Order Code RL33153
China Naval Modernization: Implications for
U.S. Navy Capabilities — —Background and
Issues for Congress
Updated November 19, 2008
Ronald O’Rourke
Specialist in Naval Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
China Naval Modernization: Implications for U.S. Navy
Capabilities — Background and Issues for Congress
Summary
Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere since the 1990s about China’s
military modernization. Several of the U.S. Navy’s most expensive acquisition
programs, as well as Navy initiatives for homeporting ships and for training sailors,
are for developing or maintaining capabilities that could be useful or critical in
countering improved Chinese maritime military capabilities in coming years. The
issue for Congress addressed in this report is: How should China’s military
modernization be factored into decisions about U.S. Navy programs?
Several elements of China’s military modernization have potential implications
for future required U.S. Navy capabilities. These include theater-range ballistic
missiles (TBMs), land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs), anti-ship cruise missiles
(ASCMs), surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), land-based aircraft, naval mines,
submarines, surface combatants, amphibious ships, nuclear weapons, and possibly
high-power microwave (HPM) devices. China’s naval limitations or weaknesses
include capabilities for operating in waters more distant from China, joint operations,
C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance,
and reconnaissance), long-range surveillance and targeting systems, anti-air warfare
(AAW), antisubmarine warfare (ASW), mine countermeasures (MCM), and
shipbuilding dependence on foreign suppliers.
Observers believe a near-term focus of China’s military modernization is to field
a force that can succeed in a short-duration conflict with Taiwan and act as an antiaccess force to deter U.S. intervention or delay the arrival of U.S. forces, particularly
naval and air forces, in such a conflict. Some analysts speculate that China may
attain (or believe that it has attained) a capable maritime anti-access force, or
elements of it, by about 2010. Other observers believe this will happen later.
Potential broader or longer-term goals of China’s naval modernization include
asserting China’s regional military leadership and protecting China’s maritime
territorial, economic, and energy interests.
China’s naval modernization has potential implications for required U.S. Navy
capabilities in terms of preparing for a conflict in the Taiwan Strait area, maintaining
U.S. Navy presence and military influence in the Western Pacific, and countering
Chinese ballistic missile submarines. Preparing for a conflict in the Taiwan Strait
area could place a premium on the following: on-station or early-arriving Navy
forces, capabilities for defeating China’s maritime anti-access forces, and capabilities
for operating in an environment that could be characterized by information warfare
and possibly electromagnetic pulse (EMP) and the use of nuclear weapons.
China’s naval modernization raises potential issues for Congress concerning the
role of China in Department of Defense and Navy planning; the size of the Navy; the
Pacific Fleet’s share of the Navy; forward homeporting in the Western Pacific; the
number of aircraft carriers, submarines, and ASW platforms; Navy missile defense,
air-warfare, AAW, ASW, and mine warfare programs; Navy computer network
security; and EMP hardening. This report will be updated as events warrant.
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Issue for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Scope, Sources, and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
China’s Naval Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Anti-Ship Ballistic Missiles (ASBMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles (ASCMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Land-Attack Cruise Missiles (LACMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Surface-To-Air Missiles (SAMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Nuclear Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
High-Power Microwave (HPM) Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Aircraft Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Surface Combatants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Amphibious Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Mine Countermeasures (MCM) Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
C4ISR Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Doctrine, Education, Training, Exercises, and Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . 31
China’s Naval Limitations and Weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
In General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sustained Operations in Distant Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Joint Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
C4ISR Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Anti-Air Warfare (AAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Mine Countermeasures (MCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Shipbuilding Dependence on Foreign Suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Goals or Significance of China’s Naval Modernization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
PLA Navy as a Modernization Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Near-Term Focus: Taiwan Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Anti-Access Force for Short-Duration Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Broader or Longer-Term Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Potential Implications for Required U.S. Navy Capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Capabilities for Taiwan Strait Crisis or Conflict . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Capabilities for Maintaining Regional Presence and Influence . . . . . . 67
Capabilities for Tracking and Countering PLA SSBNs . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Potential Oversight Issues for Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
China as a Defense-Planning Priority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
DOD Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Navy Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Navy Force Structure and Basing Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Size of the Fleet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Forward Homeporting in the Western Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Number of Aircraft Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Number of Attack Submarines (SSNs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Number of ASW-Capable Ships and Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fleet Architecture — Larger vs. Smaller Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Navy Warfare Areas and Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Destroyer Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Missile Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Air Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Anti-Air Warfare (AAW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Mine Warfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Computer Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
EMP Hardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Legislative Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
FY2009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
FY2009 Defense Authorization Bill (H.R. 5658/S. 3001) . . . . . . . . . 105
FY2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
FY2008 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1585/S. 1547/H.R. 4986/
P.L. 110-181) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Appendix A. Examples of Expressions of Concern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Appendix B. Additional Details on China’s Naval Modernization Efforts . . . 111
Missiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Nuclear Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
High-Power Microwave (HPM) Weapons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Submarines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Aircraft Carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Surface Combatants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Amphibious Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
List of Tables
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
PLA Navy Submarine Commissionings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chinese Submarine Patrols Per Year, 1981-2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
New PLA Navy Destroyer Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
New PLA Navy Frigate Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Potential Ship Travel Times to Taiwan Strait Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy, FY1995-FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
China Naval Modernization: Implications for
U.S. Navy Capabilities — Background and
Issues for Congress
Introduction
Issue for Congress
Concern has grown in Congress and elsewhere since the 1990s about China’s
military modernization and its potential implications for required U.S. military
capabilities. China’s military modernization is an increasing element in discussions
CRS-2
of future U.S. Navy requirements.1 Several of the U.S. Navy’s most expensive
acquisition programs, as well as Navy initiatives for homeporting ships and for
training sailors, are for developing or maintaining capabilities that could be useful
or critical in countering improved Chinese maritime military capabilities in coming
years.
The issue for Congress addressed in this report is: How should China’s military
modernization be factored into decisions about U.S. Navy programs? Congress’s
decisions on this issue could significantly affect future U.S. Navy capabilities, U.S.
Navy funding requirements, and the U.S. defense industrial base, including the
shipbuilding industry.
Scope, Sources, and Terminology
This report focuses on the implications that certain elements of China’s military
modernization may have for future required U.S. Navy capabilities.2 Other CRS
reports address separate issues relating to China and China’s military.
This report is based on unclassified open-source information.
For convenience, this report uses the term China’s naval modernization, even
though some Chinese military modernization efforts that could affect required U.S.
Navy capabilities are occurring in other parts of China’s military, such as the air force
or the missile force.
China’s military is formally called the People’s Liberation Army, or PLA. Its
navy is called the PLA Navy, or PLAN, and its air force is called the PLA Air Force,
or PLAAF. The PLA Navy includes an air component that is called the PLA Naval
Air Force, or PLANAF. China refers to its ballistic missile force as the Second
Artillery Force.
Background
1
For some examples since 2005 of expressions of concern about China’s military
modernization, and of its potential implications for U.S. Navy requirements, see Appendix
A.
2
This CRS report does not discuss (1) elements of China’s military modernization that may
be less relevant to future required U.S. Navy capabilities; (2) the potential implications of
China’s military modernization for parts of the Department of Defense (DOD) other than
the Navy (such as the Air Force and the Missile Defense Agency), federal agencies other
than DOD (such as the Department of State), and countries other than the United States; (3)
China’s espionage or other intelligence-gathering activities, including those aimed at
obtaining information about U.S. naval weapons and technology; and (4) China’s foreign
or economic policy, U.S. defense policy toward Taiwan, or the political likelihood of a
military conflict involving China and the United States over Taiwan or some other issue.
CRS-3
China’s Naval Modernization3
This section summarizes certain elements of China’s military modernization that
may have implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities. See Appendix B for
additional details and commentary on several of these modernization activities. In
addition to the modernization efforts discussed here and in Appendix B, China’s
anti-satellite and cyberwarfare capabilities may have implications for required U.S.
Navy capabilities.
Anti-Ship Ballistic Missiles (ASBMs). China is deploying large numbers
of theater-range ballistic missiles (TBMs)4 capable of attacking targets in Taiwan or
other regional locations.5 Although ballistic missiles in the past have traditionally
been used to attack fixed targets on land, DOD and other observers believe China is
developing anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), which are TBMs equipped with
maneuverable reentry vehicles (MaRVs) capable of hitting moving ships at sea.
Observers have expressed strong concern about this development, because such
missiles, in combination with broad-area maritime surveillance and targeting
systems, would permit China to attack moving U.S. Navy ships in the Western
Pacific. (For a discussion of China’s broad-area maritime surveillance and targeting
capabilities, see the section below on C4ISR systems.) The U.S. Navy has not
previously faced a threat from highly accurate ballistic missiles capable of hitting
moving ships at sea. Due to their ability to change course, MaRVs would be more
difficult to intercept than non-maneuvering ballistic missile reentry vehicles.
DOD states that:
China is developing an anti-ship ballistic missile (ASBM) based on a variant of
the CSS-5 medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) as a component of its
anti-access strategy. The missile has a range in excess of 1,500 km [810 nautical
miles] and, when incorporated into a sophisticated command and control system,
is a key component of China’s anti-access strategy to provide the PLA the
capability to attack ships at sea, including aircraft carriers, from great distances.6
One observer states:
3
Unless otherwise indicated, shipbuilding program information in this section is taken from
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, and previous editions Other sources of information on
these shipbuilding programs may disagree regarding projected ship commissioning dates or
other details, but sources present similar overall pictures regarding PLA Navy shipbuilding.
4
Depending on their ranges, TBMs can be divided into short-, medium-, and intermediaterange ballistic missiles (SRBMs, MRBMs, and IRBMs, respectively).
5
DOD states, “By November 2007, the PLA had deployed between 990 and 1,070 CSS-6
and CSS-7 short-range ballistic missiles (SRBM) to garrisons opposite Taiwan. It is
increasing the size of this force at a rate of more than 100 missiles per year, including
variants of these missiles with improved ranges, accuracies, and payloads.” U.S.
Department of Defense, Annual Report to Congress [on] Military Power of the People’s
Republic of China 2008. Washington, 2008. p. 2. (Hereafter 2008 DOD CMP. Editions
for other years cited similarly.)
6
2008 DOD CMP, p. 2.
CRS-4
The PLA’s space networks and ground surveillance systems will help target
the PLA’s new revolutionary long-range anti-ship ballistic missiles. Today, the
2,500-kilometer-range DF-21C medium range ballistic missiles and the 700kilometer-range DF-15A tactical missiles are being deployed along the Taiwan
Straits. While those missiles were influenced by the old U.S. Pershing 2 radar
guided ballistic missile, China’s system is far more capable and effectively keeps
U.S. carrier battle groups out of their range until the U.S. Navy can put enough
truly effective anti-missile defenses to sea.7
A July 2008 press report states:
China is close to deploying a new conventionally armed strategic missile
capable of hitting U.S. aircraft carriers and other warships at sea.
A defense intelligence official said a test of the new weapon is expected,
but the timing is not known. A second official also said the Chinese anti-carrier
ballistic missile effort, including an anticipated test firing, is being watched
closely.
Defense officials said the new missile — a precision guided CSS-5
medium-range missile — is as great or greater a concern for some military
planners as China’s new anti-satellite weapon, which was first tested successfully
against an orbiting Chinese weather satellite in January 2007....
Carrier-killing missiles are viewed as one of the most important strategic
weapons in the Beijing arsenal because they will be able to block the rapid
deployment of U.S. forces to the region considered vital to any Taiwan defense
or defense of other allies in the region.
Richard Fisher, a specialist on the Chinese military with the International
Assessment and Strategy Center, said the upcoming test of a medium-range
anti-ship ballistic missile (ASBM) would not be China’s first. “It would appear
that the [People’s Liberation Army] may now be developing three types of
ASBMs,” he said.
Two of the missiles are based on the CSS-5, also known as the DF-21, and
Chinese Internet photos reveal what looks like a maneuvering warhead on the
missile similar in design to warheads deployed on the U.S. Pershing-2
medium-range missile. The Pershing-2, dismantled in the 1980s, used a
radar-digital map guidance system, and Mr. Fisher thinks the new Chinese
anti-ship missile could use a combination of active radar and optical or infrared
guidance.
A third anti-ship ballistic missile is expected to be a longer-range variant
of the CSS-5 first seen in 2006 that may have multiple warheads.8
7
8
James Lyons, “China’s One World?” Washington Times, August 24, 2008: B1.
Bill Gertz, “Inside the Ring,” Washington Times, July 10, 2008: B1 (item entitled “China
Targets Carrier”) A July 2007 press report stated that one observer believed that a
MARV-equipped version of the CSS-6 may be close to initial operational status. (Bill
Gertz, “Inside the Ring,” Washington Times, July 20, 2007: 6. [Item entitled “New Chinese
Missiles”]. The article stated that it was reporting information from forthcoming report on
CRS-5
A September 29, 2008, press report states that a Navy decision to change its
plans for destroyer procurement (see section on “Potential Oversight Issues for
Congress”) “was driven by the emergence of a new, classified threat it can’t publicly
talk about, but which is widely assumed to be a variant of the Chinese CSS-5/Dong
Feng 21 intermediate-range ballistic missile, which can be aimed at individual ships.
In some planning circles, the new weapon is referred to as a ‘pacing threat.’”9
Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles (ASCMs). China is modernizing its extensive
inventory of anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs), which can be launched from landbased strike fighters and bombers, surface combatants, submarines and possibly
shore-based launchers. Among the most capable of the new ASCMs that have been
or are being acquired by the PLA Navy are the Russian-made SS-N-22 Sunburn
(carried by China’s four Russian-made Sovremenny-class destroyers) and the SS-N27 Sizzler (carried by 8 of China’s 12 Russian-made Kilo-class submarines).
