central America and the Caribbean: a Threat Assessment, September 2012, p. 29. Hereinafter: UNODC, 2012. 10 UNODC, Crime and Development in Central America: Caught in the Crossfire, May 2007, p. 60. Hereinafter: UNODC, 2007. 11 Rodgers et al., 2009. Congressional Research Service 3 Gangs in Central America While MS-13 and M-18 began as loosely structured street gangs, there is some evidence that both gangs, but particularly the MS-13, have expanded geographically and become more organized and sophisticated. By early 2008, for example, Salvadoran police had found evidence suggesting that some MS-13 leaders jailed in El Salvador were ordering retaliatory assassinations of individuals in Northern Virginia, as well as designing plans to unify their clicas (cliques) with those in the United States.2212 Ties between some Washington D.C.-based cliques and groups in El Salvador may be particularly well developed.13 Studies have shown that, as happened in the United States, gang leaders in Central America are using prisons to recruit new members and to increase the discipline and cohesion among their existing ranks. 23have used prisons to increase the discipline and cohesion among their ranks.14 Still, UNODC maintains that the term “transnational gangs” is misleading when used to describe the maras, as their primary focus continues to be on local issues, such as dominating a particular extortion racket or local drug distribution area.15 Press reports and some Central American officials have blamed MS-13 and other gangs for a large percentage of violent crimes committed in those countries, but some analysts assert that those claims may be exaggerated. In El Salvador, for example, officials have blamed gangs for a majority of all murders committed annually, but UNODC has found scant evidence to support that conclusion.24UNODC found limited evidence to support that conclusion in 2007, and now maintains that disputes between crime groups over cocaine trafficking routes are the primary driver of violence in most of the region.16 Gang experts have argued that, although gangs may be more visible than other criminal groups, gang violence is only one part of a broad spectrum of violence in Central America.2517 In Guatemala and Honduras, for example, the regions that have had the highest murder rates tend to be those without a significant gang presence, but where organized criminal groups and narco-traffickers are particularly active.26 18 IRIRA expanded the categories of illegal immigrants subject to deportation and made it more difficult for immigrants to get relief from removal. 19 Ana Arana, “How the Street Gangs Took Central America,” Foreign Affairs, May/June 2005. 20 Testimony of General Bantz J. Craddock, Commander, U.S. Southern Command, before the Senate Armed Services Committee, March 15, 2005; UNODC, May 2007. 21 Rodgers et al., 2009. 22have been particularly active.18 Still, the dramatic decline in homicides that has occurred in El Salvador since the government facilitated a gang truce in March 2012 lends evidence to the assertion that gangs are responsible for a significant percentage of violence in that country. Although the actual percentage of homicides that can be attributed to gangs in Central America remains controversial, the gangs have unquestionably been involved in a broad array of other criminal activities. Those activities include kidnapping; human trafficking; and drug, auto, and weapons smuggling. Gangs have increasingly been involved in extortions of residents, bus drivers, and business owners in major cities throughout the region. Failure to pay often results in harassment or violence by gang members. In September 2010, to protest recently enacted antigang legislation, the MS-13 and 18th Street gangs in El Salvador jointly issued a warning for public transportation operators to stay home for three days or face reprisals; the threats paralyzed the country’s transport system.19 In 2010, gangs reportedly killed 130 Guatemalan bus drivers and 53 bus toll collectors.20 12 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, Regional Gang Initiative: Assessments and Plan of Action, July 1, 2008. 23 Demoscopia S.A, 2007. 24 UNODC, May 2007, op-cit. 2513 Geoffrey Ramsey, “Tracking El Salvador’s Mara Salvatrucha in Washington D.C.,” InSight Crime, October 12, 2012. 14 Demoscopia S.A, 2007. 15 UNODC, 2012, p. 28. 16 UNODC, 2012. 17 Testimony of Geoff Thale, Program Director of the Washington Office on Latin America, before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, June 26, 2007. 2618 Washington Office on Latin America and the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México (ITAM), Transnational (continued...) Congressional Research Service 5 Gangs in Central America Although the actual percentage of homicides that can be attributed to gangs in Central America remains controversial, the gangs have been involved in a broad array of other criminal activities. Those activities include kidnapping; human trafficking; and drug, auto, and weapons smuggling. Gangs have increasingly been involved in extortions of residents, bus drivers, and business owners in major cities throughout the region. Failure to pay often results in harassment or violence by gang members. In 2009, gangs reportedly killed 146 Guatemalan bus drivers. In early September 2010, the MS-13 and 18th Street gangs in El Salvador jointly organized a three-day strike in response to new anti-gang legislation that paralyzed the country’s transport system. 27 Youth Gangs in Central America, Mexico and the United States, March 2007; UNODC, Crime and Instability: Case Studies of Transnational Threats, February 2010. 19 “Governments Unite Against Maras; Maras Against Governments,” Latin American Regional Report: Caribbean & (continued...) Congressional Research Service 4 Gangs in Central America While some studies maintain that ties between Central American gangs and organized criminal groups have increased, others have downplayed the connection. In the mid-2000s, there had been some reports of gang activity in migrant smuggling in Mexico, but more recent reports have not found significant mara activity in Tapachula or Tijuana, two of the Mexican cities most affected by migration. 2821 Regional and U.S. authorities have confirmed increasing gang involvement in drug trafficking, although mostly on a local level., as U.S. officials maintain that the gangs “facilitate the logistics and transportation for the trafficking industry in Central America and Mexico.”22 MS-13 members are reportedly being contracted on an ad-hoc basis by Mexico’s warring DTOs to carry out revenge killings. Some analysts maintain that the relationship between DTOs and gangs appears to be most developed in El Salvador and, to a lesser extent, in Honduras, with few DTO-gang connections in Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, or Panama.2923 Notably, analysts have found no links between Central American gangs and Al Qaeda or other terrorist groups.3024 Factors Exacerbating the Gang Problem in Central America Poverty and a Lack of Educational and Employment Opportunities Several organizations working directly with gang members have asserted that the combination of poverty, social exclusion, and a lack of educational and job opportunities for at-risk youth are perpetuating the gang problem. In Honduras, for example, close to 30% of the population is youth ages 15-24. Those youth have very limited opportunities in a country where some 65% of the population lives on less than $2 a day and the unemployment rate was 25% in 2005. A 2007 World Bank educational or job opportunities. A 2007 World Bank risk assessment for Honduras statesstated that the country hashad large numbers of unemployed youth who are were not in school. Unable to develop the skills required for attending a university or obtaining skilled employment, they provide a ready pool of gang recruits.31 In the (...continued) Youth Gangs in Central America, Mexico and the United States, March 2007; UNODC, Crime and Instability: Case Studies of Transnational Threats, February 2010. 27 “Governments Unite Against Maras; Maras Against Governments,” Latin American Regional Report: Caribbean & Central America, October 2010. 2825 In the absence of familial and community support, many marginalized youth have turned to gangs for social support, a source of livelihood, and protection. Societal Stigmas Societal stigmas against gangs and gang-deportees from the United States have made the process of leaving a gang extremely difficult.26 A 2007 State Department report on youth gangs in El (...continued) Central America, October 2010. 20 Talea Miller and Christa Bollman, “Buses Targeted by Guatemala City Gangs,” PBS Newshour, March 8, 2011. 21 José Miguel Cruz, Rafael Fernández de Castro, and Gema Santamaría Balmaceda, "Political Transitions, Social Violence, and Gangs: Cases in Central America and Mexico," in Peace and Democratization in Latin America: A Comparative Perspective , ed. Cynthia Arnson (Washington, D.C. 2011). 29 Dudley, op-cit. 3022 Brownfield, 2012. 23 Stephen S. Dudley, Drug Trafficking Organizations in Central America: Transportistas, Mexican Cartels, and Maras, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation, May 2010. 24 Testimony of David Shirk, Professor and Director of the Trans-Border Institute, before the House Appropriations Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice and Science, and Related Appropriations, March 24, 2009. 3125 Sara Michel, Elizabeth Utting, and Bob Moquin, Honduras: a Risk Assessment, World Bank, February 2007. 26 Demoscopia S.A, 2007. Congressional Research Service 6 Gangs in Central America absence of familial and community support, many marginalized youth have turned to gangs for social support, a source of livelihood, and protection. Societal Stigmas Societal stigmas against gangs and gang-deportees from the United States have made the process of leaving a gang extremely difficult.32 A State Department report on youth gangs in El Salvador identifies5 Gangs in Central America Salvador identified religious conversion, marriage, enlistment in the military, or enrollment in a substance substance abuse rehabilitation program as the few options available for those who seek to leave a gang. Many organizations that work with former gang members, particularly those with criminal records, say that offender reentry is a major problem in many countries. Ex-gang members report that employers are often unwilling to hire them. Tattooed former gang members, especially returning deportees from the United States who are often native English speakers, have had the most difficulty finding gainful employment. In El Salvador, several hundred gang members have gone through complete tattoo removal, a long and expensive process, which many feel is necessary to better blend into Salvadoran society.3327 Role of the Media Many studies have observed that sensationalist media coverage of the gang phenomenon in Central America has contributed to a sense of insecurity in the region and may have inadvertently enhanced the reputation of the gangs portrayed. For example, a 2006 USAID gangs assessment found that rival gangs in Honduras often compete to see who can portray the most brutal and/or delinquent activities in order to capture the most media attention. Exaggerated media reports may have also Exaggerated media reports may have also contributed to the popular perception, which has been backed by some politicians in Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvadorpoliticians, that youth gangs are responsible for the majority of violent crime in thosethe northern triangle countries. This sentiment, however erroneous, has has led many Central American citizens to support tough law enforcement measures against gangs, hire private security firms, and, in isolated cases, take vigilante action against suspected youth gang members.3428 Anti-gang Law Enforcement Efforts While tough law enforcement reforms (discussed below in the section “Mano Dura (HeavyHanded) Anti-Gang Policies”) initially proved to be a way for Central American leaders to show that they were cracking down on gangs, recent studies have cast serious doubts on their effectiveness. In response to law enforcement roundups of any and all tattooed youth, gangs are now changing their behavior to avoid detection. Many gang members are hiding or removing their tattoos, changing their dress, and avoiding the use of hand signals, making them harder to identify and arrest. Studies have also shown that, 32 Demoscopia S.A, 2007. 