< Back to Current Version

Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer

Changes from January 28, 2010 to January 30, 2013

This page shows textual changes in the document between the two versions indicated in the dates above. Textual matter removed in the later version is indicated with red strikethrough and textual matter added in the later version is indicated with blue.

Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer John J. Topoleski Analyst in Income Security January 28, 201030, 2013 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov RL34397 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Congressional Briefing Conference: Capitol Hill Workshop Politics, Policy, and Process The definitive overview of how Congress works. This intensive course is offered as a 3-day public Briefing and as a tailored on-site 3, 4 or 5-day program. Public Briefings are offered throughout the year in Washington, DC. Space is limited. Dates, Agenda, Previous Faculty, and Secure Online Registration: TCNCHW.com On-site Congressional Briefings and Capitol Hill Workshops for agencies: CLCHW.com 703-739-3790 TheCapitol.Net All of our courses and workshops include extensive interaction with our faculty, making our courses and workshops both educational as well as miniconsulting sessions with substantive experts. Non-partisan training and publications that show how Washington works.™ PO Box 25706, Alexandria, VA 22313-5706 703-739-3790 • www.thecapitol.net TheCapitol.Net is on the GSA Schedule, 874-4, for custom on-site training. GSA Contract GS02F0192X Courses approved for CEUs from George Mason University Our Upcoming Schedule of Courses can be seen online on our web site or at TCNCourses.com. All of our courses and any combination of their topics can be customized for on-site training for your organization—we are on GSA Advantage, Contract GS02F0192X. thecapitol.net 703-739-3790 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Summary In response to concerns over the adequacy of retirement savings, Congress has created incentives to encourage individuals to save more for retirement through a variety of retirement plans. Some retirement plans are employer-sponsored, (such as 401(k) plans), and others are established by individual employees, (such as Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs)). This report describes the primary features of two common retirement savings accounts that are available to individuals. Both traditional and Roth IRAs offer tax incentives to encourage individuals to save for retirement. Although the accounts have many features in common, they differ in some very important aspects. This report explains the eligibility requirements, contribution limits, tax deductibility of contributions, and rules for withdrawing funds from the accounts. This report will be updated as legislative activity warrants. Congressional Research Service Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Contents Introduction ................................................................................................................................1 IRA Assets and Sources of Funds ................................................................................................1 Traditional IRAs .........................................................................................................................3 Eligibility..............................................................................................................................3 Contributions ........................................................................................................................3 Investment Options ...............................................................................................................4 Deductibility of Contributions ...............................................................................................4 Withdrawals..........................................................................................................................5 Early Distributions ................................................................................................................6 Rollovers ..............................................................................................................................7 Inherited IRAs ......................................................................................................................7 Roth IRAs...................................................................................................................................8 Eligibility and Contribution Limits........................................................................................9 Investment Options ...............................................................................................................9 Conversions and Rollovers....................................................................................................9 Withdrawals..........................................................................................................................9 Return of Regular Contributions.................................................................................... 10 Qualified Distributions.................................................................................................. 10 Non-Qualified Distributions .......................................................................................... 10 Distributions after Roth IRA Owner’s Death ....................................................................... 10 Retirement Savings Contribution Credit .................................................................................... 11 Qualified Distributions Related to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma .................................... 12 Qualified Distributions Related to the Midwestern Disaster Relief Area .................................... 12 Tables Table 1. Traditional and Roth IRAs: End of Year Assets ..............................................................2 Table 2. Traditional IRAs: Source of Funds .................................................................................2 Table 3. Number of Households with Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) in 2007.................2 Table 4. IRA Account Balances in 2007.......................................................................................3 Table 5. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Not Covered by a Plan at Work for 2009 and 2010...........................................................................................................5 Table 6. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Covered by a Plan at Work for 2009 and 2010 ....................................................................................................................5 Table 7. Inherited IRA Distribution Rules....................................................................................8 Table 8. Roth IRA Eligibility and Contribution Limits for 2009 and 2010.................................. 11 Table 9. Retirement Saving Contribution Credit Income Limits for 2009 and 2010 ................... 