Land-Attack Cruise Missiles (LACMs). China is developing land-attack
cruise missiles (LACMs) that can be fired from land bases, land-based aircraft, or
Navy platforms such as submarines to attack targets, including air and naval bases,
in Taiwan or other regional locations, such as Japan or Guam. DOD stated in 2007
that “First- and second-generation LACMs may be deployed in the near future.”10
Surface-To-Air Missiles (SAMs). China is deploying modern surface-to-air
missile (SAM) systems across from Taiwan, including long-range and high-altitude
systems that have an advertised range sufficient to cover the entire Taiwan Strait,
which is roughly 100 nautical miles (185 kilometers) wide. Advanced SAMs may
have some effectiveness against stealthy aircraft. Longer- and shorter- range SAM
systems deployed along China’s coast opposite Taiwan would in combination give
China a multilayer defense against enemy aircraft seeking to operate over the Strait
or approach that portion of China’s coast.11
Mines. China is believed to have an inventory of tens of thousands of naval
mines of various types, including modern designs. Chinese naval publications
demonstrate a strong interest in the use of naval mines in conflicts or blockade
situations, and particularly for countering U.S. submarines. As some observers have
noted,12 detailed open-source discussions of China’s naval mining capabilities are
few in number. A recent example of such a discussion appeared in the Winter 2007
China’s military from the International Assessment and Strategy Center authored by Richard
Fisher.)
9
Christopher P. Cavas, “U.S. Navy Plans ‘6th-Generation’ Fighter Jet,” Defense News,
September 29, 2008 (section entitled “New Chinese Threat”). For an article that includes
more skeptical comments about China’s ability to field ASBMs, see Wendell Minnick,
“China Seeks Anti-Ship Ballistic Missile,” Defense News, September 15, 2008: 16.
10
2007 DOD CMP, p. 17.
11
See, for example, Figure 9 (the map entitled “Taiwan Strait SAM and SRBM Coverage”)
in 2008 DOD CMP, p. 42.
12
See, for example, Norman Polmar, “Is There a Mine Threat?” U.S. Naval Institute
Proceedings, February 2008: 88-89.
CRS-6
edition of Undersea Warfare, a publication of the U.S. Navy’s submarine
community.13 For a lengthy excerpt from this article, see the section on mines in
Appendix B.
Nuclear Weapons.14 China, as a longstanding nuclear weapon state, could
put nuclear warheads on weapons such as TBMs (including ASBMs), LACMs,
ASCMs, torpedoes, and naval mines. China could use nuclear-armed versions of
these weapons (except the LACMs) to attack U.S. Navy ships at sea. China might
do so in the belief that it could subsequently confuse the issue in the public arena of
whose nuclear warhead had detonated,15 or that the United States in any event would
not escalate the conflict by retaliating with a nuclear attack on a land target in China.
During the Cold War, analysts debated whether the use of a Soviet nuclear weapon
against U.S. Navy ships during a conflict would lead to a U.S. nuclear response.
One set of observers states:
In Chinese discussions of Russian ASW systems, there is a pointed
recognition that the Soviets leaned heavily toward the use of tactical nuclear
weapons (e.g., nuclear depth charges and torpedoes) in ASW operations. Tactical
nuclear weapons are also mentioned in the context of mine warfare. An article
in the July 2006 issue of [the Chinese military journal] Modern Navy, in
discussing possible PLA Navy use of sea mines, suggests the potential combat
value of nuclear-armed versions. It will be important to watch closely for any
sign of Chinese efforts in this direction.16
China could also use a nuclear-armed ballistic missile to detonate a nuclear
warhead in the atmosphere to create a high-altitude electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
intended to temporarily or permanently disable the electronic circuits of U.S. or other
civilian and military electronic systems. Some observers have expressed concern in
13
Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “China’s Undersea Sentries,”
Undersea Warfare, Winter 2007, available online at
[http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/issue_33/china.html]
14
For a general discussion of the potential role of nuclear weapons in notional crisis and
conflict situations involving China, see CRS Report RL33607, U.S. Conventional Forces
and Nuclear Deterrence: A China Case Study, by Christopher Bolkcom, Shirley A. Kan, and
Amy F. Woolf.
15
Following the April 1, 2001, collision in international airspace off China’s coast of a U.S.
Navy EP-3 electronic surveillance aircraft and a PLA F-8 fighter, which many observers
believed was caused by reckless flying by the pilot of the F-8, China attempted to convince
others that the collision was caused by poor flying by the pilot of the slower-flying and less
maneuverable U.S. EP-3. For more on this event, see CRS Report RL30946, China-U.S.
Aircraft Collision Incident of April 2001: Assessments and Policy Implications, by Shirley
A. Kan, coordinator.
16
Gabriel Collins, Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “Chinese
Evaluations of the U.S. Navy Submarine Force,” Naval College War Review, Winter 2008:
79.
CRS-7
recent years over the potential vulnerability of U.S. military systems to EMP
effects.17
High-Power Microwave (HPM) Weapons. Some observers are concerned
that China might develop or already possess high-power microwave (HPM) weapons,
also called radio frequency weapons (RFWs) or E-bombs, which are non-nuclear
devices that can be used to generate damaging EMP effects over relatively short
distances to disable the electronic circuits of nearby enemy civilian and military
systems. In theory, an HPM weapon could be placed on a TBM or ASCM and fired
at a U.S. Navy ship. Although the effective EMP radius of such devices might be on
the order of only a few hundred yards,18 such devices could be used to attack
individual U.S. Navy ships without the political or escalatory risks of a high-altitude
nuclear detonation.19
17
See CRS Report RL32544, High Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse (HEMP) and High Power
Microwave (HPM) Devices: Threat Assessments, by Clay Wilson; (Hereafter cited as CRS
Report RL32544.) and John S. Foster, Jr., et al., Report of the Commission to Assess the
Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse (EMP) Attack, Volume 1: Executive
Report 2004. Washington, 2004, 53 pp. (Hereafter cited as 2004 EMP commission report.)
See also the transcripts and written statements of hearings on EMP held before the House
Armed Services Committee on July 22, 2004, and before the Military Research and
Development Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee on October 7, 1999,
and July 16, 1997. (In 1997, the full committee was called the House National Security
Committee.)
18
One source states that “a 2,000-pound microwave munition will have a minimum radius
[of effect] of approximately 200 meters,” or roughly 650 feet. (“High-power microwave
(HPM)/E-Bomb,” available on the Internet at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/
systems/munitions/hpm.htm].)
A second source says HPM weapons might have effective radii “on the order of hundreds
of meters, subject to weapon performance and target set electrical hardness.” (Section 4.1
of Carlo Kopp, “The Electromagnetic Bomb — a Weapon of Electrical Mass Destruction,”
available on the Internet at [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/
1996/apjemp.htm].)
A third source states that “a small RF device might have a range measured in feet, while a
relatively large RF device might produce upset or damage in electronics systems at a range
measured in hundreds of feet, and interference at a range of hundreds of miles.” (Statement
of William R. Graham, Ph.D., before the Military Research and Development Subcommittee
of the House Armed Services Committee, October 7, 1999.)
19
One source states that:
An electromagnetic warhead detonated within lethal radius of a surface
combatant will render its air defence system inoperable, as well as damaging
other electronic equipment such as electronic countermeasures, electronic
support measures and communications. This leaves the vessel undefended until
these systems can be restored, which may or may not be possible on the high
seas. Therefore launching an electromagnetic glidebomb on to a surface
combatant, and then reducing it with laser or television guided weapons is an
alternate strategy for dealing with such targets. (Section 10.4 of Carlo Kopp,
“The Electromagnetic Bomb — a Weapon of Electrical Mass Destruction,” op.
CRS-8
Aircraft.
Land-Based Aircraft. China is introducing increasing numbers of modern
and capable (so-called fourth-generation) land-based fighters and strike fighters into
the PLA Air Force and PLA Naval Air Force. These include Russian-made Su-27s
and Su-30s and indigenously produced F-10s and F-11s. At least some of the strike
fighters will be armed with modern ASCMs. China is also upgrading the ASCMs
carried by its land-based maritime bombers. The effectiveness of China’s combat
aircraft could be enhanced by new support aircraft, including tankers and airborne
warning and control system (AWACS) aircraft.
China’s land-based naval aircraft inventory includes, among other things, 24
Russian-made Su-30 MKK 2 Flanker land-based fighters whose delivery was
completed in 2004. The Su-30 is a derivative of the Su-27. Some of the Su-30s
might eventually be fitted with the Russian-made Kh-35 ASCM. (China’s air force
operates at least 130 Su-27s; these aircraft could be used for fleet-defense
operations.)
China’s navy also operates 36 JH-7 land-based fighter-bombers that were
delivered between 1998 and 2004. The planes can be armed with Chinese-made C701, C-801, or C-802 ASCMs or laser-guided bombs, and might be fitted in the
future to carry Russian-made Kh-31 ASCMs.
Carrier-Capable Aircraft. China reportedly has been negotiating with Russia
on the purchase 48 to 50 carrier-capable Su-33 Flanker D naval fighters. The Su-33,
a derivative of the Su-27 design, can operate from aircraft carriers using a ski-jump
ramp and is capable of in-flight refueling.20 Some sources state that China may
create a carrier-capable version of its J-10 fighter.21
cit.)
For more on HPM weapons in general, see CRS Report RL32544. For articles
discussing a U.S. Air Force effort to develop HPM weapons, see David A. Fulghum, “USAF
Looks for High-Power Microwave Bomb in Fiscal 2010 POM,” Aerospace Daily & Defense
Report, October 16, 2008: 1-2; and “David A. Fulghum and Amy Butler, “Fried Chips, New
USAF Weapon Could Shut Down or Damage Enemy Electronics,” Aviation Week & Space
Technology, October 20, 2008: 28. For additional discussion HPM weapons at sea, see
Massimo Annati, “Non-Lethal Weapons: Their Application in the Maritime World,” Naval
Forces, No. 1, 2006, particularly pages 50, 51, and 53.
20
See, for example, Reuben F. Johnson, “China Considers Next-Generation Su-33s for
Aircraft Carrier Programme,” Jane’s Information Group, October 28, 2008, online extract
accessed at [http://www.janes.com/news/defence/systems/jdi/jdi081028_1_n.shtml];
Richard Fisher, Jr., “Chinese Dimensions of the 2007 Dubai Airshow,” online article
available at [http://www.strategycenter.net/printVersion/print_pub.asp?pubID=179]; and
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 21, 24.
21
See John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 12-13; Testimony of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for
a hearing held on March 16, 2006, before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review
Commission, pp. 5-6.
CRS-9
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). DOD stated in 2007 that “acquisition
of UAVs and UCAVs,22 including the Israeli HARPY [UCAV], expands China’s
options for long-range reconnaissance and strike.”23 Another observer stated in 2007
that “Chinese sources have also recently suggested that China is actively developing
unmanned combat aircraft for carrier operations.24
Submarines. China’s submarine modernization effort, which is producing a
significantly more modern and capable submarine force, has attracted substantial
attention and concern. China by the end of 2006 completed taking delivery on eight
Russian-made Kilo-class non-nuclear-powered attack submarines (SSs) that are in
addition to four Kilos that China purchased from Russia in the 1990s.25 China also
has recently built or is building four other classes of submarines, including the
following:
!
a new nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) design
called the Jin class or Type 094;
!
a new nuclear powered attack submarine (SSN) design called the
Shang class or Type 093;
!
a new SS design called the Yuan class or Type 041 (or Type
039A);26 and
!
another (and also fairly new) SS design called the Song class or
Type 039/039G.
Along with the Kilo-class boats, these four classes of indigenously built
submarines are expected to be much more modern and capable than China’s aging
older-generation submarines.
Some sources state that a successor to the Shang class SSN design, called the
Type 095 SSN design, is in development.27 One observer stated in 2008 that
22
UCAV means unmanned combat aerial vehicle (i.e., an armed UAV).
23
2007 DOD CMP, p. 18. The report stated further that “The Israelis transferred HARPY
UCAVs to China in 2001 and conducted maintenance on HARPY parts during 2003-2004.
In 2005, Israel began to improve government oversight of exports to China by strengthening
controls of military exports, establishing controls on dual-use exports, and increasing the
role of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in export-related decisions.” (Page 28)
24
Richard Fisher, Jr., “Chinese Dimensions of the 2007 Dubai Airshow,” online article
available at [http://www.strategycenter.net/printVersion/print_pub.asp?pubID=179]
25
A previous CRS report discussed these four Kilo-class boats at length. See CRS Report
RL30700, China’s Foreign Conventional Arms Acquisitions: Background and Analysis, by
Shirley Kan (Coordinator), Christopher Bolkcom, and Ronald O’Rourke.
26
Some observers believe the Yuan class to be a variant of the Song class and refer to the
Yuan class as the Type 039A.
27
See, for example, “2018 — deadline for Taiwan invasion?” a September 22, 2007, entry
in a blog on China naval and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available
CRS-10
“Following the entry into service of two units of the Shang class, it is believed that
construction of further [nuclear-powered] attack submarines is in progress. These are
likely to be a modified evolutionary design, possibly to be known as the Type 095
class.”28
China’s submarines are armed with one or more of the following: ASCMs, wireguided and wake-homing torpedoes, and mines. China’s eight recently delivered
Kilos are reportedly armed with the highly capable SS-N-27 Sizzler ASCM. China’s
four older Kilos reportedly are to be refitted in Russia, with the upgrades possibly
including the installation of the SS-N-27. In addition to other weapons, Shang-class
SSNs may carry LACMs. Although ASCMs are often highlighted as sources of
concern, wake-homing torpedoes can also be very difficult for surface ships to
counter.29
online at [http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/09/2018-deadline-for-taiwan-invasion.html].
28
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 121. See also p. 30 (Executive Overview).
29
For a recent discussion of torpedoes in various navies, see Norman Friedman, “Submarine
Weapons 2008 Update,” Naval Forces, No. 3, 2008: 48-55, which states that “Wake
following is significant because it is so difficult to produce a decoy which can simulate a
wake.” The article states:
The German, Franco-Italian, and Russian anti-ship torpedoes all embody
wake-following guidance for use against surface ships....Because the Sino-Soviet
split [during the Cold War] occurred well before the Soviets fielded wakefollowing weapons, it seems unlikely that most Chinese torpedoes embody this
technique. However, the Russians almost certainly transferred the relevant
technology when relations between the two countries warmed following the Cold
War. The Chinese Yu-6 [torpedo] is sometimes described as a derivative of the
Russian 53-65 wake follower....