33 largely in response to law enforcement tactics, gangs have developed into more sophisticated criminal entities, some of which are now running extortion rackets throughout the region.29 Prisons in Need of Reform The implementation of aggressive anti-gang roundups has overwhelmed prisons in Central America. Prison conditions in the region are generally harsh, with severe overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and staffing shortages. Many facilities that were already teeming with 27 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Issue Paper: Youth Gang Organizations in El Salvador, June 2007. 3428 Testimony of Lainie Reisman before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, June 26, 2007. The State Department Human Rights Reports covering Guatemala and Honduras for 2009 include Report covering Honduras for 2011 includes references to NGO reports that vigilante torture and even killings of youths have continued to occur. NGOs in both countries have assertedassert that these abuses may have been perpetrated by groups that included current and former members of the security forces. Congressional Research Service 7 Gangs in Central America largely in response to law enforcement tactics, gangs have developed into more sophisticated criminal entities, some of which are now running extortion rackets throughout the region.35 Prisons in Need of Reform The implementation of aggressive anti-gang roundups has overwhelmed prisons in Central America. Prison conditions in the region are generally harsh, with severe overcrowding, inadequate sanitation, and staffing shortages. Many facilities that were already teeming with members of the security forces. The State Department report covering Guatemala includes allegations that unnecessary force is often used by police against suspected gang members in Guatemala. 29 Demoscopia, S.A., 2007; José Miguel Cruz, “Central American Maras: From Youth Street Gangs to Transnational Protection Rackets,” Global Crime, November 2010. Congressional Research Service 6 Gangs in Central America inmates have been filled beyond their capacities with thousands of suspected gang members, many of whom have yet to be convicted of any crimes. In El Salvador, for example, as of December 2009, some 22,101 inmates were being held 2011, some 25,294 inmates (9,575 current or former gang members) were being held in prisons designed to hold a maximum of 8,227 8,090 people. 3630 Due to a lack of security within the prisons, gangs are often able to carry out criminal activities from behind bars, sometimes with assistance from corrupt prison officials. As previously mentioned, there is evidence that gangs have become larger, better organized, and more cohesive within the confines of many of the region’s prisons. Some observers have described prisons as “gangland finishing schools”3731 where, rather than being rehabilitated, first-time offenders often deepen their involvement in illicit gang activities. Disputes between members of rival gangs, between gang and non-gang inmates, and between gangs and prison guards regularly occur. Between January and October 2008, the Honduran Ministry of Security reported 39 inmate deaths, a majority of which occurred as a result of intergang violence. Prisoner abuse and torture is also not uncommon. Some argue that gangs have responded to “extralegal violence” employed by police and prison guards by waging war on governments and those suspected of collaborating with them. 3832 U.S. Deportations to Central America and the Gang Problem Policymakers in Central America have expressed ongoing concerns that increasing U.S. deportations of individuals with criminal records are worsening the gang and security problems in the region.3933 The Central American countries of Honduras, Guatemala, and El Salvador have received the highest numbers of U.S. deportations (after Mexico) for the last several fiscal years. Despite the large numbers of deportees repatriated to the region, the Central American countries have typically hadreceived a lower percentage of individuals deported on from the United States on criminal grounds than other top receiving countries like Jamaica or the Dominican Republic (see Table 2). In FY2009 and FY20101). In recent years, however, the percentage of Central Americans deported on criminal grounds increased 35 Demoscopia, S.A., 2007; José Miguel Cruz, “Central American Maras: From Youth Street Gangs to Transnational Protection Rackets,” Global Crime, November 2010. 36 U.S. Department of State, 2009 grounds has increased significantly. This may be due to increasing efforts by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to identify illegal immigrants subject to deportation. 30 U.S. Department of State, 2011 Country Report on Human Rights Practices: El Salvador, March 11, 2010. 37 Arana, 2005. 38May 2012. T.W. Ward, Gangsters Without Borders: An Ethnography of A Salvadoran Street Gang (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 32 José Miguel Cruz, "Responses and the Dark Side of Suppresion of Gangs in Central America," in Government The Maras and Security Challenges in Central America and the U.S., ed. Tom Bruneau, Lucia Dammert, and Jeanne Giraldo (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2011) (forthcoming). 39Suppression of Gangs in Central America," in Bruneau, et al., 2011. 33 Kate Joynes et al., “Central America, Mexico and the United States Formulate Shared Strategy to Fight Gang Violence,” Global Insight Daily Analysis, April 9, 2008. 31 Congressional Research Service 8 Gangs in Central America significantly. This may be due to increasing efforts by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) to identify illegal immigrants subject to deportation. Table 27 Gangs in Central America Table 1. U.S. Deportations to Top Receiving Countries: FY2008-FY2010FY2009-FY2011 (Including Annual Percentage of Individuals Deported on Criminal Grounds) Country Mexico FY2008FY2009 % Crim. a FY2010a FY2009 % Crim. FY2010FY2011 % Crim. 252,010 33.9% 275,217 37.9% 279,687 54.7% Honduras 29,768 18.9%286,893 59.1% Honduras 27,679 25.1% 25,635 41.5% Guatemala 28,899 18.6%23,822 47.5% Guatemala 30,411 21.4% 31,347 31.3% El Salvador 20,975 27.6%33,324 37.9% El Salvador 21,157 30.0% 20,830 41.4% Dom. Republic 3,783 55.5%18,870 47.3% Dom. Republic 3,850 56.5% 3,853 61.1% Brazil 3,648 10.8%3,380 65.0% Brazil 3,298 11.6% 3,321 16.3% Colombia 2,830 39.8%3,634 17.0% Colombia 2,778 40.6% 2,617 49.6% Ecuador 2,484 23.6%2,273 49.8% Ecuador 2,526 25.5% 2,559 29.8% Nicaragua 2,339 23.5%1,991 40.4% Nicaragua 2,190 28.1% 1,975 42.4% Haiti 1,654 25.8% 710 65.9% Jamaica 1,603 78.8% 1,630 76.9% 344b 1,548 39.8% 79.1%1,693 45.5% 710 65.9% 39.8% 731 34.1% 1,630 76.9% 79.1% 1,572 82.0% Haiti Jamaica 344b 1,548 Source: Prepared by CRS with information provided by the Department of Homeland Security, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Office of DetentionEnforcement and Removal. Figures include “removals” (deportations), but not voluntary departures (returns). FY2012 figures are not yet available. a. Criminal deportees have been convicted of a crime in the United States that makes one removable (i.e. eligible for deportation) under the Immigration and Nationality Act. Not all individuals who have been deported on criminal grounds are gang members or violent criminals. Low level drug convictions and some non-violent offenses may result in a removal on criminal grounds. Non-criminal deportees have been removed because of a status violation (e.g. being in the country illegally or working without authorization). b. Deportations to Haiti were halted for a time in the wake of the January 2010 earthquake in that country. For more information, see CRS Report RS21349, U.S. Immigration Policy on Haitian Migrants, by Ruth Ellen Wasem. For the past several years, Central American officials have asked the U.S. government to consider providing a complete criminal history for each deporteeindividual who has been removeddeported on criminal grounds, including whether or not he or she is a member of a gang. While ICE does not provide a complete criminal record for deportees, it may provide some information regarding an individual’s criminal history when specifying why the individual was removed from the United States. ICE does not indicate gang affiliation unless it is the primary reason why the individual is being deported. However, law enforcement officials in receiving countries are able to contact the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in order to request a criminal history check on particular criminal deportees after they have arrived in that country. With support from the Mérida Initiative/CARSI, ICE and the FBI have developed a pilot program called the Criminal History Information Program (CHIP) to provide more information about deportees with criminal convictions to officials in El Salvador., the first of its kind anywhere in the world.34 The types of support services provided to deportees returning from the United States and other countries vary widely across Latin America. While a few large and relatively wealthy countries (such as Colombia and Mexico) have recently established comprehensive deportee reintegration assistance assistance programs, most countries provide few, if any, services to returning deportees. In Central America, for example, the few programs that do exist tend to be funded and administered Central America, 34 Embassy of the United States in San Salvador, El Salvador, “El Salvador Signs Chip,” press release, May 9, 2012. Congressional Research Service 98 Gangs in Central America for example, the few programs that do exist tend to be funded and administered by either the by either the Catholic Church, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or the International Organization for Migration (IOM). The U.S. government does not currently support any deportee reintegration services programs for adults in Central America, although it has in the past.40 Migration (IOM). In 2010, USAID began providing support to IOM to administer a deportee reintegration project in Guatemala. Country Anti-Gang Efforts Country efforts to deal with gangs and gang-related violence have varied significantly. In general, governments in the “northern triangle” countries have adopted more aggressive law enforcement approaches than the other Central American countries. These policiesTough anti-gang approaches carried out in the mid-2000s, which will subsequently be discussed, failed to stave off rising crime rates in the region and had several negative unintended consequences. As a result, recent studies maintain that governments appear to be moving away from “enforcement-first”only policies towards “second-generationsecondgeneration” anti-gang programs. Newer programs have emphasized, among other things, prevention programs for at-risk youth, interventions to encourage youth to leave gangs, and the creation of municipal alliances against crime and violence. 