12 Congressional Research Service Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Contacts Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 13Although the accounts have many features in common, they differ in some very important aspects. Both traditional and Roth IRAs offer tax incentives to encourage individuals to save for retirement. Contributions to traditional IRAs may be tax-deductible for taxpayers who (1) are not covered by a retirement plan at their place of employment or (2) have income below specified limits. Contributions to Roth IRAs are not tax-deductible and eligibility is limited to those with incomes under specified limits. The tax treatment of distributions from traditional and Roth IRAs differs. Distributions from traditional IRAs are generally included in taxable income whereas distributions from Roth IRAs are not included in taxable income. Some distributions may be subject to an additional 10% tax penalty, unless the distribution is for a reason specified in the Internal Revenue Code (for example, distributions from IRAs after the individual is age 59 ½ or older are not subject to the early withdrawal penalty). Individuals may rollover eligible distributions from other retirement accounts (such as an account balance from a 401(k) plans upon leaving an employer) into IRAs. Rollovers preserve retirement savings by allowing investment earnings on the funds in the retirement accounts to accrue on a tax-deferred, in the case of traditional IRAs, or a tax-free basis, in the case of Roth IRAs. The Retirement Savings Contribution Credit (also known as the Saver’s Credit) is a nonrefundable tax credit of up to $1,000. It was authorized in 2001 to encourage retirement savings among individuals with income under specified limits. The report explains the eligibility requirements, contribution limits, tax deductibility of contributions, and rules for withdrawing funds from the accounts. It also describes the Saver’s Credit and provisions enacted after the Gulf of Mexico hurricanes in 2005 and the Midwestern storms in 2008 to exempt distributions to those affected by the disasters from the 10% early withdrawal penalty. This report will be updated as circumstances warrant. Congressional Research Service Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Contents Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1 IRA Assets and Sources of Funds .................................................................................................... 1 Traditional IRAs .............................................................................................................................. 3 Eligibility ................................................................................................................................... 3 Contributions ............................................................................................................................. 4 Investment Options.................................................................................................................... 4 Deductibility of Contributions ................................................................................................... 4 Withdrawals ............................................................................................................................... 6 Early Distributions..................................................................................................................... 7 Rollovers.................................................................................................................................... 7 Inherited IRAs ........................................................................................................................... 8 Roth IRAs ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Eligibility and Contribution Limits ........................................................................................... 9 Investment Options.................................................................................................................. 10 Conversions and Rollovers ...................................................................................................... 10 Withdrawals ............................................................................................................................. 10 Return of Regular Contributions ....................................................................................... 10 Qualified Distributions ...................................................................................................... 11 Non-Qualified Distributions .............................................................................................. 11 Distributions after Roth IRA Owner’s Death .......................................................................... 11 Retirement Savings Contribution Credit........................................................................................ 12 Tables Table 1. Traditional and Roth IRAs: End of Year Assets ................................................................. 2 Table 2. Traditional IRAs: Source of Funds .................................................................................... 2 Table 3. Number of Households with IRAs in 2007 and 2010 ........................................................ 2 Table 4. IRA Account Balances in 2007 and 2010 .......................................................................... 3 Table 5. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Not Covered by a Plan at Work for 2012 and 2013 ............................................................................................................... 5 Table 6. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Covered by a Plan at Work for 2012 and 2013 ......................................................................................................................... 6 Table 7. Inherited IRA Distribution Rules ....................................................................................... 9 Table 8. Roth IRA Eligibility and Contribution Limits for 2012 and 2013 ................................... 12 Table 9. Retirement Saving Contribution Credit Income Limits for 2012 and 2013..................... 13 Appendixes Appendix. Qualified Distributions Related to Natural Disasters ................................................... 14 Congressional Research Service Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Contacts Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 15 Congressional Research Service Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Introduction Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) are tax-advantaged accounts that individuals (or married couples) can establish in order to accumulate funds for retirement. Depending on the type of IRA, contributions may be made on a pre-tax or post-tax basis, and investment earnings are either taxdeferred or tax-free.1 IRAs were first authorized by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA,; P.L. 93-406). Originally limited to workers without pension coverage, all workers and spouses were made eligible for IRAs by the Economic Recovery Act of 1981 (P.L. 97-34). The Tax Reform Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-514) limited the eligibility for tax-deductible contributions to individuals whose employers do not sponsor plans and to those whose employers sponsor plans but who have earnings below certain thresholds. The Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-34) allowed for certain penalty-free withdrawals and authorized the Roth IRA, which provides taxfree growth from after-tax contributions. The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-16) significantly affected the contribution limits in these plans in three ways: (1) it increased the limits, (2) it indexed the limits to inflation, and (3) it allowed for individuals aged 50 and older to make additional “catch-up” contributions. Among