An October 2, 2008, news article discussing U.S. military exchanges with China
stated:
Congress restricted U.S.-China military exchanges in 1999 by passing a law
that prohibits any contacts that would “create a national security risk due to an
inappropriate exposure.” A section of the fiscal 2000 defense authorization bill
bars U.S. military exchanges related to force projection operations, nuclear
operations, advanced combined-arms and joint combat operations, advanced
logistical operations, weapons-of-mass-destruction capabilities, surveillance
reconnaissance operations, joint war fighting, military space, advanced military
capabilities, arms sales and technology transfer, classified data and access to
Pentagon laboratories.
The restrictions were imposed after a visiting Chinese officer asked and
was told by a U.S. Navy officer the most vulnerable point on an aircraft carrier.
Soon after, U.S. intelligence agencies reported that China had bought advanced
wake-homing torpedoes from Russia, according to defense and congressional
officials.
(Bill Gertz, “Inside the Ring,” Washington Times, October 2, 2008: B1. (Item
entitled “China disconnect”)
CRS-11
Each Jin-class SSBN is expected to be armed with 10 or 12 JL-2 nuclear-armed
submarine-launched ballistic missiles.30 DOD estimates that these missiles will enter
service in 2009-2010,31 and that they will have a range of 7,200 kilometers (about
3,888 nautical miles).32 Such a range could permit Jin-class SSBNs to attack
!
!
!
!
targets in Alaska (except the Alaskan panhandle) from protected
bastions close to China;33
targets in Hawaii (as well as targets in Alaska, except the Alaskan
panhandle) from locations south of Japan;
targets in the western half of the 48 contiguous states (as well as
Hawaii and Alaska) from mid-ocean locations west of Hawaii; and
targets in all 50 states from mid-ocean locations west of Hawaii.
Although China’s aging Ming-class (Type 035) submarines are based on old
technology and are much less capable than China’s newer-design submarines, China
may decide that these older boats have continued value as minelayers or as bait or
decoy submarines that can be used to draw out enemy submarines (such as U.S.
SSNs) that can then be attacked by more modern PLA Navy submarines.
Table 1 shows actual and projected commissionings of Chinese submarines by
class since 1995, when China took delivery of its first two Kilo-class boats.
30
2008 DOD CMP, p. 25.
31
2008 DOD CMP, p. 3.
32
2008 DOD CMP, p. 26 (Figure 4) and p. 56 (Figure 17).
33
A map published by DOD (2008 DOD CMP, p. 26 [Figure 4]) shows a range ellipse for
the JL-2 which, upon inspection, appears to show the missile as having a range of no more
than about 6,500 kilometers, rather than the 7,200 kilometers indicated in the legend to the
map and elsewhere in the DOD report. In addition, the JL-2 range ellipse appears centered
on a launching point that is more or less west of Shanghai and perhaps 200 or more statute
miles inland from the sea. This combination of apparent range and launching point appears
to be why the map shows the JL-2 as having sufficient range to attack only the western half
of the Aleutian island chain and perhaps the western coast of mainland Alaska (the section
of Alaska’s coast that is directly opposite the Russian coast). A missile with a range of
7,200 kilometers that is launched from an ocean location close to China’s eastern coast
would have sufficient range to attack all of Alaska except the Alaskan panhandle.
DOD in 2007 assessed the range of the JL-2 as 8,000 kilometers (about 4320 nautical miles).
(2007 DOD CMP, pp. 3, 19 [Figure 3], and 42 [Figure 14].) A map published in 2007 by
DOD (2007 DOD CMP, p. 19 [Figure 3]) showed JL-2s with a range of 8,000 kilometers
as capable of attacking targets in the continental United States that are north and west of a
line running from central or southern California to northern Minnesota. For a missile with
a range of 8,000 kilometers, the launching point that results in this target-coverage line is
an inland location at or near the extreme northern tip of China — a location northeast of
Mongolia that is roughly 700 statute miles inland from the sea, with the approximate
geographic coordinates of 53oN, 125oE. This location also appeared to be the assumed
launching point for some of the land-based ballistic missiles shown in the map. The JL-2
appears to have been assigned this inland launching point in the map to simplify the
presentation of the target-coverage arcs shown in the figure.
CRS-12
As shown in Table 1, observers expected China to have a total of 29 Shang,
Kilo, Yuan, and Song class submarines in commission by the end of 2007.
Although Table 1 shows a total of 13 Song-class boats, DOD states that China
has a total of 10 Song-class boats.34 DOD also states that “The YUAN-class SS is
now assessed to be in full production and will be ready for service by 2010.”35
Photos published on the Internet have suggested to some observers that China
has launched and perhaps completed (if perhaps not officially placed into service)
higher numbers of Jin-, Shang-, and Yuan-class submarines than shown in Table 1.36
The figures in Table 1 show that between 1995 and 2007, China placed into
service a total of 38 submarines, or an average of about 2.9 submarines per year.
This average commissioning rate, if sustained indefinitely, would eventually result
in a steady-state submarine force of 58 to 88 boats of all kinds, assuming an average
submarine life of 20 to 30 years. Excluding the 12 Kilos purchased from Russia,37
total number of domestically produced submarines placed into service between 1995
and 2007 is 26, or an average of about 2.0 per year. This average rate of domestic
production, if sustained indefinitely, would eventually result in a steady-state force
of domestically produced submarines of 40 to 60 boats of all kinds, again assuming
an average submarine life of 20 to 30 years.
34
2008 DOD CMP, p. 4.
35
2008 DOD CMP, p. 4.
36
See, for example, “PLA Navy Submarine Commissioning Observations,” an April 11,
2008, entry in a blog on naval issues called “Information Dissemination,” maintained by an
author called “Galrahn,” available online at [http://informationdissemination.blogspot.com/
2008/04/pla-navy-submarine-commissioning.html].
37
Some observers might view the purchase of the 12 Kilos as a one-time event intended to
jump-start the modernization of China’s submarine force. Other observers, which conceding
the value of the 12 Kilos in jump-starting the modernization effort, might argue that
additional foreign purchases of Russian-made submarines in the future are still quite
possible.
CRS-13
Table 1. PLA Navy Submarine Commissionings
Actual (1995-2006) and Projected (2007-2010)
Jin
(Type
094)
SSBN
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Shang
(Type
093)
SSN
Kilo SS
(Russianmade)
Yuan
(Type
041)
SSf
Song
(Type
039) SS
2b
1
1
2
2
1b
1b
1
2
1
1e
1e
1e
1
1
n/ad
n/ad
n/ad
n/ad
n/ad
n/ad
n/ad
1
4
3
Ming
(Type
035) SSa
1
1
1
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
2
3
3
2c
1
1
1
Total
3
1
2
3
2
1
3
1
2
4
7
7
2
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, and previous editions.
Note: n/a = data not available.
a. Figures for Ming-class boats are when the boats were launched (i.e., put into the water for final
construction). Actual commissioning dates for these boats may have been later.
b. First four boats, commissioned in the 1990s, are to be refitted in Russia; upgrades are likely to
include installation of SS-N-27 ASCM.
c. No further units expected after the 12th and 13th shown for 2006.
d. A total of five Type 093 boats has been expected, but Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009 states that
production of the two Type 093 boats shown in the table may be followed by production of a
modified evolutionary SSN design possibly known as the Type 095 class.
e. A total of five or six boats is expected, with boats entering service at two-year intervals. (DOD
stated in 2008 that up tp five might be built. [2008 DOD CMP, p. 25])
f. Some observers believe the Yuan class to be a variant of the Song class and refer to the Yuan class
as the Type 039A.
As shown in Table 1, only three of the submarines placed into service between
1995 and 2007 are nuclear powered. If the mix of China’s submarine-production
effort shifts at some point to include a greater proportion of nuclear-powered boats,
it is possible that the greater resources required to produce nuclear-powered boats
might result in a reduction in the overall submarine production rate. If so, and if such
a reduced overall rate were sustained indefinitely, it would eventually result in a
smaller steady-state submarine force of all kinds than the figures calculated in the
preceding paragraph.
CRS-14
One set of observers stated in 2007:
In order to grasp the energy that China is now committing to undersea
warfare, consider that during 2002-2004 China’s navy launched thirteen
submarines while simultaneously undertaking the purchase of submarines from
Russia on an unprecedented scale. Indeed, China commissioned thirty-one new
submarines between 1995 and 2005. Given this rapid evolution, appraisals of
China’s capability to field competent and lethal diesel submarines in the littorals
have slowly changed from ridicule to grudging respect of late. China’s potential
for complex technological development is finally being taken seriously abroad.38
Another observer stated in 2007:
Looking ahead, further modern conventional boats are expected to be constructed
as the 27 older and less capable units (Romeo and Ming classes) are paid off
[i.e., retired] and, while predictions are hazardous, an overall force level of about
40-50 boats is expected.39
Another observer stated in 2007:
China’s submarine fleet is now considered the PLAN’s most “potent
strength.” Since 1995, the PLAN has commissioned about 31 new submarines,
including two nuclear-powered submarines based on advanced Russian
technology. Eight submarines were commissioned in 2005, and seven were
commissioned in 2006, including new Song-class boats and a Yuan-class boat
heavily inspired by Russia’s Amur-class sub with its anechoic tile coatings and
quiet seven-bladed skewed propeller. The reported incorporation of
“air-independent propulsion” systems that permit submarines to operate
underwater for up to 30 days would make the Song and Yuan submarines
virtually undetectable to existing U.S. surveillance networks.
In addition, China has three new nuclear-powered submarine design and
construction programs. The Type-093 Shang-class nuclear attack boat and the
Type-094 Jin-class nuclear ballistic missile submarine programs are underway.
Two Shang submarines are deployed, and three are under construction, and five
Jin-class ballistic missile submarines are reportedly under construction. Five
Type-095 submarines, a larger version of the Shang/Jin hull, are also under
development. Together with its procurement program for improved Russianmade Kilo-class submarines, China has at least six new submarine programs
under way simultaneously — a submarine development campaign that is
unprecedented in peacetime. China will have at least 34 advanced submarines
deployed in the Pacific by 2010 — some analysts expect as many as 50 to 60 —
assuming that those under construction will be completed within three years.
China will certainly have over 60 advanced submarines by 2020.40
38
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 55.
39
40
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2007-2008, p. 31 (Executive Overview).
John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 9-10. A footnote at the end of this quoted
passage states: “Including at least five Type-94 Jins, five Type-093 Shangs, five Type-095s,
one Yuan, 13 Songs, and 13 Kilo 877s and 636s.”
CRS-15
Another observer stated in 2007:
Although China is modernizing its submarine force, it is not “expanding”
it. Since the mid-1980s, the force has been in steady decline from nearly 120
boats to roughly 55 operational submarines today. The U.S. Navy expects the
force will level out around 40 boats in the next decade.
The decline of the submarine fleet is part of a transition where large older
classes are being phased out and replaced with newer but less numerous
submarine classes.41
Another observer stated in 2007:
We were seeing 3 to 4 [Type] 039s launched per year when it was finally in mass
production. We have seen either the 2nd or the 3rd unit of 039A [aka Type 041]
Yuan class under construction recently. It looks like PLAN has finally sorted out
enough issues in [the] Yuan [class design] to mass produce it. I’m guessing we
will see 3-6 [Type] 039As coming out a year for the next couple of years. And
after that, we will see the successor to the 039 class.42
This observer also stated in 2007:
The mass production of Yuan ([Type] 039A) [class boats] has recently started.
It’s hard to see that this will continue more than the mass production run of 3rd
variants of [the] Song [class design]. So, we might see 10 Yuan at most.
Although, I think China will soon be developing a class of conventional
submarine to match [the German] U-214, [the French] Scorpene and [the
Russian] Amur [designs]. I’m guessing [the Japanese] Oyashio and [the
Australian] Collins [class designs] are still in a league of their own. Either way,
this new class will most likely endure a long initial production process like [the]
Song [class] did before mass production. Although judging from Song’s
production of 4 per year (at its height), it shouldn’t be long before [the] Yuan
[class] or this new diesel class replace[s] all the Mings plus earlier [the] Song
class submarines.43
Although China is modernizing its submarine force through the construction of
new boats, one report, citing U.S. Navy data (see Table 2), shows the annual rate of
Chinese submarine patrols to be relatively low.
41
Federation of American Scientists (FAS), “China’s Submarine Fleet Continues Low Patrol
Rate,” published online at [http://fas.org/blog/ssp/2007/02/].
42
“PLAN looking forward to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval
and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html]
43
“2018 — deadline for Taiwan invasion?” a September 22, 2007, entry in a blog on China
naval and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/09/2018-deadline-for-taiwan-invasion.html].
CRS-16
Table 2. Chinese Submarine Patrols Per Year, 1981-2007
81
1
95
1
82
0
96
1
83
2
97
2
84
2
98
3
85
2
99
2
86
1
00
6
87
1
01
3
88
5
02
4
89
2
03
3
90
0
04
3
91
1
05
0
92
1
06
2
93
0
07
6
94
1
Source: Federation of American Scientists (FAS), “Chinese Submarine Patrols Rebound in 2007, but
Remain Limited,” published online at [http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2008/01/chinese_submarine_
patrols_rebo.php]. FAS states in the online article that it received the data from the U.S. Navy under
the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA).
The Federation of American Scientists (FAS), which published the figures
shown in Table 2, states:
China’s entire fleet of approximately 55 general-purpose submarines
conducted a total of six patrols during 2007, slightly better than the two patrols
conducted in 2006 and zero in 2005.
The 2007 performance matches China’s all-time high of six patrols
conducted in 2000, the only two years since 1981 that Chinese submarines
conducted more than five patrols in a single year.
The new information, obtained by Federation of American Scientists from
the U.S. Navy under the Freedom of Information Act, also shows that none of
China’s ballistic missile submarines have ever conducted a deterrent patrol.
In Perspective
Just what constitutes a Chinese “patrol” is secret, according to the U.S.
Navy, but it probably refers to an extended voyage away from the homeport area
(see here for further definitions). The seven Chinese patrols conducted in 2007
is but a fraction of the number of patrols conducted by the U.S. submarine force,
which musters well over 100 patrols per year. But a comparison of U.S. and
Chinese submarine patrol levels is not possible because the two navies have very
different missions. China has no overseas military commitments and uses its
submarine fleet almost exclusively as a coastal defense force, whereas the U.S.
submarine force is constantly engaged in forward operations alone or with allies.