41 Some observers predict that El Salvador’s newly enacted law outlawing gangs like the MS-13 and the 18th Street gang and the financing of their activities will result in a return to a more repressive approach to gangs in that country. Salvadoran government officials have discounted those predictions, maintaining that the law is focused on helping police build anti-gang investigations that will stand up in court.42 crime and violence.35 Even as governments have adopted some prevention and rehabilitation programs, they have continued to employ elite anti-gang units to carry out operations, begun to use wiretapping to further anti-gang investigations, and increasingly involved their military forces in law enforcement efforts. In 2012, the Salvadoran government has taken a new – and risky – approach to combating gang violence by facilitating a truce between the MS-13 and 18th Street gangs.36 Mano Dura (Heavy-Handed) Anti-Gang Policies Mano Dura is a term used to describe the type of anti-gang policies initially put in place in El Salvador, Honduras, and, to a lesser extent, Guatemala in response to popular demands and media pressure for these governments to “do something” about an escalation in gang-related crime. Mano dura approaches have typically involved incarcerating large numbers of youth (often those with visible tattoos) for illicit association, and increasing sentences for gang membership and gang-related crimes. A Mano Dura law passed by El Salvador’s Congress in 2003 was subsequently declared unconstitutional, but was followed by a Super Mano Dura package of antigang reforms in July 2004. These reforms enhanced police power to search and arrest suspected gang members and stiffened penalties for convicted gang members, although they provided some protections for minors accused of gang-related crimes. Similarly, in July 2003, Honduras enacted a penal code amendment that made maras illegal and established sentences of up to 12 years in prison for gang membership. Changes in legislation were accompanied by the increasing use of joint military and police patrols to arrest gang suspects. Guatemala introduced similar legislation in 2003, but the legislation never passed. Instead, the Guatemalan government has launched periodic law enforcement operations to round up suspected gang members. 40 Testimony of Maureen Achieng, Chief of Mission for the International Organization for Migration (IOM) in Haiti before the House Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, July 24, 2007. Although the U.S. government is not currently funding deportee reintegration programs for adults in Central America, it is providing small amounts of funding to IOM to assist unaccompanied minors who have been returned to El Salvador and Nicaragua. CRS phone interview with State Department official, December 2, 2010. 41 Rodgers et al., May 2009. 42 Alex Renderos, “El Salvador Moves Against Criminal Gangs,” Los Angeles Times, September 4, 2010. CRS interview with officials from El Salvador’s National Civilian Police, December 7, 2010. Congressional Research Service 10 Gangs in Central America What Have Been the Effects of Mano Dura Policies? Mano Dura reforms initially proved to be a way for Central American leaders to show that they were getting tough on gangs and crime, despite objections from human rights groups about their potential infringements on civil liberties and human rights. Early public reactions to the tough Mano Dura reforms initially proved to be a way for Central American leaders to show that they were getting tough on gangs and crime, despite objections from human rights groups about their potential infringements on civil liberties and human rights. Early public reactions to the tough 35 Rodgers et al., May 2009. Lauren Villagran, “Can a Gang Truce in El Salvador Open the Door to Lasting Peace?” Christian Science Monitor, October 24, 2012. 36 Congressional Research Service 9 Gangs in Central America anti-gang reforms enacted in El Salvador and Honduras were extremely positive, supported by media coverage demonizing the activities of tattooed youth gang members. Tony Saca was elected to the presidency of El Salvador in 2004 largely on the basis of his promises to further crack down on gangs and crime. Mano Dura enabled police to arrest large numbers of suspected gang gang members, including some 14,000 youth in El Salvador between mid-2004 and late 2005. In addition, according to Salvadoran officials, even though many suspects were eventually released, gang detainees provided law enforcement officials with invaluable sources of intelligence information that those officials have since used to design better anti-gang strategies.4337 Despite the early apparent benefits of Mano Dura policies, effects on gangs and crime have been largely disappointing. Most youth arrested under mano dura provisions have beenwere subsequently released for lack of evidence that they committed any crime. Salvadoran police estimated that more than 10,000 of 14,000 suspected gang members arrested in 2005 were later released.4438 Some youth who were wrongly arrested for gang involvement have been recruited intojoined the gang life while in prison. Gang roundups exacerbated prison overcrowding, and inter-gang violence within the prisons has resulted in several inmate deaths. There have been credible reports that extrajudicial youth killings by vigilante groups have continued since mano dura went into effect, was implemented, including alleged assassinations of gang suspects and gang deportees from the United States. Finally, in response to mano dura, gangs have changed their behavior to avoid detection. Alternative Approaches Although their efforts have received considerably less international attention than those of El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, other Central American countries have developed a variety of programs to deal with the gang problem. In Panama, the Ministry of Social Development, in coordination with other government entities and several NGOs, administers gang prevention programs, as well as a program to provide job training and rehabilitation services to former gang members. In 2006, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) approved a $22.7 million loan to Panama to fund that and other programs aimed at preventing youth violence in four of the country’s largest municipalities. Nicaragua has adopted a national youth crime prevention strategy that, at least on an official level, includes the active involvement of the police in preventive and rehabilitative efforts and focuses on family, school, and community interventions. 45 With support from other countries and NGOs, the Nicaraguan National Police’s Juvenile Affairs Division runs at least two anti-gang activities a month. The Ministry of the Interior is administering a five-year program, which is supported by funding from the IDB, to target at-risk youth in 11 different municipalities. While less is known about Costa Rica’s gang 43 U.S. Department of State, INL, Regional Gang Initiative Assessments and Plan of Action, July 1, 2008. “Most of 14,000 Gang Members Arrested in El Salvador Were Released,” EFE News Service, December 27, 2005. 45 Some studies have described a disconnect between the Nicaraguan government’s official rhetoric in support of nonrepressive approaches to youth violence and the excessive use of force that some low-ranking police officials have used against youth in Nicaragua. Those studies are summarized in: Peter Peetz, "Youth Violence in Central America: Discourses and Policies," Youth Society, October 11, 2010. 44 Congressional Research Service 11 Gangs in Central America prevention efforts, the country has generally tended to favor a “preventive and rehabilitationoriented approach.”46 Prospects for Country Prevention and Rehabilitation Efforts In the last few years, Central American leaders, including those from the northern triangle countries, appear to have moved, at least on a rhetorical level, towards more comprehensive antigang approaches. In mid-December 2007, then-Salvadoran President Tony Saca opened a summit of the Central America Integration System by stating that the gang problem had shown the importance of coordinated anti-crime efforts, with the most important element of those efforts being prevention. 47 All of the Central American countries have created institutional bodies to design and coordinate crime prevention strategies and have units within their national police forces engaged in prevention efforts. In general, however, government-sponsored gang prevention programs have tended, with some exceptions, to be small-scale, ad-hoc, and underfunded. Governments have been even less involved in sponsoring rehabilitation programs for individuals seeking to leave gangs, with most reintegration programs funded by church groups or NGOs. Central American government officials have generally cited budgetary limitations and competing concerns, such as drug trafficking, as major factors limiting their ability to implement more extensive prevention and rehabilitation programs. Experts have asserted, however, that it is important for governments to offer educational and job opportunities to youth who are willing to leave gangs before they are tempted to join more sophisticated criminal organizations. It is also critical, they argue, for intervention efforts to focus on strengthening families of at-risk youth.48 This may be changing, however, as the government of Mauricio Funes in El Salvador has increased funding for prevention programs to roughly 14% of the Ministry of Security’ budget (from a historic average of just over 1%).49 Research has shown that successful anti-gang efforts involve governments working in close collaboration with civil society, the private sector, churches, mayors, and international donors in order to leverage limited public resources. 50 In fact, many successful anti-gang programs have developed as a result of community-driven efforts to respond to particular problems which are then supported by capacity-building programs for leaders from those communities. Although these types of programs may benefit from financial contributions from local and/or national governments, they may also need non-financial support, including “training, information sharing, leadership, or simply the provision of a dedicated space for programming or meetings.”51 Country and regional youth violence prevention programs have received significant support from a variety of international donors, but Central American governments have tended not to take an active role in ensuring that donor funds are well-coordinated and strategically invested. European 46 Ibid. “Centroamérica Revisa Estrategias Para Luchar Contra Pandillas,” Agence France Presse, December 13, 2007. 48 Kliksberg, 2007. 49 CRS interview with officials from El Salvador’s National Civilian Police, December 7, 2010. 47 50 USAID Gang Assessment, 2006; José Miguel Cruz, Street Gangs in Central America, San Salvador: UCA Editors, 2007. 