other provisions, the Pension Protection Act of 2006 (P.L. 109-280) temporally allowed for tax-free distributions for charitable contributions; made permanent the indexing of contribution limits to inflation; and allowed taxpayers to direct the IRS to deposit tax refunds directly into an IRA. 12 This report describes the two kinds of IRAs that individual employees can establish: traditional IRAs and Roth IRAs. 23 It describes the rules regarding eligibility, contributions, and withdrawals. It also describes a tax credit for retirement savings contributions as well as rules related to . An Appendix explains rules related to penalty-free distributions for those affected by Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilmathe 2005 Gulf of Mexico hurricanes and the 2008 Midwestern floods. The appendix also describes relief provided by the IRS to those affected by Hurricane Sandy. IRA Assets and Sources of Funds Table 1 contains data on the end-of-year assets in traditional and Roth IRAs from 2002 to 20082011. According to the Investment Company Institute, traditional IRAs held much more in assets than Roth IRAs. At the end of 20082011, there was $3.24.3 trillion held in traditional IRAs and $225 billion held in Roth IRAs. IRA account balances were 25% lower at the end of 2008 compared with the end of 2007. Table 2 indicates that within traditional IRAs, more funds flowed from rollovers from employersponsored pensions compared to funds from regular contributions.3 For example, in 2004 (the 1 See also 26 U.S.C. § 408 for traditional IRAs and 26 U.S.C. § 408A for Roth IRAs. 2 266 billion held in Roth IRAs. Table 2 indicates that within traditional IRAs, more funds flowed from 1 For more information on the tax treatment of retirement savings, including IRAs, see U.S. Congress, Joint Committee on Taxation, Present Law And Background Relating To The Tax Treatment Of Retirement Savings, prepared by Joint Committee on Taxation, 112th Cong., 2nd sess., April 13, 2012, JCX-32-12. 2 See also 26 U.S.C. §408 for traditional IRAs and 26 U.S.C. §408A for Roth IRAs. 3 For additional information, see CRS Report RL30255, Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): Issues and Proposed Expansion, by Thomas L. Hungerford and Jane G. Gravelle and CRS Report RS22019, IRAs and Other Savings Incentives: A Brief Overview, by Jane G. Gravelle. There are also two kinds of IRAs established by employers for employees in small businesses: Simplified Employee Pensions (SEP-IRA) and Savings Incentive Match Plans for Employees (SIMPLE-IRA). These may be the subject of a future CRS report. 3 Generally, rollovers are tax-free distributions of assets from one retirement plan that are contributed to a second retirement plan. Regular contributions are contributions to IRAs that are made from individuals’ pre- or post-tax (continued...) Congressional Research Service 1 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer latest year Congressional Research Service 1 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer rollovers from employer-sponsored pensions compared to funds from regular contributions.4 For example, in 2008 (the latest year for which data are available) funds from rollovers were $213.6 272.1 billion, whereas funds from contributions were only $12.313.4 billion. Table 3 indicates that nearly as many households had traditional IRAs as households that had Roth and rollover IRAs combined. However, Table 4 indicates that in 2010 the median balance in rollover IRAs was 8239.4% larger than the median account balance in traditional IRAs. TheIn 2010, the total amount in rollover IRAs was was only slightly larger than the total amount in traditional IRAs ($1.92.118 trillion versus $1.8 trillion). Table 1.2.095 trillion). The number of households with a traditional or rollover IRA decreased from 2007 to 2010, whereas the number of households with a Roth IRA increased slightly from 11.0 million to 11.2 million. Table 1. Traditional and Roth IRAs: End of Year Assets (in billions of dollars) Traditional IRAs Roth IRAs 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Traditional IRAs $2,322 $2,719 $2,957 $3,259034 $3,749 $4,197 $3,183 78 106 140 160 195 225 165722 $4,187 $3,257 $3,855 $4,250 $4,280 Roth IRAs 78 106 140 156 196 232 177 215 265 266 Source: CRS table using data from the Investment Company Institute, The U.S. Retirement Market, Second Quarter 2009Third Quarter 2012, Table 7, available at http://www.ici.org/pdf/09_q2_retmrkt_update.pdfinfo/ret_12_q3_data.xls. Table 2. Traditional IRAs: Source of Funds (in billions of dollars) Rollovers from Employer-Sponsored Pensions Contributions from Account Holders 2002 2003 2004 $204.4 $205.0 $213.6 12.4 12.3 12.3EmployerSponsored Pensions 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 $204.4 $205.0 $214.9 $228.5 $282.0 $316.6 $272.1 12.4 12.3 12.6 13.4 14.3 14.4 13.4 Contributions from Account Holders Source: CRS table using data from the Investment Company Institute, The U.S. Retirement Market, Second Quarter 2009Third Quarter 2012, Table 8, available at http://www.ici.org/pdf/09_q2_retmrkt_update.pdfinfo/ret_12_q3_data.xls. Table 3. Number of Households with Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs) in 2007 IRAs in 2007 and 2010 2007 Number of Households (millions) 2010 Number of Households (millions) Traditional IRA 20.1 18.4 Roth IRA 11.0 11.2 Rollover IRA 12.0 11.8 Only rollover IRA 7.6 6.7 Rollover and also either traditional or Roth IRA 4.4 Has any kind of IRA 35.2 Source: CRS Analysis of 2007 Survey of Consumer Finances. (...continued) income (subject to the rules of the particular type of IRA). Congressional Research Service 2 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Table 4. IRA Account Balances in 2007 Traditional IRA Roth IRA Rollover IRA Median balance (dollars) $29,000 $11,300 $53,000 Average balance (dollars) 88,986 30,288 159,315 Total of account balances (billions of dollars) 1,791.7 334.6 1,908.3 Source: CRS Analysis of 2007 Survey of Consumer Finances. traditional or Roth IRA 4.4 5.1 4 Generally, rollovers are tax-free distributions of assets from one retirement plan that are contributed to a second retirement plan. Regular contributions are contributions to IRAs that are made from individuals’ pre- or post-tax income (subject to the rules of the particular type of IRA). Congressional Research Service 2 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer 2007 Number of Households (millions) 2010 Number of Households (millions) 35.2 32.8 Has any kind of IRA Source: CRS Analysis of 2007 and 2010 Survey of Consumer Finances. Table 4. IRA Account Balances in 2007 and 2010 Inflation Adjusted 2010 Dollar Amounts Traditional IRA 2007 2010 Roth IRA Rollover IRA 2007 2010 2007 2010 Median balance (dollars) $30,498 $38,000 $11,884 $15,100 $55,738 $53,000 Average balance (dollars) $93,584 $113,990 $31,853 $48,198 $167,547 $179,001 Total of account balances (billions of dollars) $1,884.3 $2.095.1 $351.9 $541.9 $2,006.9 $2,117.5 Source: CRS Analysis of 2007 and 2010 Survey of Consumer Finances. Note: CRS adjusted the 2007 dollar amounts for inflation using the monthly averages for the Consumer Price Index, All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) in 2007 and 2010. Traditional IRAs Traditional IRAs are funded by workers’ contributions, which may be tax-deductible. The contributions accrue investment earnings in an account, and these earnings are used as a basis for retirement income. Among the benefits of traditional IRAs, two are (1) pre-tax contributions provide larger bases for accumulating