The Chinese patrol rate compares better with that of the Russian Navy,
which has largely ceased forward submarine operations compared with those of
the Soviet Union during the Cold War. Russian general purpose submarines
conducted seven patrols in 2007.
In historic perspective, the six Chinese submarine patrols conducted in
2007 continues a trend that China in this decade has sent slightly more
submarines on patrol than during the 1990s. Whereas Chinese submarines in the
1990s conducted an average of 1.2 patrols each year, the average has been 3.4
patrols since 2000.
About Those Boomers
CRS-17
Twenty-five years after it launched its first ballistic missiles submarine, Xia
(Type 092), China has yet to conduct its first deterrent patrol. The new
information confirms that neither the Xia, nor the two new Jin-class (Type 094)
ballistic missile submarines — the first of which was launched in 2004 — have
ever conducted a deterrent patrol....
Implications
Despite the rebound in general purpose submarine patrols, dramatic reports
from recent years about Chinese submarines operating inside Japanese territorial
waters or surfacing close to U.S. aircraft carriers have been largely absent in
2007. The meaning of the patrol rebound is yet unclear. After all, it follows a
complete absence of submarine patrols in 2005, the fourth year since 1981 that
China’s submarine fleet did not conduct any patrols despite introduction of
several new classes of more advanced submarines for greater reach. That
modernization has (not yet) manifested itself in the form of a clear increase in
submarine patrols.
The patrol number does not say anything about what the submarines did
during the six patrols. They might have been basic attempts to sail far from shore
to test navigational equipment or communication with the homebase, or they
might have included more advanced tactical operations. They might have been
conducted by six different submarines, or only a couple.
Yet for the Chinese submarine force overall, six patrols do not provide very
much operational experience for more than 50 submarines and their crews. If
China did plan a more extended reach for its submarine force, one might expect
the patrol rate to continue to increase in the next couple of years. Only the future
will tell. But the operational experience from the 55 patrols conducted by the
entire submarine force between 1981 and the end of 2007 suggests that China’s
submarine force - at least for now - remains a coastal defense force.44
Another observer, expressing a different view on the issue of the frequency of
Chinese submarine patrols, stated in 2007 that “Chinese submarines slip out into
open seas from underwater tunnels and are virtually undetectable.” Regarding an
October 2006 incident involving a Song-class SS that surfaced near the U.S. aircraft
carrier Kitty Hawk while it was operating near Okinawa, this observer stated that
after the submarine was detected on the surface, the submarine “submerged and
disappeared, defeating all U.S. anti-submarine warfare (ASW) efforts to detect it.”
The observer stated that
The ease with which the submarine maneuvered undetected into Japanese waters
and evaded U.S. and Japan Self Defense Force submarine sensors suggests that
China’s large submarine fleet engages in far more sea patrols than the U.S. has
any hope of tracking.45
44
Hans M. Kristensen, “Chinese Submarine Patrols Rebound in 2007, but Remain Limited,”
Federation of American Scientists Strategic Security Blog, available online at
[http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2008/01/chinese_submarine_patrols_rebo.php].
45
John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 9 and 10.
CRS-18
Another observer states that the October 2006 incident involving the Song-class
SS was
in contrast to claims that the Chinese submarine fleet conducted only two patrols
in 2006, according to information declassified by the U.S. Navy and obtained by
the Federation of American Scientists under the Freedom of Information Act.
Such relative inactivity seems at first extraordinary but can at least partly be
explained by probable ambiguity about what constitutes a “patrol.” However, a
more obvious reason is that half of China’s 26 modern (Yuan, Song, Kilo class)
submarines have entered service since 2004 and it would be surprising if it was
not proving difficult to build up the necessary levels of training and experience
before more frequent out-of-area deployments can be undertaken.46
Aircraft Carriers. The issue of whether and when China might deploy one or
more aircraft carriers, and what the design and capabilities of Chinese aircraft carriers
might be, has been a topic of discussion among observers for the last several years.
Chinese officials in recent years have begun to speak more openly about building one
or more aircraft carriers.47 Developments since mid-2005 have suggested to some
observers that China now intends to complete the unfinished ex-Russian carrier
Varyag, which China purchased from Russia several years ago, and place it into
service in the near future, possibly as an aviation training ship. Some observers also
believe that China in the next few years will begin construction of one or more
indigenously designed aircraft carriers.
The Varyag has an estimated full load displacement of about 58,500 tons,
compared to about 100,000 tons for a U.S. Navy Nimitz (CVN-68) class aircraft
carrier, about 42,000 tons for the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (which
was commissioned in 2001), and about 65,000 tons to 70,000 tons for aircraft carriers
that the United Kingdom and France plan to commission into service between 2014
and 2016. It is estimated that the Varyag can embark an air wing of 18 Su-33 Flanker
fighters, plus additional helicopters, compared to 70 or more aircraft on a Nimitzclass carrier, 36 aircraft on the Charles de Gaulle, and 40 to 45 aircraft on the future
UK and French carriers.
One observer stated in 2008 that:
Procurement of an aircraft carrier capability has been a high priority for the
Chinese Navy since the 1990s.... [The Varyag] arrived at Dalian in March 2002.
Since then, there have been conflicting reports about Chinese plans for the ship
but, following its emergence from dock in mid-2005 painted in military colours,
it islikely that it is intended to bring the ship into operational service. Work in
2006 included the apparent application of a non-skid surface to the flight deck.
Reports in November 2006 that China was negotiating to procure up to 50
Sukhoi Su-33 [carrier-capable] fighters was a further indicator of Chinese
intentions. A further major docking period is probably required to fit shafts
and/or propellers....
46
47
Fighting Ships 2007-2008, p. 31 (Executive Overview).
See, for example, Mure Dickie and Martin Dickson, “China Military Chief Sets Out Case
For Country’s First Aircraft Carrier,” Financial Times, November 17, 2008: 1.
CRS-19
Initial sea trials could start in 2008 after which an extensive period of trials
and training is likely to follow. It is unlikely that the ship will begin operational
flying training until at the earliest 2010. The ship’s (unconfirmed) pennant
number suggests that her initial status will be as a training ship. The aircraft
inventory is not yet known but is likely to comprise a mixture of Russian-built
fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters.48
This observer also stated in 2008 that “Building of an indigenous aircraft carrier
is expected to start by 2010 with a view to entering service in about 2015.”49
One observer stated in 2007 that “Beijing statements allude more consistently
to a 3-carrier force requirement, which may or may not include the ex-Varyag....
Were a Chinese carrier contract finalised in 2006, it would be 2011 before launching
and 2014 before commissioning; a second ship could follow in 2016.”50
Another observer stated in 2007 that “Interestingly, a U.S. source that recently
spoke with high PLA Navy officers relayed to the IASC [International Assessment
and Strategy Center] that these officers stated that China would eventually build four
to six aircraft carriers. In 2007 Chinese officials have been more willing to
acknowledge their ambitions to build large aircraft carriers, an ambition that had
previously been consistently denied.”51
DOD states that “China has an active aircraft carrier research and design
program. If the leadership were to so choose, the PRC shipbuilding industry could
start construction of an indigenous platform by the end of this decade.”52 DOD also
states that:
There does not appear to be evidence that China has begun construction of
an aircraft carrier. However, evidence in recent years increasingly suggests
China’s leaders may be moving forward with an aircraft carrier program. For
example, beginning in early 2006 and with the release of China’s Eleventh Five
Year Plan, PRC-owned media reported on statements from high-level
government and military officials on China’s intent to build aircraft carriers —
including a March 2007 statement from the then-minister of China’s Commission
on Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense (COSTIND).
Continued renovations to the former Soviet Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier
suggest China may choose to use the platform for training purposes. Moreover,
Russian press has reported Chinese interest in acquiring Russian Su-33
carrier-borne fighters. In October 2006 a Russian press report suggested
early-stage negotiations were underway for China to purchase up to 50 such
aircraft at a cost of $2.5 billion. However, there has been no announcement of a
contract for the aircraft.
48
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 126.
49
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 126.
50
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 24.
51
Richard Fisher, Jr., “Chinese Dimensions of the 2007 Dubai Airshow,” online article
available at [http://www.strategycenter.net/printVersion/print_pub.asp?pubID=179]
52
2008 DOD CMP, p. 4.
CRS-20
Analysts in and out of government project that China could not have an
operational, domestically-produced carrier before 2015. However, changes in
China’s shipbuilding capability and degree of foreign assistance to the program
could alter those projections.53
Another observer presented a somewhat alternate view in 2007, stating that:
The [new ship] that is probably most anticipated [for 2008] is the aircraft
carrier. Most people suspect that we will see this in JiangNan shipyard.... I do
believe that many of the suppliers have already delivered the necessary
components [for this ship]. I also believe that the ship will start construction in
2008, but we might not see anything useful for another 2 years. What about
Varyag? We’ve been waiting for progress ever since the second half of 2005
when the ship was first painted in PLAN colour. Since then, we’ve seen some
progress, but this [past] year [i.e., 2007] hasn’t brought about that much
[change]. The conventional wisdom is that China bought Varyag for study and
for training/preparing a future naval air wing. As time goes by, I have more and
more doubts toward latter. I almost feel like Varyag is being displayed as a decoy
of some sort. It is there to grab people’s attention on this old ship, and away from
works on China’s first indigenous carrier. Obviously, I’m not expecting much
progress in Varyag in 2008.54
This observer also stated in 2007 that:
there are some rumours recently that the [indigenous] carrier projects will start
in both Dalian and Shanghai shipyards. I’m not surprised that two will be built,
but I didn’t think Dalian would get any work.... They are supposedly looking for
something that is 60k+ in standard displacement, 317 m long, 70+ m wide and
[an ability to] carry 55+ aircrafts (of which 30+ [would be] J-11Cs, [plus] some
number of helicopters and possibly Y-7 AEWs).... At this point, I’d generally
take the cost rumours with a grain of salt. However, the carrier dimensions is
from a much better source and seems to be comparable to Varyag dimensions
(although a little larger). I do expect to see catapults on the first generation of
Chinese carriers.55
A July 2008 article stated:
The PLAN’s Shanghai Research Institute has been spearheading its plans
for acquiring a fleet of 64,000-tonne aircraft carriers, [LPD-type amphibious
ships and LHD-type amphibious ships] for the past 25 years. In the early 1980s,
water-tunnel scale-models of such vessels were constructed and tested in the
Institute’s 600-metre (656-yard) pool and at Tai Lake in Jiangsu Province. In
1985 the PLAN began a training course for future aircraft carrier/LPD/LHD
commanders at its Guangzhou Naval Academy. In January 1993, the PLAN
53
2008 DOD CMP, p. 38.
54
“PLAN looking forward to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval
and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html]
55
“Latest from PLAN,” a November 17, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval and air power
m a i n t a i n e d b y a n a u t h o r c a l l e d “ F e n g, ” a va i l a b l e o n l i n e a t
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/11/latest-from-plan.html].
CRS-21
decided to firm up plans for acquiring a 64,000-tonne displacement aircraft
carrier under the 9935 Shipbuilding Programme. In parallel, work began on
expanding and upgrading the PLAN’s naval bases and harbours in Shanghai,
Zhejiang, Yulin and Dalian. In 1995 — 1996 two European countries — France
and Spain — approached China for industrial cooperation in LPD/LHD
technologies. In February 1995 the Spanish shipbuilder Empresa Nacional Bazan
(now Navantia) offered to build for the PLAN a low-cost, lightweight
conventional-takeoff-and-landing (CTOL) aircraft carrier-cum-LHD. Navantia
proposed two designs: the 23,000-tonne SAC-200 (overall length 728 feet, or
221.8 metres) LPD; and the 25,000-tonne SAC-220 (overall length 787 feet, or
240 metres) LHD. The cost of building either of the two vessels would be
US$400 million. The SAC-220 could accommodate up to 21 CTOL combat
aircraft or medium-lift helicopters. According to Navantia, the first carrier could
be delivered within five years, with the second 42 months later. At the time,
Navantia was constructing the 11,500-tonne aircraft carrier ‘Chakri Naruebet’ for
the Royal Thai Navy and was eager to secure further orders in East Asia. China
expressed an interest in the proposal, and initial talks between the COSTIND and
Navantia were held in January 1996. However, according to Navantia officials,
COSTIND officials seemed more interested in obtaining the blueprints of the
aircraft carrier than in ordering the actual vessel off-the-shelf. In November
1997, however, Beijing shelved plans to build fixed-wing aircraft carriers in
favour of smaller LHDs and LPDs. In 1999 the Chinese Communist Party’s
Central Committee and the State Council had earmarked Yuan250 million for the
design and construction of one LHD and one LPD.56
A September 15, 2008, press report stated:
Fifty students have begun a training programme at the Chinese People’s
Liberation Army Dalian Naval Academy (DNA) designed to make them China’s
first naval pilots capable of operating fixed-wing aircraft from an aircraft carrier.
The training programme, which is the first of its kind in the history of the
People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), was described by China’s state media
as “an important decision made by the navy to realise its strategic transformation
in the new era”.
The majority of the training programme will be delivered at the Faculty of
Automation Engineering at DNA, though other naval institutions and flying
academies will contribute to the programme. During four years of training,
students will receive classroom instruction in automation and control
engineering, seamanship and also theories of flight and aircraft systems. This is
likely to be followed by a flight training programme, beginning with primary
flight training on land and eventually leading to advanced shipborne flight
training.
To support its long-time ambition of acquiring an aircraft carrier capability,
the PLAN has been selecting and training future carrier operators for over two
decades. Inspired by the US Navy’s practice of appointing naval pilots to captain
56
Prasun K.Sengupta, “Spotlight On China’s LPDs, LHDs And Aircraft Carrier,” Tempur,
July 2008: 93. (Tempur is a magazine focusing on defense and security issues that is
published in Malaysia; the magazine’s website is: [http://www.tempur.com.my/
indexbi.htm].)
CRS-22
aircraft carriers, the PLA Guangzhou Naval Academy launched a ‘Pilot Warship
Captain’ course in 1987 to train naval pilots to command warships. Nine naval
pilots graduated from the course after three years of studies and all of them are
now serving on PLAN destroyers as captains. By 2010, these captains will reach
their late forties, with 20 years of experience in warship operations, making them
ideal candidates to captain an aircraft carrier.