51 See the section by Caterina Gowis Roman in Daring to Care: Community-Based Responses to Youth Gang Violence in Central America and Central American Immigrant Communities in the United States, WOLA, October 2008. Congressional Research Service 12 Gangs in Central America donors, particularly the European Commission, Spain, and Germany, have been the largest supporters of prevention programs in Central America. U.S. support for prevention programs has also increased in recent years, particularly since the creation of an Economic and Social Development Fund for Central America as part of the Mérida Initiative. However, with the recent global economic downturn, many of these traditional donors now have less funds to dedicate to overseas prevention projects. As a result, Central American governments may have to seek new support for these types of projects from other countries or private entities. Selected Regional and Multilateral Efforts Central American Integration System (SICA) Some analysts maintain that the emergence of gangs as a regional security threat has led to unprecedented cooperation among the Central American countries. For the last several years, Central American leaders and officials have regularly met, often accompanied by their U.S. and Mexican counterparts, to discuss ways to coordinate security and information-sharing on gang members and other criminal groups. Most of these regional security meetings have been organized by the Security Commission of the Central American Integration System (SICA).52 The leaders of the SICA members states and the president-elect of Mexico began developing a regional security strategy in October 2006, which was subsequently adopted at a summit held in August 2007.53 The strategy identifies eight threats to regional security, including organized crime, drug trafficking, deportees with criminal records, gangs, homicide, small arms trafficking, terrorism, and corruption. In the strategy, the leaders vow to designate transnational gang liaison offices in each country that will compile and share information, conduct joint investigations, and establish a regional database on gangs. Up until recently, however, most regional anti-gang cooperation has occurred on a declarative, rather than an operational level. At least one youth violence prevention project is now being implemented by the Secretariat, based in El Salvador, in cooperation with the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). 54 SICA has estimated that the costs to implement its regional security plan could exceed $953 million, including $60 million for anti-gang efforts.55 SICA is planning to convene a donor’s conference in June 2011 in order to seek support for its Mexico-Central America security plan. Some observers think that more regional anti-gang cooperation is possible, but others predict that political differences among Central American governments and instability in particular countries is likely to inhibit future efforts. Organization of American States (OAS) On June 7, 2005, the OAS passed a resolution to hold conferences and workshops on the gang issue and to urge member states to support the creation of holistic solutions to the gang problem. 52 The Central American Integration System (SICA) is a regional organization with a Secretariat in El Salvador that is comprised by the governments of El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Belize, and Panama. The Security Commission was created in 1995 to develop and carry out regional security efforts. 53 A copy of the strategy is available at http://www.state.gov/p/wha/rls/93586.htm. 54 USAID, “Press Release: USAID-SICA Regional Youth Alliance Offices Inaugurated,” April 9, 2008. 55 SICA General Secretariat, Fifth Meeting of the Working Group for Drafting Proposals to Finance Central American Security, May 13-14, 2008. Congressional Research Service 13 Gangs in Central America In the past four years, the OAS has hosted meetings and conferences on the gang problem in Latin America and conducted a study on how to define and classify the types of gangs operating in the region. On June 5, 2007, the OAS General Assembly passed a resolution to promote hemispheric cooperation in confronting criminal gangs that instructs the General Assembly to support country anti-gang efforts and the Permanent Council to create a contact group of member states concerned about the gang issue. On January 12, 2008, the OAS Permanent Council held a special session devoted to the problem of criminal gangs. The Permanent Council is currently in the process of developing a Regional Strategy to Promote Inter-American Cooperation in Dealing with Criminal Gangs. Inter-American Coalition for the Prevention of Violence (IACPV) The IACPV is a multilateral group formed in 2000 to promote prevention as a viable way of addressing crime and violence in Latin America. IACPV member organizations include the OAS, World Bank, Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), USAID, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and the United Nations. The IACPV has helped municipalities in Central America develop violence prevention plans, developed a user-friendly violence indicators document, hosted a major conference on gang prevention, and provided technical and financial assistance to help form a counterpart organization within the region, the Central American Coalition for the Prevention of Youth Violence. The IACPV has been relatively inactive for the past few years. Multilateral Banks and U.N. Assistance Several U.N. agencies, the IDB, and, to a lesser extent, the World Bank, have supported violence reduction programs in Central America. Among the U.N. agencies, UNDP, which maintains a team of citizen security experts at a regional office in Panama, has taken the lead. UNDP has supported small arms control; police reform; violence reduction; and disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration programs in Central America. UNDP has conducted research projects on the costs of violence in particular countries and published a comprehensive regional study on security challenges facing Central America that will be followed by more specific country reports. The IDB has executed significant violence reduction loans and grants in each of the Central American countries. IDB-funded projects have focused on institutional strengthening and violence prevention, with selected activities in the area of criminal justice and rehabilitation. The World Bank has introduced crime and violence prevention components into existing Bankfunded projects in urban areas and produced analytical studies, including a recently completed regional report on crime and violence. U.S. Policy In recent years, Administration officials and members of Congress have expressed ongoing concerns about gangs and violence in Central America and their spillover effects on the United States. In September 2009 congressional testimony, FBI Director Robert Mueller stated that “criminal gangs ... are of increasing concern for domestic and international law enforcement ... [and that] the MS-13 [in particular] continues to expand its influence in the United States.”56 U.S. 56 Testimony by Robert Mueller, Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), U.S. Department of Justice, before (continued...) Congressional Research Service 14 Gangs in Central America officials are striving to coordinate anti-gang initiatives on both the domestic and international fronts, taking into account their likely impacts on domestic security, on the one hand, and on foreign relations with the countries of Central America and Mexico, on the other. Congressional Interest and Appropriations for Anti-Gang Efforts Congress has expressed increasing concern about the problem of transnational gangs and interest in the effectiveness of U.S. international anti-gang efforts. In the 110th Congress, interest in the topic of gangs and violence in Central America included concerns about the unintended consequences of mano dura policies, the relationship between gangs and drug cartels, and the effects of U.S. deportation policy on the gang problem. On October 2, 2007, the House passed H.Res. 564 (Engel) supporting expanded cooperation between the United States and Central America to combat crime and violence. During its first session, the 110th Congress also enacted the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act, P.L. 110-161, which included $8 million in global INCLE funding for the State Department Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL) anti-gang programs. In October 2007, the Bush Administration proposed the Mérida Initiative, a new anticrime and counterdrug program for Mexico and Central America. During its second session, the 110th Congress considered the proposal, eventually appropriating $60 million for the Central America portion of the Mérida Initiative in the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-252). Congress shifted the bulk of Mérida funding for anti-gang programs from law enforcement to institution building, rule of law, and development programs. It did so partially by earmarking $25 million for the creation of an Economic and Social Development Fund (ESDF) for the region to be administered by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). In March 2009, the 111th Congress appropriated another $5 million in global INCLE funding for INL anti-gang efforts in Central America, as well as $100 million in Mérida funding for the region in the FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8), including $12 million for ESDF programs, subject to certain human rights conditions. For FY2010, the Obama Administration requested $7 million in global INCLE funds for INL anti-gang programs in Central America, as well as $100 million for the Central American portion of the Mérida Initiative. On December 13, 2009, Congress passed the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117), which includes $8 million in global INCLE funds for Central America and $83 million for a new Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI), which splits Central America from the Mérida Initiative. CARSI funds are subject to the same human rights conditions as those provided in P.L. 111-8 for Mérida programs. CARSI builds upon existing programs, both on a bilateral and regional basis. Its five primary goals are to: 1. Create safe streets for the citizens in the region; 2. Disrupt the movement of criminals and contraband within and between the nations of Central America; 3. Support the development of strong, capable, and accountable Central American governments; (...continued) the Senate Judiciary Committee, September 16, 2009. Congressional Research Service 15 Gangs in Central America 4. Re-establish effective state presence and security in communities at risk; and, 5. Foster enhanced levels of security and rule of law coordination and cooperation between the nations of the region.57 The Obama Administration requested $100 million for CARSI in its FY2011 budget request: $70 million in Western Hemisphere Regional INCLE funds and $30 million in Western Hemisphere Regional ESF funds. The Senate Appropriations Committee-reported version of the FY2011 foreign operations measure, S. 3676, would have provided $90 million for security-related programs in Central America, including $15 million for the ESDF.58 In the absence of FY2011 appropriations legislation, Congress has passed a series of continuing resolutions (P.L. 111-242 as amended) to fund government programs, with the latest extension set to expire on March 4, 2011. The continuing resolution, as amended, continues funding most foreign aid programs at the FY2010-enacted level, with some exceptions mano dura, gangs have changed their behavior to avoid detection. Military Involvement in Public Security Although mano dura policies have been largely phased out, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras have deployed thousands of military troops to help their often underpaid and poorly equipped police forces carry out public security functions, without clearly defining when those deployments might end. In Guatemala, military officials maintain that fewer than 10% of the country’s 9,000 soldiers perform traditional military functions and the government of retired general Perez Molina has developed protocols to coordinate the military’s involvement in law enforcement operations.39 In El Salvador, retired generals are in charge of the Ministry of Public Security and Justice and the national police. Since December 2011, the Honduran government has granted the military broad powers to carry out police functions.40 This trend has led many human rights groups to raise concerns about the “re-militarization” of some Central American countries and to predict an increase in human rights abuses committed by military personnel in the region who are ill-trained to perform police work (as has occurred in Mexico).41 Evidence also indicates that military involvement in public security functions has not reduced crime rates significantly. 