investment earnings and, thus, provide larger account balances at retirement than if the money had been placed in taxable accounts; and (2) taxes are paid when funds are distributed. Since income tax rates in retirement are often lower than during working life, traditional IRA holders are likely to pay less in taxes when contributions are withdrawn than when the income was earned. Eligibility Individuals who are less than 70½ years old in a year and receive taxable compensation can set up and contribute to IRAs. Examples of compensation include wages, salaries, tips, commissions, self-employment income, alimony, and nontaxable combat pay. Individuals who receive income only from non-compensation sources cannot contribute to IRAs. Congressional Research Service 3 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Contributions Individuals may contribute either their gross compensation or the contribution limit, whichever is lower. In 2009 and 2010, the contribution limit is $5,000. Since 2009, the 2012, the contribution limit was $5,000 and in 2013 the limit is $5,500. Since 2009, the contribution limit has been indexed to inflation, although the change in the Consumer Price Index was insufficient for a cost-of-living adjustment to the 20102011 or 2012 contribution limit. Individuals aged 50 and older may make additional $1,000 catch-up contributions. For households that file a joint return, spouses may contribute an amount equal to the couple’s total compensation (reduced by the spouse’s IRA contributions) or the contribution limit ($5,000500 each, if younger than the age of 50, and $6,000 500 each, if 50 years or older), whichever is lower. Contributions that exceed the contribution limit and are not withdrawn by the due date for the tax return for that year are considered excess contributions and are subject to a 6% “excess contribution” tax. Contributions made between January 1 and April 15 may be designated for either the current year or the previous year. previous year. Because IRAs were intended for workers without an employer-sponsored pension to save for retirement, contributions to an IRA may only come from income from work, such as wages and tips. The following non-compensation sources of income cannot be used for IRA contributions: • earnings from property, interest, or dividends; • pension or annuity income; Congressional Research Service 3 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer • deferred compensation; • income from partnerships for which an individual does not provide services that are a material income-producing factor; and • foreign earned income. Investment Options IRAs can be set up through many financial institutions, such as banks, credit unions, mutual funds, life insurance companies, or stock brokerages. Individuals have an array of investment choices offered by the financial institutions and can transfer their accounts to other financial institutions if they are unhappy with their choices. Several transactions could result in additional taxes or the loss of IRA status. These transactions include borrowing from IRAs, using IRAs as collateral for loans, selling property to IRAs, and investing in collectibles like artwork, antiques, metals, gems, stamps, alcoholic beverages, and most coins. 45 Deductibility of Contributions IRA contributions may be non-tax-deductible, partially tax-deductible, or fully tax-deductible, depending on whether the individual or spouse is covered by a pension plan at work and the level of adjusted gross income. Individuals are covered by a retirement plan if (1) the individuals or 5 Gold, silver, and platinum coins issued by the U.S. Treasury, and gold, silver, palladium, and platinum bullion are permissible. Congressional Research Service 4 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer their employers have made contributions to a defined contribution pension plan, or (2) the individuals are eligible for a defined benefit pension plan (even if they refuse participation). For individuals and households not covered by a pension plan at work, Table 5 contains the income levels at which they may deduct all, some, or none of their IRA contributions, depending on the spouse’s pension coverage and the household’s adjusted gross income. Individuals without employer-sponsored pensions and, if married, whose spouse also does not have pension coverage may deduct up to the contribution limit from their income taxes regardless of their adjusted gross income. For individuals and households who are covered by a pension plan at work, Table 6 contains the income levels at which they may deduct all, some, or none of their IRA contributions, depending on the individual’s or household’s adjusted gross income. Individuals may still contribute to IRAs up to the contribution limit even if the contribution is non-deductible. Non-deductible contributions come from post-tax income, not pre-tax income. One advantage to placing post-tax income in traditional IRAs is that investment earnings on non-deductiblenondeductible contributions are not taxed until distributed. Only contributions greater than the contribution limits as described above are considered excess contributions. Worksheets for computing partial deductions are included in IRS Publication 590, Individual Retirement Arrangements (IRAs). 5 4 Gold, silver, and platinum coins issued by the U.S. Treasury, and gold, silver, palladium, and platinum bullion are permissible. 5 Available at http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p590.pdf. Congressional Research Service 4 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Arrangements (IRAs).6 Table 5. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Not Covered by a Plan at Work for 2009 and 2010 20092012 and 2013 2012 Adjusted Gross Income 20102013 Adjusted Gross Income Deduction Allowed Single, head of household, qualifying widow(er), or married filing jointly or separately with a spouse who is not covered by a plan at work Any amount Any amount Full deduction Married filing jointly or separately with a spouse who is covered by a plan at work $166173,000 or less $167178,000 or less full deduction More than $166173,000 but less than $176183,000 More than $166178,000 but less than $177188,000 Partial deduction $176183,000 or more $177188,000 or more No deduction Less than $10,000 Less than $10,000 Partial deduction $10,000 or more $10,000 or more No deduction Filing Status Married filing separately with a spouse who is covered by a plan at work Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590 and IRS News Release IR-2009-94.2012-77. 6 Available at http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p590.pdf. Congressional Research Service 5 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Table 6. Deductibility of IRA Contributions for Individuals Covered by a Plan at Work for 20092012 and 2010 Filing Status Adjusted Gross Income in 2009 Adjusted Gross Income in 2010 Deduction Allowed Single or head of household $55,000 or less $562013 Filing Status Single or head of household Married filing jointly or qualifying widow(er) Married filing separately 2012 Adjusted Gross Income 2013 Adjusted Gross Income Deduction Allowed $58,000 or less $59,000 or less Full deduction More than $5558,000 but less than $6568,000 More than $5659,000 but less than $6669,000 Partial deduction $6568,000 or more $6669,000 or more No deduction $8992,000 or less $8995,000 or less Full deduction More than $8992,000 but less than $109112,000 More than $8995,000 but less than $109112,000 Partial deduction $109112,000 or more $109115,000 or more No deduction Less than $10,000 Less than $10,000 Partial deduction $10,000 or more $10,000 or more No deduction Married filing jointly or qualifying widow(er) Married filing separately Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590 and IRS News Release IR-2009-942012-77. Withdrawals Withdrawals from IRAs are subject to income tax in the year that they are received. 