Although an operational carrier is unlikely to be commissioned soon, a
source within the Chinese shipbuilding industry has confirmed that the PLAN is
planning to convert the ex-Soviet navy carrier Varyag into a training carrier. The
67,500 ton vessel, bought from Ukraine for USD20 million in 1997, has been
docked at the Dalian Shipyard for refurbishment since 2002. If the PLAN
manages to overcome the technical difficulties involved in fitting the vessel with
a new propulsion system and the necessary take-off and landing systems, Varyag
will serve as a capable platform for the PLAN’s future shipborne flight training
programme, pending the introduction of the first operational Chinese aircraft
carriers perhaps by 2020.
Another major obstacle faced by the PLAN is the lack of suitable aircraft.
In the past, PLAN pilots have reportedly undertaken short-range take-off and
landing using the indigenous J-8 fighter on a simulated carrier deck but the
aircraft’s poor aerodynamic performance makes it impossible for real shipborne
operations. The third-generation indigenous J-10 and J-11 fighters are potential
candidates but both require substantial structural modifications before they can
take off and land on the carrier deck.
In October 2006, the Russian Kommersant online daily newspaper revealed
that China was in negotiations with the Russian state-run weapon exporter
Rosoboronexport to purchase up to 50 examples of the Sukhoi Su-33 ‘Flanker-D’
fighter aircraft in a deal worth USD2.5 billion. China would initially acquire two
Su-33s for USD100 million for trial and evaluation. These fighters, constructed
by the Komsomolsk-on-Amur Production Association, were due to be delivered
to the PLAN in 2007-2008.
The PLAN has some experience with Sukhoi aircraft, having operated 24
land-based Su-30MKK2 fighter bombers since 2004.57
Surface Combatants. China since the early 1990s has purchased four
Sovremenny-class destroyers from Russia and deployed nine new classes of
indigenously built destroyers and frigates (some of which are variations of one
another) that demonstrate a significant modernization of PLA Navy surface
combatant technology. DOD states that China’s newest indigenously built destroyers
and frigates “reflect leadership’s priority on advanced anti-air warfare capabilities for
China’s naval forces, which has historically been a weakness of the fleet.”58 China
has also deployed a new kind of missile-armed fast attack craft that uses a stealthy
catamaran hull design.
57
Dawei Xia, “China Starts training 50 Carrier Pilots,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, September
15, 2008.
58
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 4-5.
CRS-23
Sovremenny-Class Destroyers. China in 1996 ordered two Sovremennyclass destroyers from Russia; the ships entered service in 1999 and 2001. China in
2002 ordered two additional Sovremenny-class destroyers from Russia; the ships
entered service in 2005 and 2006. Sovremenny-class destroyers are equipped with
the SS-N-22 Sunburn ASCM, a highly capable ASCM.59 DOD stated in 2007 that
the two ships ordered in 2002 “are fitted with anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and
wide-area air defense systems that feature qualitative improvements over the [two]
earlier SOVREMENNYY-class DDGs China purchased from Russia.”60 In light of
these improvements, DOD refers to these two ships as Sovremenny II class
destroyers.61 China reportedly has an option for another two Sovremenny-class ships.
Five New Indigenously Built Destroyer Classes. China since the early
1990s has built five new classes of destroyers, one of which is a variation of another.
Compared to China’s 14 remaining older Luda (Type 051) class destroyers, which
entered service between 1971 and 1991, these five new destroyer classes are
substantially more modern in terms of their hull designs, propulsion systems, sensors,
weapons, and electronics. A key area of improvement in the new destroyer designs
is their anti-air warfare (AAW) technology, which has been a significant PLA Navy
shortcoming. Like the older Luda-class destroyers, these new destroyer classes are
armed with ASCMs. Table 3 summarizes the five new classes.
Table 3. New PLA Navy Destroyer Classes
Class name
Type
Number
built
Hull number(s)
In service (actual or
projected)
Luhu
052
2
112, 113
1994, 1996
Luhai
051B
1
167
1999
Luyang I
052B
2
168, 169
2004
Luyang II
052C
2
170, 171
2004, 2005
Luzhou
051C
2
115, 116
2006, 2007
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009.
As shown in Table 3, China to date has commissioned only 1 or 2 ships in each
of these five classes, suggesting that at least some of these classes might have been
intended to serve as stepping stones in a plan to modernize the PLA Navy’s surface
combatant technology incrementally before committing to larger-scale series
production of destroyers.62
59
A previous CRS report discussed the PLA Navy’s first two Sovremenny-class destroyers
and their SS-N-22 ASCMs at length. See CRS Report RL30700, op. cit.
60
2007 DOD CMP, p. 3. The DOD report spells Sovremenny with two “y”s at the end.
61
2008 DOD CMP, p. 2.
62
One observer says the limited production runs of these four designs to date “might be
financially related, or may relate to debate over what ships should follow the Type 051C air
defence and Type 052C multi-role classes, or that once the Type 054A [frigate design] is
accepted as the future missile frigate design, three or four of the major warship shipyards
CRS-24
The Luhu-class ships reportedly were ordered in 1985 but had their construction
delayed by a decision to give priority to the construction of six frigates that were
ordered by Thailand. The Luhai-class ship is believed to have served as the basis for
the Luyang-class designs. Compared to the Luhai, the Luyang I-class ships appear
stealthier. DOD stated in 2008 that the Luyang I design is equipped with the
Russian-made SA-N-7B Grizzly SAM and the Chinese-made YJ-83 ASCM.63
The Luyang II-class ships appear to feature an even more capable AAW
system that includes a Chinese-made SAM system called the HHQ-9 that has an even
longer range, a vertical launch system (VLS), and a phased-array radar that is
outwardly somewhat similar to the SPY-1 radar used in the U.S.-made Aegis combat
system.64
DOD stated in 2007 the Luzhou-class design “is designed for anti-air warfare.
It will be equipped with the Russian SA-N-20 SAM system controlled by the
TOMBSTONE phased-array radar. The SA-N-20 more than doubles the range of
current PLA Navy air defense systems marking a significant improvement in China’s
ship-borne air defense capability.”65
If one or more of these destroyer designs (or a successor design) are put into
larger-scale production, it would accelerate the modernization of China’s surface
combatant force. One observer stated in 2007 that:
All signs are pointing to laying down of the successor to 052C [design] in the
beginning of next year [2008]. There is a lot of speculations on what would be
size and armament on this ship. Many people have also speculated it to be the
first class of massed produced Destroyers after [the] Luda class.66
This observer also stated in 2007 that:
the new generation [Type] 052D [class] is suppose[d] to start construction in
early 2008 in Changxin. We could easily see production of 2 or more per year
will all be assigned to construction of this design, delaying a future CG/DDG class.” (Keith
Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 24.) Another observer stated I
2007 that “It looks like [the] 052C [class] was stopped for a few years due to [the] JiangNan
relocation [and the] sorting out [of] all the issues on [the] 052B/C [designs]. (“2018 —
deadline for Taiwan invasion?” a September 22, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval and
air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/09/2018-deadline-for-taiwan-invasion.html].)
63
2007 DOD CMP, pp. 3-4
64
For a detailed article about the Luyang II class, see James C. Bussert, “China Debuts
Aegis Destroyers,” Signal, July 2005, pp. 59-62.
65
66
2007 DOD CMP, p. 3.
“PLAN looking forward to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval
and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html]
CRS-25
until there are enough to replace the Ludas. Of course, each iteration will be
slightly better than the previous one.67
Four New Indigenously Built Frigate Classes. China since the early
1990s has built four new classes of frigates, two of which are variations of two
others, that are more modern than China’s 29 remaining older Jianghu (Type 053)
class frigates, which entered service between the mid-1970s and 1989. The four new
frigate classes, like the new destroyer classes, feature improved AAW capabilities.
Unlike the new destroyer designs, some of the new frigate designs have been put into
larger-scale series production. Table 4 summarizes the four new classes.
Table 4. New PLA Navy Frigate Classes
Class name
Jiangwei I
Jiangwei II
Jiangkai I
Jiangkai II
Type
Number
built or
building
Hull number(s)
In service
(actual or
projected)
053G H2G
4
539-542
1991-1994
053H3
10
between 521 and 567
1998-2005
054
2
525, 526
2005
054A
4
530 (lead ship), 529, n/a
2007-2008
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009
Construction of Jiangwei I-class ships appears to have ceased. It is unclear
whether construction of Jiangwei II-class ships will continue after the 10th ship.
The Jiangkai I-class ships feature a stealthy design that somewhat resembles
France’s La Fayette-class frigate, which first entered service in 1996.68 The Jiangkai
II-class ships are a modified version of the Jiangkai I-class design that features a
VLS system for its SAMs. One observer stated in 2008 that “construction of the
Jiangkai II-class frigates, armed with vertically launched HQ-7 missiles, continues
and these [ships] look to be the mainstay of the fleet as the 1970s-vintage Jianghu
class are phased out or adapted for Coast Guard use.”69 Another observer similarly
stated in 2007 that a total of 28 to 30 Type 054A frigates “are believed scheduled”
for production to replace China’s older-generation frigates.70
67
“2018 — deadline for Taiwan invasion?” a September 22, 2007, entry in a blog on China
naval and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/09/2018-deadline-for-taiwan-invasion.html].
68
France sold a modified version of the La Fayette-class design to Taiwan; the six ships that
Taiwan built to the design entered service in 1996-1998.
69
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 30 (Executive Overview). This source similarly
states on page 133: “Under construction at two shipyards, it is likely that this design will be
built in sufficient numbers to replace the ageing Jianghu class frigates.”
70
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 26.
CRS-26
Fast Attack Craft. As an apparent replacement for its 190 older fast attack
craft, or FACs (including 37 armed with ASCMs), China in 2004 introduced a new
type of ASCM-armed fast attack craft, called the Houbei (Type 022) class, that uses
a stealthy, wave-piercing, catamaran hull. The Houbei class is being built in at least
six shipyards. Forty were in service as of 2008, and a total of as many as 100 might
be built.71
Amphibious Ships.
Yuzhao (Type 071) Amphibious Ship. China is building a new class of
amphibious ship called the Yuzhao or Type 071 class. The design has an estimated
displacement of 17,600 tons, compared with about 15,900 tons to 16,700 tons for the
U.S. Navy’s Whidbey Island/Harpers Ferry (LSD-41/49) class amphibious ships,
which were commissioned into service between 1985 and 1998, and about 25,900
tons for the U.S. Navy’s new San Antonio (LPD-17) class amphibious ships, the first
of which was commissioned into service in 2006. The first Type 071 ship reportedly
was commissioned into service on July 6, 2008.72 The Type 071 design features a
hull with clean, sloped sides — a design that resembles the hulls of modern western
amphibious ships and appears intended to reduce the ship’s visibility to radar. One
observer stated in 2008 that:
An ideal platform for disaster-relief operations would be the new Yuzhaoclass ship, possibly called Kunlun Shan, which began sea trials in 2007. In the
short term there is likely to be an extensive trials and evaluation period, but
further orders are almost certain once first-of-class problems have been resolved.
A class of four ships, each capable of carrying up to 800 troops, is a possibility.73
A July 2008 press report states that a planned force of six Type 071s:
will be used for both tri-services operational logistics as well as civilian disaster
relief operations. The vessel, with pennant number 998, is now operational with
the Navy’s South Sea Fleet and has on board four Z-8K heavylift helicopters.
The state-owned China State Shipbuilding & Trading Corp (CSTC), a subsidiary
of the China State Shipbuilding Corp (CSSC), had on December 21, 2006
launched the first LPD at its Shanghai-based Hudong Zhonghua Shipbuilding
facility and this vessel early last September began her sea trials....
The [Type 071] LPD... incorporates the features of a troop transport ship,
amphibious assault support ship, logistics support ship for submarine
71
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 30 (Executive Overview) and p. 141. One observer
stated in 2007 that: “In addition to the Houbei class, one observer stated in 2007 that China
in 2005 ordered 24 to 30 Molniya-class ASCM-armed fast attack craft from Russia. The
Molniya class is an upgraded version of the Russian Tarantul-class design that might be
armed with four SS-N-22 ASCMs. The first four, according to this observer, were to have
been delivered by late-2007 or early-2008.” (Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval
Forces, No. 1, 2007: 27.)
72
Prasun K.Sengupta, “Spotlight On China’s LPDs, LHDs And Aircraft Carrier,” Tempur,
July 2008: 91.
73
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 30 (Executive Overview).
CRS-27
escape-and-rescue operations, aviation support ship, field hospital ship (with a
surgical unit operating for a minimum of 30 days), and a combined forces
command-and-control vessel leading a power projection-oriented naval task
force. The vessel is also capable of transporting 800 fully equipped troops along
with related tracked/wheeled vehicles, six medium-lift assault hovercraft in times
of conflict for a period of 14 days, and will also be able to replenish at sea.
Alternatively, the vessel will be able to carry 400 troops, a 50-tonne main battle
tank, one hovercraft, four LCMs, four LCVPs, and up to four heavylift
helicopters....
The Type 071 LPD’s hull and superstructure are reformed — the hull has
flaring sides, while the superstructure has a 10º inclination for the sidewalls and
a 15º for the frontal and aft walls. To eliminate [radar] cavity reflection, large
openings are avoided and the observation windows at the bridge and the aviation
command-and-control centre use [radar-]shielded glass.74
Reported Potential Type 081 Amphibious Ship. In August 2007, it was
reported that China might begin building a larger amphibious ship, called the Type
081 LHD, that might displace 20,000 tons.75 A July 2008 press report states that:
In late 2006, the PLAN’s HQ finalised the indigenous design of the Type 081
LHD following conclusion of the third critical design review. Subsequently, the
Dalian-based and Wuhanbased shipyards of the state-owned China Shipbuilding
Industry Corp (CSIC) were awarded contracts to undertake detailed engineering
drawings.... Present plans call for Dalian Shipyard to build three LHDs and
Wuhan Shipyard to build another three... On-board sensors and systems identical
to those on board the Type 071 LPD will be installed on board the Type 081
LHD, with the principal differences being the top-deck superstructure that will
house the island (incorporating the bridge and CIC [combat information center])
as well as a flat-top deck capable of housing eight heavylift helicopters, twin
elevators, one Type 730 CIWS [close-in weapon system], and an internal hangar
housing four additional helicopters, a maintenance bay and an armaments
stowage area.76
Other New Amphibious Ships and Landing Craft. Aside from the Type
071 and Type 081 projects, China between 2003 and 2005 commissioned into service
three new classes of smaller amphibious ships and landing craft. Each type was built
at three or four shipyards. Between these three other classes, China commissioned
into service a total of 20 amphibious ships and 10 amphibious landing craft in 20032005. Additional units in some of these classes are possible. China also has
numerous older amphibious ships and landing craft of various designs.