37 U.S. Department of State, INL, Regional Gang Initiative Assessments and Plan of Action, July 1, 2008. “Most of 14,000 Gang Members Arrested in El Salvador Were Released,” EFE News Service, December 27, 2005. 39 CRS interview with Guatemalan military official, January 20, 2011. 40 “Gobierno de Honduras Extiende Facultades Policiales a Militares por 90 Días Más,” El Heraldo (Honduras), June 26, 2012. 41 See, for example, relevant sections of George Withers, Lucila Santos, and Adam Isaacson, Preach What you Practice: the Separation of Military and Police Roles in the Americas, WOLA, November 2010. 38 Congressional Research Service 10 Gangs in Central America Approaches in Other Central American Countries Although their efforts have received considerably less international attention than those of El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala, other Central American countries have developed a variety of programs to deal with their gang problems. In Panama, the Ministry of Social Development, in coordination with other government entities and several NGOs, administers gang prevention programs, as well as a program to provide job training and rehabilitation services to former gang members. Nicaragua has adopted a national youth crime prevention strategy that, at least on an official level, includes the active involvement of the police in preventive and rehabilitative efforts and focuses on family, school, and community interventions.42 With support from other countries and NGOs, the Nicaraguan National Police’s Juvenile Affairs Division runs at least two anti-gang activities a month. The Ministry of the Interior is administering a five-year program, which is supported by funding from the IDB, to target at-risk youth in 11 different municipalities. While less is known about Costa Rica’s gang prevention efforts, the country has generally tended to favor a “preventive and rehabilitation-oriented approach.”43 Belize brokered a truce among its local gangs in September 2011 in exchange for meeting gang members’ demands for jobs. The truce helped murders decline through March 2012, but unraveled in April 2012 after a spate of reprisal killings. That month the country experienced its highest monthly murder rate in two years.44 Gang Truce in El Salvador When Salvadoran President Mauricio Funes appointed his defense minister, retired general David Munguía Payés as Minister of Justice and Public Security in November 2011, observers expected the minister to back a hardline approach to combating gangs. Minister Munguía Payés did restructure the Salvadoran police and form a new elite anti-gang unit that has received U.S. training. However, he also surprised many analysts by lending government support to a former guerrilla fighter and congressman (who was his aid in the defense ministry) and a Catholic bishop who brokered a truce between the Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and 18th Street (M-18) gangs. In March 2012, Minister Munguía Payés agreed to transfer high-ranking gang leaders currently serving time in prison to less secure prisons in order to facilitate negotiations for a truce between the gangs. Questions remain surrounding what exactly was negotiated with the gangs, when, and under what circumstances. Until very recently, Minister Munguía Payés had denied his role in facilitating the truce.45 Since the time the prison transfers took place, homicides in El Salvador have dramatically declined (from an average of roughly 14 per day to 5 per day).46 Gang leaders have pledged not to forcibly recruit children into their ranks or perpetrate violence against women, turned in small 42 Some studies have described a disconnect between the Nicaraguan government’s official rhetoric in support of nonrepressive approaches to youth violence and the excessive use of force that some low-ranking police officials have used against youth in Nicaragua. Those studies are summarized in: Peter Peetz, "Youth Violence in Central America: Discourses and Policies," Youth Society, October 11, 2010. 43 Ibid. 44 “A Meeting of the Maras; Central America's Gangs,” The Economist, May 12, 2012. 45 Carlos Martinez and Jose Luis Sanz, “The New Truth About the Gang Truce,” InsightCrime, September 14, 2012. 46 Lauren Villagran, “Can a Gang Truce in El Salvador Open the Door to Lasting Peace?” Christian Science Monitor, October 24, 2012. Congressional Research Service 11 Gangs in Central America amounts of weapons, and offered to engage in broader negotiations that could potentially result in a permanent truce.47 Gang negotiators and government officials maintain that improving prison conditions and providing more rehabilitation and reintegration programs for gang members will be crucial to maintaining the truce. They hope to obtain donor support for those efforts.48 The Organization of American States (OAS) has begun monitoring the implementation of the truce and trying to build support for the nascent peace process from civil society, the private sector, and politicians, among others.49 Many, including OAS Secretary General Jose Miguel Insulza, have praised the truce for reducing the homicide rate in the country to less than half of what it once was and effectively saving the lives of thousands of young people.50 The coordinator of U.N. programs in El Salvador has said that the truce presents a unique window of opportunity for the country to find a long-term, integral solution to violence and criminality.51 U.S.-based gang experts have formed a Transitional Advisory Group in Support of the Peace Process in El Salvador, while U.S. human rights groups have lent their support to the truce insofar as it provides an opportunity to increase focus and attention on the need for prevention and rehabilitation programs.52 U.S. officials have made few public comments about the truce; in August 2012, U.S. Ambassador to El Salvador, Mari Carmen Aponte, reportedly said that the truce had reduced crime, but that policies must “address the root causes [of crime] in order to be effective and for any reduction [in crime] to be sustainable.”53 The truce is not without its skeptics. Some skeptics have questioned the lack of transparency and changing narrative regarding the government’s role in facilitating the truce.54 Others have asserted that recognizing the gangs as legitimate political actors and continuing to accede to their demands carries enormous risks for the Salvadoran government. For example, should the negotiations collapse, the gangs could emerge even more powerful and organized after taking advantage of months of less restrictive prison conditions. 55 Still others point out that while gang-on-gang homicides have declined, the level of extortion and other violent crimes has remained high.56 While some believe the Treasury Department’s decision to sanction the financial activities of the MS-13 may signify U.S. skepticism of the truce, Ambassador Aponte has said that the decision responded to the activities of the gang in the United States and was made totally independent of the truce.57 (See “U.S. Treasury Department” section below). 47 WOLA, El Salvador's Gang Truce: In Spite of Uncertainty, an Opportunity to Strengthen Prevention Efforts, July 17, 2012; Randal C. Archibold, “Gangs’ Truce Buys El Salvador a Tenuous Peace,” New York Times, August 27, 2012. 48 CRS interviews conducted in El Salvador, August 20-22, 2012. 49 Villagran, op.cit. 50 Organization of American States (OAS), “Secretary General Insulza: ‘the Three Challenges to Democracy in the Region are Inequality, Organized Crime and the Lack of Political Dialogue,’” press release, October 10, 2012. 51 “ONU: Tregua entre Pandillas es Oportunidad contra la Violencia en El Salvador,” La Prensa Gráfica, September 13, 2012. 52 WOLA, op. cit. 53 Archibold, op. cit. 54 Martinez and Sanz, op. cit. 55 Farah, June 2012. 56 Hannah Stone, “Account Book Reveals Details of Salvador Gang Extortion Rackets,” Insight Crime, September 24, 2012. 57 Enrique García, “Aponte Reitera que la “MS” es Organización Criminal Transnacional,” El Mundo, October 16, 2012. Congressional Research Service 12 Gangs in Central America Prospects for Country Prevention and Rehabilitation Efforts In the last few years, Central American leaders, including those from the northern triangle countries, appear to have moved, at least on a rhetorical level, towards more comprehensive antigang approaches. In mid-December 2007, then-Salvadoran President Tony Saca opened a summit of the Central America Integration System by stating that the gang problem had shown the importance of coordinated anti-crime efforts, with the most important element of those efforts being prevention.58 All of the Central American countries have created institutional bodies to design and coordinate crime prevention strategies and have units within their national police forces engaged in prevention efforts. In general, however, government-sponsored gang prevention programs have tended, with some exceptions, to be small-scale, ad-hoc, and underfunded. Governments have been even less involved in sponsoring rehabilitation programs for individuals seeking to leave gangs, with most reintegration programs funded by church groups or NGOs. Central American government officials have generally cited budgetary limitations and competing concerns, such as drug trafficking, as major factors limiting their ability to implement more extensive prevention and rehabilitation programs. Experts have asserted, however, that it is important for governments to offer educational and job opportunities to youth who are willing to leave gangs before they are tempted to join more sophisticated criminal organizations. It is also critical, they argue, for intervention efforts to focus on strengthening families of at-risk youth.59 This may be changing, however, as the government of Mauricio Funes in El Salvador has increased funding for prevention programs to roughly 14% of the Ministry of Security’ budget (from a historic average of just over 1%). Research has shown that successful anti-gang efforts involve governments working in close collaboration with civil society, the private sector, churches, mayors, and international donors in order to leverage limited public resources.60 In fact, many successful anti-gang programs have developed as a result of community-driven efforts to respond to particular problems which are then supported by capacity-building programs for leaders from those communities. Although these types of programs may benefit from financial contributions from local and/or national governments, they may also need non-financial support, including “training, information sharing, leadership, or simply the provision of a dedicated space for programming or meetings.”61 Country and regional youth violence prevention programs have received significant support from a variety of international donors, but Central American governments have tended not to take an active role in ensuring that donor funds are well-coordinated and strategically invested. European donors, particularly the European Commission, Spain, and Germany, have been the largest supporters of prevention programs in Central America. U.S. support for prevention programs has also increased in recent years, particularly since the creation of an Economic and Social Development Fund for Central America as part of the Mérida Initiative. However, with the recent global economic downturn, many of these traditional donors now have fewer funds to dedicate to overseas prevention projects. As a result, Central American governments may have to enact tax 58 “Centroamérica Revisa Estrategias Para Luchar Contra Pandillas,” Agence France Presse, December 13, 2007. Kliksberg, 2007. 