67 Early distributions are withdrawals made before the age of 59½. Early distributions may be subject to an additional 10% penalty. 6 For a detailed explanation of withdrawals from IRAs, see CRS Report RL31770, Individual Retirement Accounts and 401(k) Plans: Early Withdrawals and Required Distributions, by Patrick Purcell. Congressional Research Service 5 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer To ensure that IRAs are used for retirement income and not for bequests, IRA holders must begin making withdrawals by April 1 of the year after reaching the age of 70½ (the required beginning date). The minimum amount that must be withdrawn (the required minimum distribution) is found by dividing the account balance on December 31 of the year preceding the distribution by the IRA owner’s life expectancy as found in IRS Publication 590.78 Although females live longer on average than males, separate life expectancy tables for males and females are not used for this purpose by the IRS.89 Required minimum distributions must be received by December 31 of each year. Failure to take the required minimum distribution results in 50% excise tax on the amount not distributed as required. Congress has suspended the RMD requirement for 2009.9 10 7 For a detailed explanation of withdrawals from IRAs, see CRS Report R40192, Early Withdrawals and Required Minimum Distributions in Retirement Accounts: Issues for Congress, by John J. Topoleski. 8 Life expectancy is calculated differently depending on whether the account holder is single and is an IRA beneficiary, has a spouse who is more than 10 years younger, has a spouse who is not more than 10 years younger, whose spouse is not the sole beneficiary, or is unmarried. 9 The Supreme Court ruled in Arizona Governing Comm. v. Norris, 463 U.S. 1073 (1983), that employer-provided pension plans must use unisex tables in calculating monthly annuity benefits. Citing this ruling, the IRS constructs its own unisex life expectancy tables. See 26 U.S.C. §417(e)(3)(A)(ii). 10 See CRS Report R40192, Early Withdrawals and Required Minimum Distributions in Retirement Accounts: Issues for Congress, by John J. Topoleski. Congressional Research Service 6 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Beginning in 2007, distributions from IRAs after the age of 70½ could be made directly to qualified charities and excluded from gross income. This provision for Qualified Charitable Distributions is set to expired December 31, 2009, unless Congress renews it.10expires December 31, 2013.11 Early Distributions Early distributions are withdrawals made before the age of 59½. Early distributions—just like distributions after the age of 59½—are subject to federal income tax. In order to discourage the use of IRA funds for pre-retirement uses, most early distributions are subject to a 10% tax penalty.1112 The early withdrawal penalty does not apply to distributions before the age of 59½ if they • occur if the individual is a beneficiary of a deceased IRA owner; • occur if the individual is disabled; • are in substantially equal payments over the account holder’s life expectancy; • are received after separation from employment after the age of 55; • are for unreimbursed medical expenses in excess of 7.5% of adjusted gross income; • are for medical insurance premiums in the case of unemployment; • are used for higher education expenses; • are used to build, buy, or rebuild a first home up to a $10,000 withdrawal limit; • occur if the individual is a reservist called to active duty after September 11, 2001; 7 Life expectancy is calculated differently depending on whether the account holder is single and is an IRA beneficiary, has a spouse who is more than 10 years younger, has a spouse who is not more than 10 years younger, whose spouse is not the sole beneficiary, or is unmarried. 8 The Supreme Court ruled in Arizona Governing Comm. v. Norris, 463 U.S. 1073 (1983), that employer-provided pension plans must use unisex tables in calculating monthly annuity benefits. Citing this ruling, the IRS constructs its own unisex life expectancy tables. See 26 U.S.C. § 417(e)(3)(A)(ii). 9 See CRS Report R40192, Early Withdrawals and Required Minimum Distributions in Retirement Accounts: Issues for Congress, by John J. Topoleski. 10 See CRS Report RS22766, Qualified Charitable Distributions from Individual Retirement Accounts: A Fact Sheet, by John J. Topoleski. 11 See 26 U.S.C. § 72(t). Congressional Research Service 6 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer • were distributions to residents in areas affected by hurricanes• were distributions to residents in areas affected by Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma from around the storms’ landfalls to January 1, 2007; or • were distributions to residents in areas affected by the Midwestern floods in 2008 from after the applicable disaster date and before January 1, 2010. General “hardship” exceptions for penalty-free distributions from IRAs do not exist as individuals may make withdrawals from IRAs without a reason. Rollovers Rollovers are transfers of assets from one retirement plan to another upon separation from the original employer. Rollovers are not subject to the 59½ rule, the 10% penalty, or the contribution limit. Rollovers can come from traditional IRAs, employers’ qualified retirement plans (e.g., 401(k) plans), deferred compensation plans of state or local governments (Section 457 plans), tax-sheltered annuities (Section 403(b) plans), or the Thrift Savings Plan for federal employees. 11 See CRS Report RS22766, Qualified Charitable Distributions from Individual Retirement Accounts: A Fact Sheet, by John J. Topoleski. 12 See 26 U.S.C. §72(t). Congressional Research Service 7 d ce an en es on nd ud ti e cl tu ep In nsti Ind o of .C n .S io U rat a cl De By Bradford Fitch Citizen’s Handbook To Influencing Elected Officials Citizen Advocacy in State Legislatures and Congress Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Rollovers can be either direct trustee-to-trustee transfers or issued directly to individuals who then deposit the rollovers into traditional IRAs. Individuals have 60 days to make the rollover contributions. Rollovers not completed within 60 days are considered taxable distributions and may be subject to the 10% early withdrawal penalty. In addition, in cases where individuals directly receive a rollover, 20% of the rollover is withheld for tax purposes. Direct trustee-totrustee transfers are not subject to withholding taxes. In cases where individuals directly receive a rollover, they must have an amount equal to the 20% withheld available from other sources to place in the new IRA. If the entire distribution is rolled over within 60 days, the amount withheld is applied to the individuals’ income taxes paid for the year. Inherited IRAs When the owner of an IRA dies, ownership passes to the account’s designated beneficiary or, if no beneficiary has been named, to the decedent’s estate. Federal law has different distribution requirements depending on whether the new owner is a • designated beneficiary who is the former owner’s spouse; • designated beneficiary who is not the former owner’s spouse; or • non-designated