74
Prasun K.Sengupta, “Spotlight On China’s LPDs, LHDs And Aircraft Carrier,” Tempur,
July 2008: 91-92.
75
See Richard D. Fisher Jr., “Naval Gazing, Emerging Expeditionary Capabilities in the
Western Pacific,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, August 2007: 55; and “PLAN looking forward
to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval and air power maintained by
an author called “Feng,” available online at [http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/
12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html]
76
Prasun K.Sengupta, “Spotlight On China’s LPDs, LHDs And Aircraft Carrier,” Tempur,
July 2008: 93.
CRS-28
Mine Countermeasures (MCM) Ships. China is building two new classes
of mine countermeasures (MCM) ships called the Wozang class and the Wochi class.
One Wozang-class ship and five Wochi-class ships were in service as of 2008.
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009 states that little is known about the capabilities of
either class.77
C4ISR Systems. C4ISR (command, control, communications, computers,
intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance) systems are viewed as increasingly
important in terms of maximizing a military force’s capability, particularly in terms
of obtaining timely, accurate targeting information for precision-guided weapons.
A highly capable C4ISR capability can permit the formation of a networked military
force composed of many widely separated units that can rapidly collect information
from various sensors in the force and share that information among various units in
the force. Effective networking through capable C4ISR systems is viewed by some
observers as enabling a more highly capable approach to warfare sometimes referred
to in U.S. discussions as network-centric warfare or network-centric operations.78
Chinese discussions of this issue similarly refer to military operations under
“informatized” conditions.
Regarding long-range radars that can provide targeting information for Chinese
ASBMs, one observer stated in November 2008 that:
According to a [2001] report in Jane’s Defence Weekly,79 China has been
developing an OTH-B [over-the-horizon backscatter radar] system since 2001.
The prototype system is described by the Chinese National Electronics Import
& Export Corporation [CNEIEC] as having a range of between 800 and 3,000
kilometers, with azimuth coverage of 60 degrees. The system is bistatic, with
separate transmitter and receiver stations separated by a distance of 100
kilometers.... [A publicly available satellite photo], dated 7 September 2005,
seems to indicate that the prototype array has been dismantled, with vegetation
having taken over much of the former array’s position. The prototype transmitter
has not yet been identified in available imagery.
An operational version of this system has likely been fielded in the
intervening years since the Jane’s report first came to light. A much larger
receiver has been identified in open-source imagery, located roughly 50
kilometers southwest of Xiangfan. While the corresponding transmitter has yet
to be identified in available imagery, the presence of the receiver array is
indicative of China’s intent to proceed with an operational OTH-B system....
77
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, pp. 147 and 148.
78
For more on network-centric warfareand network-centric operations, see CRS Report
RL32411, Network Centric Operations: Background and Oversight Issues for Congress, by
Clay Wilson. See also CRS Report RS20557, Navy Network-Centric Warfare Concept: Key
Programs and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
79
The article being cited is “China to Test Air-defence Radar,” Jane’s Defence Weekly,
August 17, 2001. (The Jane’s organization lists the article as being published August 17,
2001; the website being quoted here states that it was published August 22, 2001.)
CRS-29
Performance data of the new Chinese OTH-B system is not currently
available, but a very basic overview of the capability of the system can be
considered by using the data from the prototype system. Considering a mimimum
range of 800 kilometers and a maximum range of 3,000 kilometers, coupled with
azimuth coverage of approximately 60 degrees, an operational OTH-B system
would be able to scan much of the ocean from Japan to the Philippine islands....
China has also developed an OTH-SW [over-the-horizon surface wave
radar] system. Situated along the coast 8 kilometers east of Shencheng, China’s
OTH-SW system is a bistatic radar employing separate transmitter and receiver
elements separated by a distance of 2.65 kilometers....
Very little is known about China’s OTH-SW development, so performance
data is speculative at best. It is not even known whether the OTH-SW system is
a prototype or an operational version. Operational status seems likely, given the
placement along the Strait of Taiwan, in which case the prototype system has yet
to be identified. By examining the transmitter array it appears that azimuth
coverage of up to 90 degrees is possible. Russian input may have been sought in
developing the OTH-SW system, given the receiver’s similarity to that of the
[Russian] Nakhodka OTH-SW system. The Russian system is likely the more
capable of the two systems, however, given that the transmitter is not located in
close proximity to the receiver suggesting a system of greater power output and
therefore greater range. The Russian IRIDA OTH-SW system has a quoted range
of 300 kilometers....
It should be noted that both the OTH-B and OTH-SW range estimates are
likely very conservative. The operational systems are likely more powerful than
either the prototype OTH-B or the Russian transportable IRIDA OTH-SW system
and therefore are likely to have greater range capability than is depicted. Both
operational Chinese systems should not, however, have range capabilities lesser
than those which are depicted.80
Another observer stated in August 2008 that:
China has an initial electro-optical and radar satellite constellation that will this
year be joined by Russian-designed surveillance satellites. It should be noted that
China has broken with Europe’s Galileo navigation satellite program and will
loft its own 30 satellite constellation to compete with the United States, Russian
and European NavSat Systems. In April [2008], China launched its first tracking
data relay satellite to lessen its dependency on ground satellite control and relay
stations. The emerging systems will in the near future enable global precision
targeting by Chinese weapons.
China’s space surveillance is being complemented by even more capable
ground and sea systems. China has built several sky-wave based
Over-the-Horizon radar stations that for the first time allow the PLA to monitor
continuously U.S. Navy ship movements hundred miles out in the Western
80
Sean O’Connor, “OTH Radar and the ASBM Threat,” IMINT & Analysis, November 11,
2008, accessed online at:
[http://geimint.blogspot.com/2008/11/oth-radar-and-asbm-threat.html].
CRS-30
Pacific. China will also soon have new underwater sonar sensor networks
designated to monitor and greatly aid in targeting U.S. submarines.81
A May 9, 2008 news report stated:
Defense officials said China has deployed a new wide-area ocean
surveillance system that includes an underwater sonar network of sensors, and
ground- and sea-based long-range radar that will make it more difficult for U.S.
submarines to protect the fleet and to track China’s growing force of new attack
and missile submarines.
A former U.S. government defense specialist on China said on the condition
of anonymity that there are indications China is operating a rudimentary
underwater Sound Surveillance System, or SOSUS. The sonar network includes
fixed sensors that can pinpoint U.S. submarines operating in some areas of the
western Pacific.
The U.S. Navy operates a similar system at strategic underwater choke
points around the world.
The Chinese SOSUS has been detected underwater in the Bohai Sea, off the
northern Chinese coast, north of the Yellow Sea, a major Chinese navy operating
area. Additionally, China also has set up at least five long- and medium-range
radar sites along its coast that have over-the-horizon capability, the former
official said.
The sonar and radar are part of China’s key strategic wartime goal of
knocking out the five or more aircraft carrier strike groups that would be rushed
to the region near Taiwan in any future conflict. Those carrier battle groups are
defended by submarines.
“If they are after carriers, we protect carriers with subs and if they know
where they are, they can find the carriers,” said the former defense official, who
confirmed that the Chinese are developing various ground, sea and space sensors
designed to “target the American fleet.”
The Chinese sonar and radar also complicates the Navy’s mission of
tracking China’s submarine fleet, which includes large numbers of newer and
quieter attack and ballistic missile boats with JL-2 nuclear missiles capable of
hitting the United States.
“If the Chinese can do SOSUS that would be a tremendous leg up for their
submarines,” the defense official said. “Because the best way to hunt a sub is
with a sub.”
China’s SOSUS array “will make it more difficult to follow and prosecute
their [missile submarines] with all their missiles aimed at the U.S.,” the former
official said. The radar-sonar network provides the Chinese military with
81
James Lyons, “China’s One World?” Washington Times, August 24, 2008: B1.
CRS-31
“constant air and sea coverage of the western Pacific for the first time, so they
can keep a 24-7 trail on American naval assets for the first time.”82
Regarding PLAN C4ISR capabilities in general, one set of observers states that:
For many years, the entire PLA, including the PLAN, faced major
shortcomings in its C4ISR capabilities, but Beijing has embarked on a massive
effort to modernize, upgrade and expand its communications infrastructure. One
of the key results of this communications upgrade, which has been bolstered by
the rapid development of China’s civilian information technology and
telecommunications industries, was the construction of a national fiberoptic
communications network that provides the PLA with much greater
communications capacity, reliability and security. According to one source, “in
the coastal military commands, a gigantic optic-cable communication network
has been set up, which guarantees the optic-cable communication among the
headquarters of each military command. Meanwhile, satellite communication has
been applied more widely, which ensures smooth communication between the
top commanding organ and the headquarters at different levels of the military
commands.” Chinese research institutes have also “developed a VSAT [Very
Small Aperture Terminal] communication system consisting of mobile
vehicle-borne components” as well as new microwave and troposcatter
communication systems. Additionally, China is upgrading some of its traditional
HV, VHF and UHF communication systems. Improving military computer
networks and making them available to more and more units also has been a
priority for the PLA as it expands its communications networks, another key
“informatization” development that has major implications for the PLAN.
Indeed, recent reports indicate that all PLAN units at the division level and above
are now connected to military computer networks, and that current plans focus
on extending coverage to lower-level units.
Beijing has likewise intensified its efforts to improve its space-based C4ISR
capabilities, which are particularly crucial for naval informatization. Navigation
and positioning has been another major area of emphasis with implications for
military modernization and the informatization of the PLAN. In addition to using
GPS and GLONASS and working with the EU on the Galileo navigation satellite
system, China has deployed the indigenous built Beidou Navigation System-1
comprised of four satellites, and plans to develop a larger system called Compass
(or Beidou-2) comprised of thirty-five satellites. Chinese developments in small
satellites and maritime observation satellites are also of particular interest from
the perspective of naval informatization. In addition, the PLAN is improving the
capabilities of its ocean survey and reconnaissance ships, which are responsible
for a number of tasks, including surveying, gathering meteorological and
hydrographic information, laying and repairing undersea cables, and intelligence
collection....
One major area of emphasis appears to be the development of C4ISR
capabilities required to implement an access denial strategy....
Chinese researchers also emphasize the importance of linking platforms
together into an integrated whole, suggesting that this will continue to be a major
82
Bill Gertz, “Inside the Ring,” Washington Times, May 9, 2008: 6 (item entitled “China
surveillance”). Material in brackets as in the original.
CRS-32
focus of defense R&D programs. This is considered particularly important for the
PLAN....
Unmanned reconnaissance systems appear to be another area of emphasis
in Chinese C4ISR-related research. Indeed, recent technical articles indicate that
Chinese scientists and engineers are conducting research on various types of
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Chinese researchers are also working on
unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs).83
Doctrine, Education, Training, Exercises, and Logistics. Military
capability is a product not simply of having weapons and equipment, but of having
a doctrine for how to use them, well-educated and well-trained personnel, realistic
exercises, and maintenance and logistic support. In past years, the PLA was
considered weak in some or all of these areas, and PLA military capability
consequently was considered not as great as its inventory of weapons alone might
suggest.
China’s 2004 defense white paper84 stated an intention to improve in these areas,
and observers believe the PLA is acting on these intentions. The PLA in recent years
has developed a doctrine for joint operations involving multiple military services,
improved its military education and training and conducted more realistic exercises,
and reformed its logistics system. The Department of Defense (DOD) stated in 2005
that “China has stated its intentions and allocated resources to pursue force-wide
professionalization, improve training, conduct more robust, realistic joint exercises,
and accelerate acquisition of modern weapons.”85 DOD states that:
The PLA’s ongoing military reforms emphasize building a qualified officer
and NCO corps. Many of the PLA’s investments in human capital are described
in the 2004 Defense White Paper as elements of the “Strategic Project for
Talented People,” which focuses on personnel management, education, and
training reforms. The 2006 Defense White Paper reiterated the importance of
training and educational reforms in addition to improving morale and welfare in
the military. Improvements in the quality of personnel will continue to parallel
broader force structure, doctrine, and training reforms across the PLA as it seeks
to build a force able to fight and win “local wars under conditions of
informatization.”86
83
Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “PLA Navy Modernization: Preparing for
‘Informatized’ War at Sea,” China Brief, February 29, 2008: 3-4. For a similar article by
the same authors, see Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “Information Technology
and China’s Naval Modernization,” Joint Force Quarterly, 3rd Quarter 2008 (Issue 50): 2430.
84
China published defense white papers in 2006 and 2004; they are entitled China’s
National Defense in 2006 and China’s National Defense in 2004. (Hereafter cited as 2006
China White Paper and 2004 China White Paper.) The English-language texts of the papers
can be found on the Internet at [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/doctrine/wp2006.html]
and [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/china/doctrine/natdef2004.html].
85
2005 DOD CMP, p. 26.
86
2008 DOD CMP, p. 45.
CRS-33
DOD also states that:
The PLA is compiling and validating a new Outline for Military Training
and Evaluation (OMTE) to align its military training with its vision for
transformation for warfare under “informatized conditions.” The new OMTE will
emphasize realistic training conditions, training in electromagnetic and joint
operations environments, and integrating new and high technologies into the
force structure.87
DOD states that in addition to improving the education level of people brought
into the military,
An equally important aspect of the PLA’s modernization is enhancing the
realism and quality of military training. During the Army-Wide Military Training
Conference in 2006, the CMC announced training would be more robust and
information-intensive to better prepare the PLA to face technologically advanced
adversaries.