60 USAID Gang Assessment, 2006; José Miguel Cruz, Street Gangs in Central America, San Salvador: UCA Editors, 2007. 61 See the section by Caterina Gowis Roman in Daring to Care: Community-Based Responses to Youth Gang Violence in Central America and Central American Immigrant Communities in the United States, WOLA, October 2008. 59 Congressional Research Service 13 Gangs in Central America reforms to increase the revenues they have available for these and other programs. They may also seek new support for these types of projects from other countries or private entities interested in forming public-private partnerships. U.S. Policy In the mid-2000s, Administration officials and Members of Congress expressed serious concerns about gangs and violence in Central America and their spillover effects on the United States. More recently, concerns about gang-related violence have become subsumed by broader concerns about drug trafficking and organized crime in Central America, particularly since Mexico’s aggressive anticrime efforts have pushed Mexican DTOs deeper into the sub-region. Nevertheless, in September 2009 congressional testimony, FBI Director Robert Mueller stated that “criminal gangs ... are of increasing concern for domestic and international law enforcement ... [and that] the MS-13 [in particular] continues to expand its influence in the United States.”62 On October 11, 2012, Treasury Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence David S. Cohen said that “MS-13 is an extremely violent and dangerous gang responsible for a multitude of crimes that directly threaten ... U.S. citizens, as well as countries throughout Central America.”63 U.S. officials are striving to coordinate anti-gang initiatives on both the domestic and international fronts, taking into account their likely impact on domestic security, on the one hand, and on foreign relations with the countries of Central America and Mexico, on the other. Congressional Interest and Appropriations for Anti-Gang and Related Security Efforts in Central America Congress has expressed concern about the problem of transnational gangs and interest in the effectiveness of U.S. international anti-gang efforts. Since the 110th Congress, interest in the topic of gangs and violence in Central America has included concerns about the domestic and international criminal activities of the gangs, as well as the relationship between gangs and drug trafficking organizations. Members of Congress have also expressed interest in the effects of U.S. deportation policy and mano dura approaches in the region on Central American gangs. As Congress has appropriated significant funding for anti-gang efforts, there has also been oversight of the efficacy of U.S. programs that affect Central American gangs. Since the enactment of the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act, P.L. 110-161, Congress has appropriated global International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement (INCLE) funding for anti-gang programs in Central America that are led by the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL).64 Between FY2008 and FY2012, Congress provided $27 million 62 Testimony by Robert Mueller, Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), U.S. Department of Justice, before the Senate Judiciary Committee, September 16, 2009. 63 U.S. Department of Treasury, “Treasury Sanctions Latin American Criminal Organization,” press release, October 11, 2012. 64 Initial funds for the State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs’ (INL) programs in the region came from $16 million in unspent Andean Counterdrug Program funds that were reprogrammed in September 2007 to support drug interdiction operations, anti-gang efforts, and demand reduction initiatives in Central America. Congressional Research Service 14 Gangs in Central America through that mechanism, although the funds requested have been trending downward.65 As subsequently discussed, a Regional Gang Advisor based in El Salvador coordinates the anti-gang funds in support of the 2007 U.S. Strategy to Combat the Threat of Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico. In order to address broader security concerns in Central America, Congress has appropriated $496.5 million for the countries of Central America since FY2008 under what was formerly known as the Mérida Initiative-Central America and is now known as the Central American Regional Security Initiative (CARSI).66 Of that total, Congress has provided $146 million to the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) for rule of law efforts and crime and violence prevention programs and to the State Department for cultural programs and small grants. The Administration requested an additional $107.5 million for CARSI for FY2013. In the absence of a final FY2013 foreign appropriations measure, Congress passed a continuing resolution, H.J.Res. 117, to fund most foreign aid programs—including CARSI—at FY2012 levels plus 0.6% through March 27, 2013. Evolution of U.S. International Anti-Gang Efforts For at least the last six years, several U.S. agencies have been actively engaged on both the law enforcement and preventive side of dealing with Central American gangs. In 2004, the FBI created an MS-13 Task Force to improve information-sharing and intelligence-gathering among U.S. and Central American law enforcement officials. In 2005, the Bureau of Immigrations and Customs Enforcement (ICE) within the Department of Homeland Security created a national antigang initiative called “Operation Community Shield.” In addition to arresting suspected gang members in the United States, ICE began working more closely with its offices overseas to coordinate with foreign governments also experiencing gang problems. Since February 2005, ICE has arrested more than 3,332 suspected MS-13 members in the United States. Also in 2005, USAID Also in 2005, USAID undertook a comprehensive assessment of the gang problem in Central America and Mexico. In that assessment, USAID found that while a few U.S. programs addressed some aspects of the gang phenomenon, several new initiatives would be needed in the areas of prevention, law enforcement, and rehabilitation/reintegration. Throughout 2005 and 2006, an inter-agency committee worked together to develop a U.S. Strategy to Combat Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico, which was announced at a July 2007 U.S.-SICACentral America Integration System (SICA)67 summit on security issues. 5968 The strategy acknowledged that, based on previous U.S. and regional experiences, future anti-gang efforts should be holistic, comprehensive, and regional in scope. It called for active engagement with governments in the region, the OAS, and the SICA. The strategy stated that the U.S. government will pursue coordinated anti-gang activities in five broad areas: diplomacy, repatriation, law enforcement, capacity enhancement, and prevention. Selected current initiatives by U.S. agencies to implement the international components of that strategy are discussed below. 57 U.S. Department of State, "The Central American Regional Security Initiative: A Shared Partnership," press release, August 5, 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/scp/fs/2010/145747.htm. 58 In S.Rept. 111-237, the Senate Appropriations Committee continued to refer to U.S. security assistance programs in Central America as “Mérida Initiative” programs rather than CARSI programs. The Committee included Haiti and the Dominican Republic among the countries to receive $75 million in INCLE assistance. 59 65 The FY2010 funds for INL’s regional anti-gang efforts – roughly $8 million – were included as part of CARSI because of legislative language that placed a cap on security aid to the region. 66 For more information, see: CRS Report R41731, Central America Regional Security Initiative: Background and Policy Issues for Congress. 67 The Central American Integration System (SICA), a regional organization with a Secretariat in El Salvador, is composed of the governments of Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Panama. The Security Commission was created in 1995 to develop and carry out regional security efforts. 68 U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesman, “Combating Criminal Gangs from Central America and Mexico,” July 18, 2007. Congressional Research Service 16 Gangs in Central America 15 Gangs in Central America repatriation, law enforcement, capacity enhancement, and prevention. Selected current initiatives by U.S. agencies to implement the international components of that strategy are discussed below. In April 2010, the GAO published a report examining (1) the extent to which the federal government had developed an adequate strategy to combat Central American gangs, and (2) how well federal agencies had implemented the strategy, coordinated their actions, and assessed their results.6069 According to that report, the U.S. government has developed and implemented an interagency anti-gang strategy that outlines the threats posed by Central American gangs and the activities that each federal agency is doing to respond to those threats. However, the GAO recommended that the strategy be revised to include better coordination mechanisms between the various implementing agencies and performance measures to evaluate its progress. State Department Over the last several years, the State Department has provided training and technical assistance to law enforcement and corrections officials throughout Central America, sponsored anti-gang workshops at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA)61 in San Salvador, promoted regional coordination through SICA, and established a model police precinct in Villanueva, Guatemala. Initial funds for the State Department’s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs’ (INL) programs in the region came from $16 million in unspent Andean Counterdrug Program funds that were reprogrammed in September 2007 to support drug interdiction operations, anti-gang efforts, and demand reduction initiatives in Central America. Since FY2008, INL programs have also been funded by a line item in the Foreign Operations budget designated for “Criminal Youth Gangs.” Funding for this program totaled approximately $8 million in FY2008, $5 million in FY2009, and $8 million in FY2010 In recent years, the U.S. government has expanded its citizen security and law enforcement programs in Central America through the Mérida Initiative/CARSI. CARSI builds upon existing programs, both on a bilateral and regional basis. Its five primary goals are to: 1) create safe streets for the citizens in the region; 2) disrupt the movement of criminals and contraband within and between the nations of Central America; 3) support the development of strong, capable, and accountable Central American governments; 4) re-establish effective state presence and security in communities at risk; and, 5) foster enhanced levels of security and rule of law coordination and cooperation between the nations of the region.70 CARSI does not focus on gangs directly, as it’s “two principle targets are violence and drugs.”71 However, since gangs are tied to both drug trafficking and violence, broader CARSI programs complement, and may at times overlap with, INL’s anti-gang programs. El Salvador’s selection as one of four countries in the world to participate in the Obama Administration’s Partnership for Growth (PFG)72 initiative has further heightened the attention on security issues – including anti-gang efforts – in that country in particular. As a first step of implementing the PFG in El Salvador, a binational team conducted a diagnostic study published in July 2011 that identified the two greatest constraints on growth in the country as crime and insecurity and a lack of competitiveness in the “tradables”73 sector.74 The countries then signed a 2011-2015 Joint Country Action Plan75 that includes detailed pledges by the U.S. and Salvadoran governments on how they intend to address twenty shared goals, fourteen of which focus on security. Since the two countries have promised to provide public reports every six months on progress made in reaching those goals, there has been pressure on both governments to expand community policing programs, U.S. training of the police’s anti-gang unit, and crime prevention 69 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Combating Gangs: Federal Agencies Have Implemented a Central American Gang Strategy, but Could Strengthen Oversight and Measurement of Efforts, 10-395, April 23, 2010. 