beneficiary. The distribution rules are summarized in Table 7. The distribution rules also depend on whether the IRA owner died prior to the required beginning date. The required beginning date is the date on which distributions from the account must begin. It is April 1 of the year following the year in which the owner of an IRA reaches the age of 70½. Distributions from inherited IRAs are taxable income but are not subject to the 59½ rule. Failure to take the required minimum distribution results in a 50% excise tax on the amount not distributed as required. Designated spouse beneficiaries who treat inherited IRAs as their own can roll over inherited IRAs into traditional IRAs or, to the extent that the inherited IRAs are taxable, into qualified employer plans (such as 401(k), 403(b), or 457 plans). Non-spouse beneficiaries cannot roll over any amount into or out of inherited IRAs. Congressional Research Service 7 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer In some cases, IRAs have requirements for distributions by beneficiaries that are more stringent than those summarized in Table 7. For example, an IRA’s plan documents could require that a designated spouse or designated nonspouse beneficiary distribute all assets in the IRA by the end of the fifth year of the year following the IRA owner’s death. In such a case, the beneficiary would not have the option to take distributions over a longer period of time. Unless the IRA plan documents specify otherwise, it is possible to take distributions faster than required in Table 7. For example, a beneficiary may elect to distribute all assets in a single year. In such a case, the entire amount distributed is taxable income for that year. Table 7. Inherited IRA Distribution Rules Congressional Research Service 8 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Table 7. Inherited IRA Distribution Rules Owner Dies Before Required Beginning Date Spouse is named as the designated beneficiary A nonspouse is named as the designated beneficiary Beneficiary is not named Owner Dies Before Required Beginning Date Owner Dies after Required Beginning Date Treat as own, does not have to take any distribution until the age of 70½, but is subject to the 59½ rule, or Treat as own, does not have to take any distribution until the age of 70½, but is subject to the 59½ rule, or Keep in decedent’s name and take distributions based on own life expectancy. Distributions do not have to begin until decedent would have turned 70½. Keep in decedent’s name and take distributions based on own life expectancy. Take distributions based on life expectancy for beneficiary’s age as of birthday in the year following the year of the owner’s death, reduced by one for each year since owner’s death. Take distributions based on the longer of If the nonspouse beneficiary does not take a distribution in year of owner’s death, then all IRA assets must be distributed by the end of the fifth year of the year following the IRA owner’s death. (2) owner’s life expectancy using age as of birthday in the year of death, reduced by one for year after the year of death. Must distribute all IRA assets by the end of the fifth year of the year following the IRA owner’s death. Take a yearly distribution based on the owner’s age as of birthday in the year of death, reduced by one for each year after the year of death. (1) beneficiary’s life expectancy, or Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590. Note: The required beginning date is the date on which distributions from the account must begin. It is April 1 of the year following the year in which the owner of an IRA reaches the age of 70½. Roth IRAs Roth IRAs were authorized by the Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 (P.L. 105-34). The key differences between traditional and Roth IRAs are that contributions to Roth IRAs are made with after-tax funds and qualified distributions are not included in taxable income; hence, investment earnings accrue free of taxes.12 12 Roth IRAs are named for former Senator William Roth (DE). Congressional Research Service 8 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer13 Eligibility and Contribution Limits In contrast to traditional IRAs, Roth IRAs have income limits for eligibility. Table 8 lists the adjusted gross incomes at which individuals may make the maximum contribution and the ranges in which this contribution limit is reduced. For example, a 40-year-old single taxpayer with income of $90,000 couldcan contribute $5,000 in 2010500 in 2013. A similar taxpayer making $110,000 could contribute $2,000120,000 would be subject to a reduced contribution limit, whereas a taxpayer with come of $130,000 would be ineligible to contribute to a Roth IRA. Individuals aged 50 and older can make additional $1,000 catch-up contributions. The adjusted gross income limit for eligibility has been adjusted for inflation since 2007; the contribution limits will be adjusted for inflation beginning in 2009. A worksheet for computing reduced Roth beginning in 2009, 13 Roth IRAs are named for former Senator William Roth (DE). Congressional Research Service 9 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer the traditional and Roth IRA contribution limit has also been adjusted for inflation. A worksheet for computing reduced Roth IRA contribution limits is provided in IRS Publication 590. Investment Options Roth IRAs must be designated as such when they are set up. As with traditional IRAs, they can be set up through many financial institutions. Transactions prohibited within traditional IRAs are also prohibited within Roth IRAs. Conversions and Rollovers Through December 31, 2009, individuals who (1) have modified adjusted gross incomes of less than $100,000 and (2) are not married filing a separate returnIndividuals may convert amounts from traditional IRAs, SEP-IRAs, or SIMPLE-IRAs to Roth IRAs. The income limits for rollovers to Roth IRAs will be eliminated beginning January 1, 2010.13 IRAs.14 Since 2008, individuals have been able to rollover distributions directly from qualified retirement plans to Roth IRAs. Amounts that would have been included in income if the conversion had not been made must be included in income. Conversions can be a trustee-to-trusteetotrustee transfer, a same trustee transfer by redesignating the IRA as a Roth IRA, or a rollover directly to the account holder. Inherited IRAs cannot be converted. The rules for rollovers that apply to traditional IRAs, including completing a rollover within 60 days, also apply. Additionally, withdrawals from a converted IRA prior to five years from the beginning of the year of conversion are non-qualified distributions and are subject to a 10% penalty. Tax-free withdrawals from one Roth IRA transferred to another Roth IRA are allowed if completed within 60 days. Rollovers from Roth IRAs to other types of IRAs or to employersponsored retirement plans are not allowed. Withdrawals The three kinds of distributions from Roth IRAs are (1) return of regular contributions, (2) qualified distributions, and (3) non-qualified distributions. Returns of regular contributions and qualified distributions are not included as part of taxable income. 13 The income limits for contributions to Roth IRAs will remain. Congressional Research Service 9 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Return of Regular Contributions Distributions from Roth IRAs that are a return of regular contributions are not included in gross income nor are they subject to the 10% penalty on early distributions. 