The PLA General Staff Department (GSD) 2007 training guidelines
indicate the PLA expects training scenarios to resemble actual combat conditions
as closely as possible. The PLA is attempting to enhance the level of realism by
incorporating opposing forces into its exercises and, in some cases, by designing
training that compels officers to deviate from the scripted exercise plan. The
PLA is also conducting more joint service exercises. Although these efforts tend
to be based more on de-confliction than truly joint operations, they do signify
that the PLA is attempting to prepare its officers and soldiers for the demands of
the future battlefield. In addition, the PLA is utilizing simulators to increase
training time and conducting more command post exercises to improve its
officers’ planning and decisionmaking skills.88
Improvements in these areas might be considered as important as the weaponmodernization activities discussed below. Some of these improvements may require
several years to fully implement. DOD states that
the PLA is likely to continue to face several problems as reforms are
implemented. For example, the PLA itself acknowledges that military training
continues to suffer from units “going through the motions,” heavy scripting, and
a lack of realism. The PLA will need to address these deficiencies if the human
capital reforms are to achieve any longterm improvements across the military.89
Another set of observers states that:
The PLAN’s focus on technological developments notwithstanding,
Chinese planners realize that rapid improvements in hardware will not be fully
effective without corresponding increases in the ability of military personnel to
operate them under realistic combat conditions. In keeping with recent PLA-wide
guidance from the General Staff Department that stresses making training more
87
2008 DOD CMP, p. 5.
88
2008 DOD CMP, p. 47.
89
2008 DOD CMP, p. 48.
CRS-34
realistic and challenging, the PLAN has emphasized making training
approximate the actual battlefield environment as much as possible. Official
sources indicate that the PLAN is striving to make training more rigorous.90
China’s Naval Limitations and Weaknesses
Although China’s naval modernization effort has improved China’s naval
capabilities in various ways in recent years, observers believe PLA military
(including naval) forces continue to have limitations or weaknesses in the following
areas, among others:
!
sustained operations in waters and air space that are more distant
from China;
!
joint operations;
!
C4ISR systems, including long-range surveillance and targeting
systems for detecting and tracking ships at sea — a capability needed
to take full advantage of longer-ranged anti-ship weapons;
!
anti-air warfare (AAW) capability for defending surface ships
against air attack;
!
antisubmarine warfare (ASW) capability for defending surface ships
against submarine attack;
!
mine countermeasures (MCM) capability; and
!
shipbuilding dependence on foreign suppliers.
The paragraphs below elaborate on these items.
In General. Regarding weaknesses and limitations of China’s military in
general, a 2007 report by a task force sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations
stated that despite advances,
the PLA confronts many obstacles:
• The sophistication of new equipment generally exceeds current joint
command-and-control capabilities.
• Its reliance on a blend of obsolete and modern equipment makes effective
large-scale planning, training, and operations difficult.
• Its dependence on multiple foreign arms suppliers makes it hard to build
efficient supply chains and maintenance regimes.
90
Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “PLA Navy Modernization: Preparing for
‘Informatized’ War at Sea,” China Brief, February 29, 2008: 4.
CRS-35
• It has a shortage of technically knowledgeable, innovative, initiative-taking
personnel who can operate high-tech systems, a deficiency exacerbated by
China’s lack of a professional corps of noncommissioned officers.
• It has little combat experience — Chinese military forces have not been
involved in major combat since 1979, when they performed poorly against
Vietnamese forces.
• It lacks many of the instruments of force projection, including long-range
bombers, aircraft carriers, large airborne units, and the logistics capability to
support and sustain combat forces beyond its borders.
None of these obstacles can be overcome swiftly, and none can be overcome
merely by throwing more money at the problem.91
DOD states that “the PLA has only a limited capacity to communicate with
submarines at sea and the PLA Navy has no experience in managing an SSBN fleet
that performs strategic patrols.”92
Sustained Operations in Distant Waters. Regarding sustained operations
in more distant waters, DOD states, “China’s ability to sustain military power at a
distance remains limited....”93 DOD also states that “China will not be able to project
and sustain small military units far beyond China before 2015, and will not be able
to project and sustain large forces in combat operations far from China until well into
the following decade.”94 DOD further states that:
Over the last decade, the PLA has improved its capability to support
operations within its borders and along its periphery....
The absence of a true expeditionary logistics capability, however, will limit
the PLA’s ability to project and sustain military operations at distances from the
mainland. First among these is the capability to transport and sustain more than
a division of ground troops and equipment by sea or air. The PLA Navy’s total
amphibious lift capacity has been estimated to be one infantry division of
approximately 10,000 troops and equipment at one time. Likewise if all the large
transport aircraft in the PLAAF were operational and rigged for parachute drop,
only approximately 5,000 parachutists could be delivered in a single lift, much
less if equipment is carried at the same time. PLA in-flight refueling capability
is limited and can only support small numbers of fighter aircraft. The PLA Navy
has gained some proficiency with underway replenishment and sustainment of
long distance deployments, but this capability remains limited by the small
numbers of support ships.
91
Council on Foreign Relations, U.S.-China Relations: An Affirmative Agenda, A
Responsible Course, Report of an Independent Task Force sponsored by the Council on
Foreign Relations, Washington, 2007, p. 47.
92
2008 DOD CMP, p. 25.
93
2008 DOD CMP, p. I (Executive Summary).
94
2008 DOD CMP, p. 22.
CRS-36
The PLA’s force projection capabilities will remain limited over the next
decade as the PLA replaces outdated aircraft and maritime vessels and adjusts
operational doctrine to encompass new capabilities. These changes will require
tailored logistics equipment and training which will take time and money to
develop proficiency. Although foreign produced equipment and maintenance
parts, as well as the civil sector, may help to fill near-term gaps, continued
reliance on non-organic assets will hinder PLA capabilities to sustain large-scale
operations over time.95
A July 2008 press article on the PLAAF states:
The Chinese have released photos of a Chengdu J-10 fighter refueling in
flight, “so it certainly wants the world to believe that it is equipping its Air Force
to project power,” said Thomas Kane, author of “Chinese Grand Strategy and
Maritime Power.” “I keep hearing people talk about the PLAAF beyond Taiwan,
but it is all fluff,” [a] former U.S. defense official said.
“The argument goes something like this: The PLAAF is building up its
[aerial refueling] tanker fleet, so it can now fly farther,” he said. “So what? Give
me one example of how the PLAAF would use that fleet and give me one good
target and the circumstances where they would attack that target given a much
larger diplomatic environment and the chance of going to war in the region.”96
Joint Operations. Regarding joint operations, DOD states:
The PLA hopes eventually to fuse service-level capabilities with an integrated
network for C4ISR, a new command structure, and a joint logistics system.
However, it continues to face deficiencies in inter-service cooperation and actual
experience in joint exercises and combat operations.97
A July 2008 press article stated the following regarding PLAAF training:
“The real question is, what is the PLAAF doing in terms of its own training
and joint training at the tactical level?” [a former U.S. defense official] said.
China wants to build joint operational capabilities, which has given the PLAAF
the green light to increase training, he said. But “if you look at what the PLAAF
calls joint training (i.e., two services working together), almost all of it is really
opposition-force training,” meaning the PLAAF attacking Navy or Army forces,
or vice versa.98
A July 14, 2008, article on the PLA Air Force (PLAAF) stated:
“The real question is, what is the PLAAF doing in terms of its own training
and joint training at the tactical level?” [a] former [U.S. defense] official said.
95
2008 DOD CMP, p. 36.
96
Wendell Minick, “Chinese Air Power Focuses on Taiwan, U.S. Scenarios,” Defense
Daily, July 14, 2008.
97
98
2008 DOD CMP, p. 22.
Wendell Minick, “Chinese Air Power Focuses on Taiwan, U.S. Scenarios,” Defense
Daily, July 14, 2008.
CRS-37
China wants to build joint operational capabilities, which has given the PLAAF
the green light to increase training, he said. But “if you look at what the PLAAF
calls joint training (i.e., two services working together), almost all of it is really
opposition-force training,” meaning the PLAAF attacking Navy or Army forces,
or vice versa.99
C4ISR Systems. Regarding C4ISR systems, one set of observers states:
Enhancing China’s naval capabilities is a key component of China’s
military transformation, as reflected by recent leadership statements and the
development of several new classes of surface ships and submarines. Moreover,
informatization is clearly a central aspect of PLAN modernization and naval
C4ISR modernization will have important implications in areas such as joint
operations and command and control. Chinese C4ISR modernization has become
a top priority and PLAN informatization appears to have made some impressive
progress in recent years. It remains unclear, however, how close the Chinese
actually are to achieving the so-called “informatized force.” The PRC’s 2006
Defense White Paper established a goal of being able to fight and win
informatized wars by the mid-21st century. This reflects a perceived gap between
the Chinese armed forces and the world’s most advanced militaries, which
Chinese writers often suggest will take decades to overcome. At the same time,
however, it also raises the issue of distinguishing between the “ideal” capability
the Chinese navy seeks to establish in the long term and that which might simply
prove “good enough” in the short term. Indeed, even a relatively simple system
of deconfliction100 by time or geographic area might be sufficient in a Taiwan
scenario. This suggests that the PLAN might achieve an employable capability
with surprising rapidity, especially if it pursues one that falls short of the
standards set by U.S. proponents of “network centric warfare,” but that is
nonetheless capable of contributing to the achievement of China’s operational
and strategic objectives.101
With regard to China’s UAVs, including their potential for conducting
surveillance operations, a July 2008 press article on the PLAAF states:
“We did not see much in their writings that specifically mentioned UAVs,
although they are clearly interested in them, as evidenced by the amount of effort
being spent developing new types in recent years, [Roger] Cliff [a China military
specialist at the RAND Corp.]said.
China has been showing off a small conceptual model of a stealth
unmanned combat aerial vehicle, dubbed Anjian (Dark Sword), at different
international air shows and exhibitions like the Zhuhai Air Show in China in
99
Wendell Minnick, “Chinese Air Power Focuses on Taiwan, U.S. Scenarios,” Defense
Daily, July 14, 2008.
100
Deconfliction means a process for ensuring that the military units on the same side of a
conflict do not get in each other’s way or otherwise interfere with one another’s operations.
101
Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “PLA Navy Modernization: Preparing for
‘Informatized’ War at Sea,” China Brief, February 29, 2008: 4-5. For a similar article by
the same authors, see Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “Information Technology
and China’s Naval Modernization,” Joint Force Quarterly, 3rd Quarter 2008 (Issue 50): 2430.
CRS-38
2006. Designed by the Shenyang Aircraft Design Institute, Dark Sword is not
believed to be technically possible given China’s current aviation manufacturing
aptitude.
During the 2006 Zhuhai Airshow, 10 UAV models and mock-ups were
displayed, including the Tianyi (Sky Wing) UAV and Soar Dragon highnaltitude
unmanned scout. However, beyond the UAV models on display, there was
virtually no company literature on China’s UAVs, except for the “PW UAV”
built by the China National Precision Machinery Corp. Models and mock-ups are
little evidence to support a strong interest by PLAAF in UAVs. And the PLAAF
has shown little interest in UAV surveillance operations.
“Surveillance or command information is definitely not seen as the primary
mission of the Air Force,” Cliff said. “I don’t recall anything about the Air Force
providing surveillance or command-and-control information to the other services.
This is consistent with previous observations that joint thinking and practice are
still underdeveloped in China.” China is attempting to expand its airborne early
warning aircraft inventory, but research and development on several programs
has been ongoing for more than 10 years and there are few signs the indigenous
KJ200 airborne early warning and control aircraft will be operational any time
soon. Numerous sources indicate the trial test flights of the KJ200 have been
disappointing, with numerous flight stability problems with the so-called
“balance beam” phased-array radar.102
Anti-Air Warfare (AAW). Regarding AAW, one observer stated in 2004 that
China’s decision to “shed its strictly coastal defense force structure in favor of
acquiring larger and more modern fighting vessels capable of blue-water operations”
has
exposed a significant vulnerability — the PLAN’s inability to provide a
sophisticated, layered air defense for these new forces. Fleet air defense is the
Achilles’ heel of the 21st-century Chinese Navy....
As the PLAN’s ships increased in size, capability and endurance, and with
operational deployments taking them well beyond the navy’s traditional
mainland-based air defenses, a challenge not faced previously became apparent:
having to defend these units from air attack in the event of hostilities. Response
to this concern has been slow and inadequate at best, and serious consideration
to providing the surface navy with the kind of air defense systems one normally
associates with modern naval fleets has only begun. Not until the late 1990s was
an effort made to outfit PLAN destroyers and frigates with an antiair “point
defense” system, giving them some measure of self-defense.... The PLAN
surface fleet, however, still lacks “modern air surveillance systems and data links
required for area air defense missions. The combination of short-range weapons
and lack of modern surveillance systems limits the PLAN to self-defense and
point-defense [AAW] only. As a result, except in unusual circumstances, no
PLAN ship is capable of conducting air defense of another ship.”103
102
Wendell Minick, “Chinese Air Power Focuses on Taiwan, U.S. Scenarios,” Defense
Daily, July 14, 2008.
103
The passage at this point is quoting from the 2003 edition of DOD’s annual report on
China’s military power (2003 DOD CMP, p. 25).
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In a similar vein, today’s PLAN naval aviation forces alone cannot provide
fighter coverage for the entire Chinese coast or the fleet, so interceptor duties
have ben distributed by region between naval aviation units and the PLA Air
Force. This increases the number of assets available for the task, but questions
remain about joint patrolling, separate chains of command, and air force overwater proficiency. When faced with training scenarios that incorporated factors
likely found in a modern air combat environment, such as electronic
countermeasures or even inclement weather, neither service was up to the task.
In light of these facts, the potential effectiveness of the cooperation between the
two services is doubtful.
Significant gaps exist in the present PLAN fleet air defense posture. Given
the forces available today, China cannot adequately defend its fleet from air
attack in the modern air threat environment.104
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW). Regarding ASW, one set of observers,
based on a review of Chinese military literature, states that:
When considering Chinese views of the American submarine force, it is
certainly relevant to consider how China appraises its own antisubmarine warfare
forces. Generally, China considers its ASW forces to be weak. One Chinese
naval analyst observes: “[Chinese] people are focused on China’s submarine
force (both conventional and nuclear) development, but often neglect the threat
we face from [U.S. Navy] submarines.” It is, moreover, suggested that “there is
still a relatively large gap between [China’s] ASW technology level and that of
the world’s advanced level.” In appraising the ASW capabilities of its own
surface forces, another naval analyst notes, “Across the world, most naval ships
are now equipped with towed array sonars, which has increased their ASW
capabilities, but most of our ships only have hull mounted sonars.” Finally, there
is a concern that these antisubmarine assets are themselves highly vulnerable:
“Submarines can carry out ferocious missile attacks from tens or even 100 —
200km ranges, causing the submarine hunting vessels to become the hunted
targets.”