70 U.S. Department of State, "The Central American Regional Security Initiative: A Shared Partnership," press release, August 5, 2010, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/scp/fs/2010/145747.htm. 71 Brownfield, 2012. 72 The principles behind the PFG Initiative are to (1) focus on broad-based economic growth; (2) select countries with demonstrated performance and political will; (3) use joint decision-making and prioritization of activities; (4) support catalytic policy change and institutional reform; (5) leverage U.S. government engagement for maximum impact; and (6) emphasize partnership and country ownership. 73 “Tradables” refers to products that are or can be traded internationally. 74 U.S. Department of State, Partnership for Growth: El Salvador Constraints Analysis, July 19, 2011. 75 U.S. Department of State, Partnership for Growth: El Salvador-United States Joint Country Action Plan 2011-2015, November 2011, http://photos.state.gov/libraries/elsavador/92891/octubre2011/Joint_Country_Action_Plan.pdf. Congressional Research Service 16 Gangs in Central America programs. It remains to be seen whether the PFG will lead the U.S. government to focus more attention on El Salvador than on neighboring Honduras and Guatemala. State Department Over the last several years, the State Department has provided training and technical assistance to law enforcement and corrections officials throughout Central America, sponsored anti-gang workshops at the International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA)76 in San Salvador, promoted regional coordination through SICA, and established model police precincts. As previously mentioned, INL programs have also been funded since FY2008 by a line item in the Foreign Operations budget designated for “Criminal Youth Gangs.” Funds provided through that line item totaled approximately $35 million between FY2008 and FY2012. In January 2008, INL sent a Regional Gang Advisor to El Salvador to coordinate its Central American gang programs. In July 2008, that advisor produced a detailed assessment of the gang problem in Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala and a work plan focusing on six key areas: investigative capacity, legal capacity, intelligence capacity, community policing, prevention, and prisons. Since that time, the Regional Gang Advisor has initiated country and regional prevention activities, sponsored trainings and technical exchanges for police and prison officers from across the region, taught an ILEA anti-gang course, and supported community policing programs in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. INL is also supporting a Regional Corrections Advisor INL has sponsored trainings and technical exchanges for police, prison officers, and justice sector operators from across the region; provided training and equipment to vetted police units and intelligence analysts; and established five community policing/model police precinct programs in Guatemala and El Salvador. 77 INL gang funding is also supporting a Regional Corrections Advisor who is assisting with prison reform programs in the region., including the development of intelligence units within the prisons. In the area of prevention, INL has trained more than a hundred police officers throughout Central America who have provided training to 12,000 youth in the past two years through the Gang Resistance Education and Training (GREAT) program.78 Additionally, the State Department, which coordinates Mérida Initiative/CARSI programs in Central America, has identified gangs as a critical threat to the region, and allocated resources to the the Department of Justice, ICE, and the U.S. Agency for International Development to enable those those agencies to counter the impact of gangs in the region. Department of Justice Within the Department of Justice (DOJ), the FBI is implementing several programs to improve the capacity of law enforcement in Central America to carry out investigations and share 60 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Combating Gangs: Federal Agencies Have Implemented a Central American Gang Strategy, but Could Strengthen Oversight and Measurement of Efforts, 10-395, April 23, 2010. 61 intelligence on gang suspects. The Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance, 76 The International Law Enforcement Academy (ILEA) based in San Salvador, El Salvador is one of four regional law enforcement training academies funded by the State Department’s INL Bureau. The ILEA in San Salvador offers training and technical assistance to law enforcement officials from throughout Latin America. In 2009, the ILEA conducted five anti-gang courses. Congressional Research Service 17 Gangs in Central America intelligence on gang suspects. The Office of Overseas Prosecutorial Development, Assistance, 77 Model police precincts currently exist in Guatemala (Coban, Mixco, and Villanueva) and El Salvador (Lourdes and Santa Ana). Another is in the process of being developed in Honduras. The model precincts emphasize crime prevention and targeted, intelligence-driven enforcement. In Lourdes, the implementation of the model precinct program and its practices coincided with a 40% drop in homicides and other crimes. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, Regional Gang Initiative Progress Status Report – CY2011, January 27, 2012. 78 Brownfield, 2012. Congressional Research Service 17 Gangs in Central America and Training (OPDAT) has also provided some training on prosecuting gang-related cases to judicial officials in the region. The deployment of a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosive (ATF) Regional Advisor to San Salvador is enabling ATF to support transnational gang investigations involving U.S. origin firearms. FBI, OPDAT, and ATF programs are supported by the Mérida Initiative/CARSI or other State Department funding and are carried out in collaboration with INL. Recent programs include: • Central American Fingerprinting Exploitation (CAFÉ): a criminal file/fingerprint retrieval initiative that has incorporated more than 72,000 finger prints thousands of finger prints from gang members from Mexico, El Salvador, Belize, Honduras, and Guatemala Guatemala into the FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System since since 2006. The data are accessible to Central American police officials. • Transnational Anti-Gang (TAG) Units: a program that began in El Salvador in October 2007 involving the creation of vetted police units that work with FBI agents stationed in San Salvador on investigating gang-related cases that have a nexus with the United States. TAG . TAG activities are beinghave been expanded into Guatemala and Honduras and Honduras and have contributed to successful indictments of MS-13 members in major cities across the United States. • Central American Law Enforcement Exchange (CALEE): a joint FBI/INL program that brings law enforcement officials from Central America together with their counterparts from several large U.S. cities to share information and intelligence. • Repatriation-Criminal History Information Program (CHIP): a joint FBI/ICE program to provide more complete criminal history information on U.S. deportees to Central American law enforcement officials in receiving countries. CHIP began in El Salvador in 2010.622012.79 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) In addition to Operation Community Shield, which was previously discussed, ICE recently formed an anti-gang task force in Honduras to gather intelligence to support gang investigations in Honduras and in the United States. ICE special agents are also based at other U.S. embassies in the region, including in Guatemala and El Salvador. ICE has also developed an internet-based system to facilitate the transmission of travel documents for illegal aliens, including gang members, who are being deported to El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) USAID has provided $2.8 million for a regional anti-gang program cosponsored by SICA, known as the “Regional Youth Alliance USAID-SICA.” The program, which began in April 2008, involves (1) the creation of public-private partnerships to support prevention and rehabilitation programs in Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador; (2) an assessment of the juvenile justice systems in each of those countries followed by efforts to reform those systems; and, (3) collaborating with SICA to evaluate each of these initiatives and to create and implement new policy responses. As part of its efforts to sponsor community-based programs, the Regional Youth 62 FBI Press Release, “United Against MS-13; Our Central American Partnerships,” November 10, 2009; CRS phone Interview with State Department official, December 8, 2010. Congressional Research Service 18 Gangs in Central America Alliance aims to provide 45 sub-grants to local NGOs in targeted communities, many of which are offering computer-based job training to at-risk youth. Those sub-grants aim to reach some 300 community leaders and 3,000 youth. USAID is also implementing country and regional anti-gang programs with support from the Mérida Initiative Economic and Social Development Fund (ESDF) for Central America that was created by P.L. 110-252, the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act. With ESDF funding, USAID is supporting Community Action Fund (CAF) activities that provide at-risk youth in highcrime communities with basic or secondary education and job training. CAF activities will be modeled after the Regional Youth Alliance program. USAID is also funding Community Crime and Gang Prevention Programs (CCGP) that focus on strengthening the role of local governments in developing citizen security and anti-gang programs. ESDF also supports community policing activities. One problem currently being encountered in the region relates to the timely delivery of funds for anti-gang programs. For instance, many Mérida/CARSI-funded efforts are just getting underway, as FY2008 supplemental funding did not arrive to most of the USAID Missions in Central America