14 Prior to January 1, 2010, only individuals with income under specified thresholds were eligible to make conversions from traditional to Roth IRAs. The Tax Increase Prevention and Reconciliation Act of 2005 (TIPRA; P.L. 109-222) eliminated the income thresholds. Congressional Research Service 10 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Qualified Distributions Qualified distributions must satisfy both of the following: • they are made after the five-year period beginning with the first taxable year for which a Roth IRA contribution was made, 1415 and • they are made on or after the age of 59½; or because of disability; or to a beneficiary or estate after death; or to purchase, build, or rebuild a first home up to a $10,000 lifetime limit. Non-Qualified Distributions Distributions that are neither returns of regular contributions nor qualified distributions are considered non-qualified distributions. Although individuals might have several Roth IRA accounts from which withdrawals can be made, for tax purposes non-qualified distributions are assumed to be made in the following order: 1. the return of regular contributions, 2. conversion contributions on a first-in-first-out basis, and 3. earnings on contributions. Non-qualified distributions may have to be included as part of income for tax purposes. A worksheet is available in Publication 590 to determine the taxable portion of non-qualified distributions. A 10% penalty applies to non-qualified distributions unless one of the exceptions in 26 U.S.C. §Section 72(t) applies. The exceptions are identical to those previously listed for early withdrawals from traditional IRAs. Distributions after Roth IRA Owner’s Death If the owner of a Roth IRA dies, the distribution rules depend on whether the beneficiary is the spouse or a nonspouse. If the beneficiary is the spouse, then the spouse can choose to treat the inherited Roth IRA as their own. If the spouse chooses not to treat the inherited Roth IRA as their own, or if the beneficiary is a nonspouse, then there are two options. The beneficiary can distribute the entire interest in the Roth IRA (1) by the end of the fifth calendar year after the year of the owner’s death, or (2) over the beneficiary’s life expectancy. As with an inherited traditional IRA, a spouse can delay distributions until the decedent would have reached the age of 70½. 1415 The five-year period is not necessarily five calendar years. Contributions made from January 1 to April 15 could be considered made in the previous tax year. Congressional Research Service 1011 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Distributions from inherited Roth IRAs are generally free of income tax. The beneficiary may be subject to taxes if the owner of a Roth IRA dies before the end of (1) the five-year period beginning with the first taxable year for which a contribution was made to a Roth IRA or (2) the five-year period starting with the year of a conversion from a traditional IRA to a Roth IRA. The distributions are treated as described in the section of this report on non-qualified Roth IRA distributions. Table 8. Roth IRA Eligibility and Contribution Limits for 2009 and 2010 Filing Status 2009Table 8. Roth IRA Eligibility and Contribution Limits for 2012 and 2013 Filing Status Single, head of household, married filing separately (and did not live with spouse at any time during the year) 2012 Modified Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) 20092012 Contribution Limits 20102013 Modified Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) 20102013 Contribution Limits Less than $105110,000 $5,000 ($6,000 if 50 years or older) or AGI, whichever is smaller. Less than $105112,000 $5,000500 ($6,000500 if 50 years or older) or AGI, whichever is smaller. At least $105110,000 but less than $120125,000 Reduced contribution limit At least $105112,000 but less than $120127,000 Reduced contribution limit $120125,000 or more Ineligible to contribute $120127,000 or more Ineligible to contribute Married filing separately and lived with spouse at any time during the year Less than $10,000 Reduced contribution limit Less than $10,000 Reduced contribution limit $10,000 or more Ineligible to contribute $10,000 or more Ineligible to contribute Married filing jointly, qualifying widow(er) Less than $166169,000 $5,000 each ($6,000 each if 50 years and and older) or AGI, whichever is smaller. Less than $167178,000 $5,000500 each ($6,000500 each if 50 and older) or or AGI, whichever is smaller. At least $166173,000 but less than $176183,000 Reduced contribution limit At least $167178,000 but less than $177188,000 Reduced contribution limit $176183,000 or more Ineligible to contribute $177188,000 or more Ineligible to contribute Single, head of household, married filing separately (and did not live with spouse at any time during the year) Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590 and IRS News Release IR-2009-94Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590 and IRS News Release IR-2012-77. Distributions from inherited Roth IRAs are generally free of income tax. The beneficiary may be subject to taxes if the owner of a Roth IRA dies before the end of (1) the five-year period beginning with the first taxable year for which a contribution was made to a Roth IRA or (2) the five-year period starting with the year of a conversion from a traditional IRA to a Roth IRA. The distributions are treated as described in the section of this report on non-qualified Roth IRA distributions. Retirement Savings Contribution Credit The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-16) authorized a nonrefundable tax credit of up to $1,000 for eligible individuals who , or $2,000 if filing a joint return, who contribute to IRAs or employersponsoredemployer-sponsored retirement plans.1516 The tax credit is in addition to the tax deduction for contributions to traditional IRAs or other employer-sponsored pension plans. To receive the credit, taxpayers must be at least 18 years old, not full-time students, not an exemption on someone else’s tax return, and have adjusted gross income less than certain limits. The limits are in Table 9. For example, 15 16 See also CRS Report RS21795, The Retirement Savings Tax Credit: A Fact Sheet, by Patrick PurcellJohn J. Topoleski. Congressional Research Service 1112 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer exemption on someone else’s tax return, and have adjusted gross income less than certain limits. The limits are in Table 9. For example, individuals who make a $2,000 IRA contribution in 2009, 2013, have income of $15,000, and list their filing status as single would be able to reduce their 2009 2013 tax liability by up to $1,000. Taxpayers must file form 1040, 1040A, or 1040NR. It is not available on form 1040EZ, which may limit the use of the credit. Table 9. Retirement Saving Contribution Credit Income Limits for 20092012 and 20102013 Filing Status 2012 Income Limits 2013 Income Limits Single, Married Filing Separately, Qualifying Widow(er) Head of Household Married Filing Jointly 2009 Income Limits 2010 Income Limits Percentage Credit $1 to $16,500$1 to $17,250 $1 to $1617,750 50% $16,50117,251 to $18,000 $16750 $17,751 to $18,00019,250 20% $18,001751 to $2728,750 $18,001 to $27,75019,251 to $29,500 10% more than $2728,750 more than $27,75029,500 0% $1 to $24,75025,875 $1 to $25,12526,625 50% $247501 to $27,000 $25,126 to $27,000 20% $27,000 to $41,625 $27,001 to $41,625 10% more than $41,625 more than $41,625 0% $1 to $33,000 $1 to $33,500 50% $33,001 to $36,000 $33,501 to $36,000 20% $36,001 to $55,500 $36,001 to $55,500 10% more than $55,500 more than $55,500 0% 25,876 to $28,125 $26,626 to $28,875 20% $28,126 to $43,125 $28,876 to $44,250 10% more than $43,125 more than $44,250 0% $1 to $34,500 $1 to $35,500 50% $34,501 to $37,500 $35,501 to $38,500 20% $37,501 to $57,500 $38,501 to $59,000 10% more than $57,500 more than $59,000 0% Head of Household Married Filing Jointly Percentage Credit Source: CRS analysis of IRS Publication 590 and IRS News Release IR-2009-94. Qualified Distributions Related to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and 2012-77. Congressional Research Service 13 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer Appendix. Qualified Distributions Related to Natural Disasters As part of the response to the 2005 hurricanes that affected the communities on and near the Gulf of Mexico, Congress approved provisions that exempted individuals affected by the storms from the 10% early withdrawal penalty for withdrawals from IRA. In 2008, Congress approved similar provisions in response to the storms and flooding in certain Midwestern states. Qualified Distributions Related to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma In response to Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma, Congress approved the Gulf Opportunity Zone Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-135). The act amended the Internal Revenue Code to allow residents in areas affected by these storms who suffered economic losses to take penalty-free distributions up to $100,000 from their retirement plans, including traditional and Roth IRAs. The distributions must have been received after August 24, 2005 (Katrina), September 22, 2005 (Rita), or October 22, 2005 (Wilma), and before January 1, 2007. The distributions are taxable income and can be reported as income either in the year received or over three years (e.g., a $30,000 distribution made in May 2006, can be reported as $10,000 of income in 2006, 2007, and 2008). Alternatively, part or all of the distribution may be repaid to the retirement plan within three years of receiving the distribution without being considered taxable income. Qualified Distributions Related to the Midwestern Disaster Relief Area In response to severe storms, tornados, and flooding that occurred in certain Midwestern states, the Heartland Disaster Tax Relief Act of 2008 allows residents of specified Midwest areas to take Congressional Research Service 12 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer penalty-free distributions up to $100,000 from their retirement plans, including traditional and Roth IRAs. This act was passed as Division C of P.L. 110-343, the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008. The bill amends 26 U.S.C. 1400Q, which was enacted as part of the Gulf Opportunity Zone Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-135). The distributions must be received after the date in which the President declared an area to be a major disaster area and before January 1, 2010.1617 Apart from for the dates and the areas affected, the provisions are identical to the provisions for individuals who were affected by Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma. Author Contact Information John J. Topoleski Analyst in Income Security jtopoleski@crs.loc.gov, 7-2290 16 The disaster areas are limited to Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Congressional Research Service 13Hurricane Sandy Relief As of January 29, 2013, no legislation has been introduced that would (1) exempt individuals in areas affected by Hurricane Sandy from the 10% penalty for early withdrawals from IRAs or defined contribution retirement plans or (2) ease requirements for loans from defined contribution pensions for individuals affected by Hurricane Sandy. 17 The disaster areas are limited to Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, and Wisconsin. Congressional Research Service 14 Traditional and Roth Individual Retirement Accounts (IRAs): A Primer The IRS has eased requirements for hardship distributions in areas affected by Hurricane Sandy. Among the relief offered by the IRS in Announcement 2012-44, “Plan administrators may rely upon representations from the employee or former employee as to the need for and amount of a hardship distribution” rather than require documentation from the employee of the need.18 The relief offered by the IRS does not include an exemption from the 10% penalty for distributions before the age of 59½. Exemptions from the 10% penalty require congressional authorization. Also in Announcement 2012-44, the IRS suspended the requirement that requires an individual to suspend contributions to a 401(K) and 403(b) plans for the six months following a hardship distribution. Author Contact Information John J. Topoleski Analyst in Income Security jtopoleski@crs.loc.gov, 7-2290 18 See 26 CFR 1.401(k)-1. Congressional Research Service 15 About TheCapitol.Net We help you understand Washington and Congress.™ For more than 30 years, TheCapitol.Net and its predecessor, Congressional Quarterly Executive Conferences, have been training professionals from government, military, business, and NGOs on the dynamics and operations of the legislative and executive branches and how to work with them. Our training and publications include congressional operations, legislative and budget process, communication and advocacy, media and public relations, research, testifying before Congress, legislative drafting, critical thinking and writing, and more. TheCapitol.Net encompasses a dynamic team of more than 150 faculty members and authors, all of whom are independent subject matter experts and veterans in their fields. Faculty and authors include senior government executives, former members of Congress, Hill and agency staff, editors and journalists, lobbyists, lawyers, nonprofit executives, and scholars. We have worked with hundreds of clients across the country to develop and produce a wide variety of custom, on-site training programs. All courses, seminars, and workshops can be tailored to align with your organization’s educational objectives and presented on-site at your location. TheCapitol.Net is on the GSA Schedule, 874-4, for custom on-site training: GSA Contract GS02F0192X. TheCapitol.Net has more than 2,000 clients representing congressional offices, federal and state agencies, military branches, corporations, associations, news media, and NGOs nationwide. TheCapitol.Net is a non-partisan firm. Our blog: Hobnob Blog—hit or miss ... give or take ... this or that ... TheCapitol.Net is on the GSA Schedule, 874-4, for custom on-site training. GSA Contract GS02F0192X Non-partisan training and publications that show how Washington works.™ PO Box 25706, Alexandria, VA 22313-5706 703-739-3790 • www.thecapitol.net A Practical Guide to Preparing and Delivering Testimony Before Congress and Congressional Hearings for Agencies, Associations, Corporations, Military, NGOs, and State and Local Officials Legislative Series By William N. LaForge Legislative Drafter’s Deskbook A Practical Guide By Tobias A. Dorsey Congressional Directory 2013 113th Congress 1st Session Includes Capitol Hill and District maps We help you understand Washington and Congress.™ www.TheCapitol.Net Testifying Before Congress Winning Strategies, Recommendations, Resources, Ethics and Ongoing Compliance for Lobbyists and Washington Advocates: The Best of Everything Lobbying and Washington Advocacy Lobbying and Advocacy Deanna R. Gelak GOVERNMENT SERIES The Federal Budget Process A Description of the Federal and Congressional Budget Processes, Including Timelines