until August 2009.63 Most programs in Honduras did not commence until early 2010 because of the temporary suspension of U.S. assistance to that country in the wake of President Manuel Zelaya’s ouster in late June 2009. Policy Approaches and Concerns Most policy-makers agree that finding regional solutions to the gang problem is essential. Many also concur that in order to effectively reduce gang-related crime, a holistic approach to the problem must be developed that addresses its root social, political, and economic causes. There is disagreement, however, over the proper level and combination of preventive and suppressive policies that should be used in Central America to address the gang problem and over what U.S. agency is best equipped to oversee those efforts. Debates regarding the relative merits of prevention and suppression methods reemerged when the 110th Congress considered the Bush Administration’s FY2008 supplemental budget request for the Mérida Initiative. As previously mentioned, Congress increased funding for rule of law, prevention, and development programs and reduced funding for some police training and equipment programs as compared to the budget request. It did so by earmarking $25 million in Economic Support Funds (ESF) for the creation of an Economic and Social Development Fund (ESDF) for Central America. Congress also increased the amount of funds appropriated to USAID vis-à-vis INL and other law enforcement agencies by stipulating that of the FY2008 ESF funds provided, $20 million are to be administered by USAID. The 111th Congress included another $12 million for the ESDF in the FY2009 Omnibus Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-8) and $20.5 million in the Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117) to support USAID programs in violence-prone communities. Proponents of law enforcement solutions maintain that Central American law enforcement officials lack the capacity and resources to target gang leaders effectively, share data, and conduct thorough investigations that lead to successful prosecutions. In addition to supporting specialized 63 GAO, July 21, 2010, op-cit. Congressional Research Service 19 Gangs in Central America anti-gang units, the Mérida Initiative/CARSI seeks to address these issues by providing funding for police training to build investigative capacity and communications equipment for police forces. CARSI does not include funds to support large-scale police reform, even though corruption within law enforcement is a major obstacle to current anti-gang efforts. It does, however, aim to improve police-community relations, which have been very poor in many communities, through support for community policing programs modeled after the successful U.S.-funded program in Villanueva, Guatemala. While most U.S. observers argue that the State Department and FBI should take the lead in assistance to improve law enforcement capacity, others see a possible role for the U.S. Southern Command in training regional security forces.64 In recent years, the U.S. Southern Command has taken a leading role in discussing the problem of citizen security in Central America, both within the U.S. inter-agency community and with Central American officials. Critics of U.S. military involvement in anti-gang efforts have noted that it is the State Department’s role to provide security assistance to foreign governments, subject to human rights and democracy concerns. They have expressed satisfaction that the Mérida Initiative (and now CARSI) emphasizes regional cooperation by civilian agencies on public security issues through the U.S.-SICA dialogue, with no explicit role established for the U.S. Southern Command or the region’s militaries. 65 Based on the experiences of cities throughout the United States, proponents of more preventionbased interventions argue that localities that provide social services to at-risk youth have been more effective in preventing gang violence than those that have relied only on law enforcement approaches. 66 These findings mirror the results of several studies previously cited in this report that focus on reducing gang violence in Central America. As a result, human rights groups urged Congress to include more of an emphasis on prevention and rehabilitation in the Mérida Initiative than the Bush Administration had originally proposed. 67 As previously stated, Congress increased funding for prevention programs, as well as economic and social development programs, in P.L. 110-252, P.L. 111-8, and P.L. 111-117. Author Contact Information Clare Ribando Seelke Specialist in Latin American Affairs cseelke@crs.loc.gov, 7-5229 64 The only military component in the Administration’s proposal for Mérida was the $21 million requested in FY2009 to support Enduring Friendship, a Department of Defense program to provide naval equipment to Central American countries so that they can work with the U.S. Coast Guard and Navy on maritime drug interdiction efforts. 65 U.S. Department of State, Office of Language Services Translating Division, “Not All That is Gold Glitters and Not All That Glitters is Gold,” by Joel Fyke and Maureen Myer, March 2008, originally published in Foreign Affairs en Español, Vol. 8, No. 1. 66 “Gang Wars,” Justice Policy Institute, Washington, DC, July 2007. 67 “Memo: The Merida Initiative and Citizen Security in Mexico and Central America,” Washington Office on Latin America, March 2008.implemented a variety of country and regional anti-gang programs, some of which have been co-managed by SICA. Initial support for these programs came from what was known as the Economic and Social Development Fund (ESDF) for Central America that was created by P.L. 110-252, the FY2008 Supplemental Appropriations Act. Congress has maintained support for these efforts by providing a percentage of CARSI funds through the Economic Support Fund (ESF) account, which is implemented by USAID. 79 FBI Press Release, “United Against MS-13; Our Central American Partnerships,” November 10, 2009; Embassy of the United States in San Salvador, El Salvador, “El Salvador Signs Chip,” press release, May 9, 2012. Congressional Research Service 18 Gangs in Central America As of mid-2012, USAID had projects under implementation in 50 municipalities and 175 communities.80 Those projects include: support for municipal committees to develop crime prevention plans; funding to implement the initiatives identified as priorities by those municipalities, including community policing programs, crime observatories, and at-risk youth programs; and, the establishment of 100 outreach centers to provide recreational and educational opportunities for youth in high-crime areas. USAID has also worked with SICA on regional policy initiatives, such as reforming juvenile justice systems throughout the region to move towards an emphasis on restorative justice. Finally, USAID has formed partnerships with other donors, private foundations/companies, and, most recently, the city of Los Angeles, to develop innovative prevention and rehabilitation/reinsertion programs. The city of Los Angeles will share best practices in preventing gang violence and promoting youth development with cities in Central America and advise USAID and its implementers on citizen security programming. U.S. Treasury Department On October 11, 2012, the Treasury Department designated the MS-13 as a significant transnational criminal organization whose assets will be targeted for economic sanctions pursuant to Executive Order (E.O.) 13581.81 Issued in July 2011 as part of the Obama Administration’s National Strategy to Combat Transnational Organized Crime, E.O. 13581 enables the Treasury Department to block the assets of members and associates of designated criminal organizations and prohibit U.S. citizens from engaging in transactions with them.82 The Treasury Department based its designation on the MS-13’s involvement in “drug trafficking, kidnapping, human smuggling, sex trafficking, murder,” and other serious criminal offenses that threaten U.S. and Central American citizens. While there is evidence that some MS-13 cliques in the Washington D.C. area collaborate with groups based in El Salvador, many analysts maintain that transnational collaboration is not the norm for the MS-13.83 Salvadoran officials seemed surprised by the designation, with President Funes asserting that U.S. officials may be “overestimating the economic risk or financial risk resulting from the criminal actions of the MS.”84 He and Minister of Justice and Public Security Munguía Payés have pledged to continue supporting efforts the peace process involving MS-13 and M-18 despite the designation. In response, U.S. officials have stood by the TCO designation, asserting that it will provide law enforcement with additional tools to advance domestic and international anti-gang efforts.85 80 USAID’s Impact Blog, “Ask the Expert: Enrique Roig, Coordinator for Central America Regional Security Initiative (CARSI),” May 31, 2012. 81 U.S. Department of Treasury, “Treasury Sanctions Latin American Criminal Organization,” press release, October 11, 2012. 82 The first four criminal organizations that received Transnational Criminal Organization (TCO) designations were: the Brother’s Circle, the Camorra, Los Zetas, and the Yakuza. See: The White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Executive Order 13581--Blocking Property of Transnational Criminal Organizations,” July 25, 2011. 83 Geoffrey Ramsey, “Tracking El Salvador’s Mara Salvatrucha in Washington D.C.,” InSight Crime, October 12, 2012. 84 Geoffrey Ramsey, “El Salvador President: US 'Overestimating' MS-13,” InSight Crime, October 11, 2012. 85 Garrett, October 2012. Congressional Research Service 19 Gangs in Central America Possible Questions for Oversight • Evolving Gang Threat. To what degree are the gangs in Central America becoming more organized and sophisticated? Are there concerns primarily local, or transnational? What types of ties do they have with other criminal organizations based in Central America and with Mexican DTOs? To what extent are cliques in the region communicating with groups in the United States? • U.S. Strategy. Five years after the adoption of an interagency strategy to combat the gangs, what have been the results of U.S. efforts? How is the success or failure of the strategy being measured? How are domestic and international efforts in support of the strategy being coordinated? • CARSI. To what extent is CARSI addressing the gang problem in Central America? Is there any duplication between INL’s centrally managed gang programs and CARSI initiatives? Does it still make sense to fund and implement the two programs separately? • Leveraging U.S. assistance. To what extent are U.S. anti-gang efforts being coordinated with those of other donors? Has the private sector stepped forward to complement any donor-led initiatives? Have any recipient countries been able to take over responsibility for programs that began with U.S. funding? How well is SICA coordinating regional anti-gang efforts? • U.S. Efforts and the Gang Truce in El Salvador. Have any U.S. programs been revamped or scaled up in order to support the truce? Should the truce fail, what might be the impact on security in that country and across the region? • New Tools. To what extent are countries in the region using new tools—such as asset forfeiture and wiretapping—to go after the gangs? How might the Treasury Department’s decision to sanction the MS-13 bolster efforts to combat the gangs, both in the United States and in Central America? Author Contact Information Clare Ribando Seelke Specialist in Latin American Affairs cseelke@crs.loc.gov, 7-5229 Congressional Research Service 20