Chinese aerial ASW is also highlighted as a particular weakness.105
Mine Countermeasures (MCM). Regarding MCM, one observer stated in
2004 that a
serious [PLA Navy] operational deficiency involves the mine countermeasures
vessels (MCMV). Though China has an intense shipping [activity] along its
coasts, the PLAN has virtually no mine-sweeping or mine-hunting capabilities.
This was due, perhaps, to the consideration that the U.S. Navy is usually more
concerned to keep the sea lanes open, instead of laying mines, but nevertheless
the lack of MCM is simply stunning. Any hostile organisation (including, but
104
Dominic DeScisciolo, “Red Aegis,” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, July 2004, pp. 5658.
105
Gabriel Collins, Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “Chinese
Evaluations of the U.S. Navy Submarine Force,” Naval College War Review, Winter 2008:
78-79.
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not limited to, state-sponsored terrorists and insurgents) could play havoc with
the Chinese shipping simply by laying a few mines here and there.106
Shipbuilding Dependence on Foreign Suppliers. The rapid growth and
modernization of China’s commercial shipbuilding sector is viewed by observers as
benefitting China’s warship design and construction programs in certain respects,
particularly since China’s warships are built in shipyards that also build commercial
ships. Improvements in Chinese commercial shipbuilding notwithstanding, observers
believe that China’s ability to design, build, and maintain complex warships is
limited in certain respects by a dependence on foreign suppliers for certain key
warship components, particularly propulsion systems and combat system
equipment.107
DOD states that while “shipyard modernization and expansion has increased
China’s overall shipbuilding capacity and capabilities, generating corresponding
benefits for all types of naval projects, including submarines; surface combatants;
naval aviation, including initiatives for aircraft carriers; and amphibious/sealift-airlift
assets,” China’s naval industry “continues to rely on foreign suppliers for some
propulsion units and, to a lesser degree, fire control systems, cruise missiles,
ship-to-air missiles, torpedo systems, sensors, and other advanced electronics.”108
One set of observers states that:
Viewed holistically, the cumulative effects of China’s improved
commercial shipbuilding abilities have undoubtedly benefited [sic] China’s naval
development to some degree. Military shipbuilding may benefit from advances
in hull construction, modular shipbuilding, subcomponent industry improvement,
increased yard capacity, and other areas...
China’s major shipbuilding facilities have, or are in the process of adopting
the latest hull block construction and advanced outfitting ship production
methods. These modern techniques use an assembly line approach to
shipbuilding, allowing for greater overall throughput capacity and productivity....
In general, these more efficient production methods have the potential to
yield similar beneficial effects on military shipbuilding: reduced build times,
increased shipyard output, and lower individual unit cost. Yet perhaps not
surprisingly, the most modern tier of shipyards in the PRC thus far has been
dedicated to producing commercial ships for the world market....
106
Massimo Annati, “China’s PLA Navy, The Revolution,” Naval Forces, No. 6, 2004, p.
73.
107
For an in-depth survey of China’s shipbuilding industry, including its potential to support
construction of naval ships, see Gabriel Collins and Michael C. Grubb, A Comprehensive
Survey of China’s Dynamic Shipbuilding Industry, Commercial Development and Strategic
Implications, Newport (RI), U.S. Naval War College, 2008. (China Maritime Studies,
Number 1, August 2008) 56 pp.
108
2008 DOD CMP, p. 37.
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As a result, under current geo-political conditions, the efficiency gains
achieved through advanced production methods and shipyard facilities are more
likely to help China achieve a larger share of the global commercial shipbuilding
market than play a dominant role in PLAN modernization efforts. Yet if the
global strategic situation changed into something more akin to a “Cold War”
environment, the PRC leadership could always forego the commercial
advantages of these new facilities for the sake of national security needs....
Advanced shipyards and production process alone do not guarantee the
ability to build complex ship types. Efficiently integrating numerous mechanical,
electrical, cargo, and habitability systems within the confined space of a ship has
always been a principal challenge for naval architects and shipbuilders, and is
often the greatest challenge in the construction of complex warships....
The dry bulk carriers and oil tankers that have thus far dominated Chinese
commercial shipbuilding are relatively low in complexity, and offer little-to-no
potential for a carry-over affect on improving systems integration capabilities in
military shipbuilding.
The same cannot be said of the considerably more complex
150,000-deadweight-tonne floating (oil) production, offloading and storage
(FPSO) vessel recently built by Shanghai Waigaoqiao Shipbuilding, or the
liquefied natural gas (LNG) tankers currently under construction at
Hudong-Zhonghua Shipbuilding in Shanghai. The sophisticated cargo processing
and storage equipment on these vessels are at the high-end of the complexity
spectrum for commercial ships, and exceeds that of most naval auxiliaries.
The progress in systems integration proficiency shown by Chinese
shipbuilders on these projects is somewhat tempered when considering the level
of foreign technical assistance required....
In the naval sector, the outward complexity of the Luyang II air-defense
destroyer and other recent PLAN additions seem to indicate a growing trend of
improving systems integration capabilities. The Luyang II-class is equipped with
the PLAN’s first phased array radar, the cornerstone of a combat system that also
includes indigenous HQ-9 surface-to-air missiles and a 48-cell vertical launch
system (VLS). The integration of these three subsystems into a comprehensive
long-range, area air-defense system is a notable achievement, and may indicate
a move towards improved PLAN blue water capability. While this may be the
case, little is currently known as to the actual capabilities or operational
effectiveness of the Luyang II’s systems, and one might plausibly interpret the
purchase of advanced Sovremenny-class destroyers and Kilo-class submarines
from Russia as indicators of continued limitations in indigenous capabilities for
integrating the most complex sets of warship systems....
The present state of the commercial marine equipment industry is one of
notable concern for Chinese officials. Overall, only 40 percent of
sub-components on Chinese-built commercial ships are from indigenous
suppliers....
There is little doubt that the problems in China’s marine equipment industry
have affected PLAN modernization efforts in ways similar to the commercial
shipbuilding sector. China has long relied on foreign-made, licensed, or reverseengineered technology for major weapon systems, and despite notable advances
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in indigenous combat systems in its latest classes, still uses a high degree of
imported combat systems equipment in most PLAN vessels.... This reliance on
foreign sub-components, whether in combat systems or less-glamorous
commercial dual-use items, extends beyond national self-reliance concerns.
Foreign outsourcing drives up acquisition and lifecycle maintenance costs,
increases system integration challenges, and places additional demands on crew
training. Chinese literature includes accounts of sailors physically tracing out
systems hand-over-hand on new Kilo-class submarines due to a lack of technical
documentation, as well as accounts of flying in German technicians to repair
imported MTU diesel engines on the Type 052-class destroyer Qingdao during
the PLAN’s first round-the-world cruise in 2002.
These examples illustrate the detrimental effect imported technology can
have on operational readiness, and likewise highlight how China’s ability to meet
its goals of improving its domestic marine equipment industry stands to
significantly affect both commercial and military shipbuilding development....
Overwhelmingly, PRC shipbuilders have relied on imported technology for
diesel propulsion.... Western shipowners interviewed by the authors indicate that
Chinese-made engines are acceptable, but are still inferior to Japanese and
Koreanmade marine diesels.
The vast majority of Chinese-built commercial diesel engines remain
licensed copies of foreign (principally European) designs.... Chinese engine
builders reportedly still experience difficulties manufacturing and mating engine
blocks and crankshafts on large marine diesels, and foreign licensing companies
frequently provide close technical assistance and quality control oversight to
Chinese factories building their most advanced engine models.
The proportion of Chinese indigenous technology is similarly low in naval
propulsion.... [There is a] high proportion of diesel propulsion in Chinese ships
and submarines built since 1999, and the small percentage of indigenous Chinese
engines. German MTU diesel designs are used on Song-class submarines, Luhai
and Luyang I/II-class destroyers, and may also be included in China’s latest Type
071 Yuzhao-class amphibious ships. Likewise, French-designed SEMT-Pielstick
diesels provide the main propulsion for Jiangkai, Jiangnan, and Jianghu-class
frigates, Houjian-class patrol craft (PTGs), and eight additional classes of PLAN
landing and auxiliary ships.
Marine gas turbines, as with diesel design, have not been a bright spot in
Chinese industry. Their development has been severely hindered by the slow
pace of indigenous jet engine development, which is symptomatic of larger issues
within the Chinese aerospace industry as a whole. Progress in turbofan (vice
older turbojet) technology has been particularly slow, thus affecting the
high-performance aircraft and marine gas turbine applications that use these
more modern and efficient engines. Consequently, no indigenous marine gas
turbine has been fielded to date, and the few PLAN units using gas turbine
propulsion relied on imported U.S. engines prior to 1989 (Tiananmen Square
trade sanctions), and Ukrainian engines ever since.
The short term prospects for Chinese marine gas turbines directly affecting
PLAN modernization are low, but there are indicators of possible improvements
in the longer term. Jet engine development is a high priority within the PLA, and
the recently introduced J-10 and J-11 fighters are expected to be powered by an
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indigenous W-10A turbofan engine. The original W-10 and other earlier Chinese
turbofans were less than successful, but the W-10A reportedly benefits
technologically from Lykulka-Saturn AL-31F turbofans imported from Russia
to power the Su-27, Su-30, and earlier J-10 aircraft. Furthermore, the Shenyang
Engine Research Institute developed China’s first indigenous aero-derivative gas
turbine in 2002 (the QD-128, derived from the Kunlun jet engine), and Chinese
companies are actively pursuing development of larger aero-derivative gas
turbines for electrical power generation and other industrial applications. Success
with the W-10A turbofan and these aero-derivative initiatives could provide a
significant boost to Chinese marine gas turbine development, and help fill the
persistent void in indigenous propulsion technology that has thus far hampered
naval modernization.109
A separate set of observers stated in 2005 that:
Although China is designing and building increasingly sophisticated warships,
Chinese naval shipbuilders still need to import key components or modules, such
as propulsion systems, navigation and sensor suites, and major weapon systems,
to outfit these vessels. Such a reliance on imported subsystems creates
systems-integration challenges, as well as security concerns stemming from
dependence on foreign suppliers. China appears to be improving its ability to
absorb imported equipment and technologies, but it will take time before these
and other problems are overcome.110
These observers also stated in 2005 that
the capabilities of most of China’s current naval SAM and SSM systems and
much of its naval electronics are limited and not equivalent to U.S. capabilities
or those of other Asian militaries. The limited range and accuracy of Chinese
SSMs and SAMs create serious problems for air-defense and antisubmarine
109
Michael C. Grubb and Gabriel Collins, “Chinese Shipbuilding[:] Growing Fast, But How
Good Is It” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, March 2008: 44-51. Quoted passages are from
pages 45-50.
110
Evan S. Medeiros et al., A New Direction for China’s Defense Industry. Santa Monica,
CA, RAND Corporation, 2005. Pp. 110-111. (MG-334, RAND Project Air Force.)
(Hereafter cited as 2005 RAND report.) On page 153, the report similarly states that
China’s SBI [shipbuilding industry] exhibits a number of limitations and
weaknesses that will constrain naval modernization. Although the design and
construction of vessels have improved, the SBI has experienced numerous
problems producing quality subsystems for both merchant and naval vessels.
Chinese shipbuilders have had to rely heavily on foreign imports for the power
plants, navigation and sensor suites, and key weapon systems for its newest naval
platforms. For example, Chinese marine-engine factories have had difficulties
producing gas turbine engines powerful enough for large destroyers and related
combatants. The last two classes of Chinese destroyers have relied on imported
gas turbine engines, for example. This high degree of reliance on foreign goods
creates major challenges for systems integration and, given the inconsistent
availability of certain weapon systems, complicates serial production of some
platforms.
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warfare. Many of these systems also do not operate with over-the-horizon
targeting, further degrading their already-limited capabilities.
Furthermore, few — if any — advances were made in the development and
production of naval propulsion or navigation equipment in the 1980s or 1990s.
This lack continues to be a major weakness in China’s domestic naval production
efforts, and one that the PLAN’s heavy reliance on foreign subsystems for its
second-generation vessels testifies to.111
Regarding the combat system equipment on China’s new destroyers, one
observer stated in 2004:
The ships’ new sensors, missiles and combat systems are mainly of Russian and
Western origin. However, China now is faced with the challenge of operating
and maintaining these advanced systems to create a credible threat to foreign
navies in Far Eastern waters....
Every piece of equipment [on China’s Sovremenny-class destroyers] from hull,
mechanical and electrical (HM&E) technologies to guns, sonar, communications,
electronic countermeasures (ECM) and missiles are totally new to the PLAN....
[For these ships,] China is dependent on Russian advisers for training, operations
and maintenance. These ships largely remain in the Russian support cocoon in
Dinghai rather than at a fleet base....
Isolation from other ships and crews hurts fleet integration and coordinated
operations.... It is no coincidence that the Sovremnyi and Kilo submarine home
bases are in an enclave of Russian support in an isolated area near the Eastern
Fleet headquarters at Ningbo.
It is unlikely that Russian advisers would be onboard during actual combat
operations against Taiwan and U.S. Navy air, surface and subsurface threats.
PLAN officers and crew are not expected to be able to handle operations when
under fire, sustaining hits and suffering system degradation or loss. This could
include problems in night or rough weather environment as well. Because all of
the combat systems, except for three noted, are modern Russian equipments,
China has minimal capability even to repair peacetime losses in port....
A comparison [of the AAW system on the Luyang II class destroyers] to
[the] U.S. Navy Aegis [combat system] is inevitable, but Aegis was on [the U.S.
111
2005 RAND report, p. 139-140. On pages 153-154, the report similarly states that
Chinese combatants lack long-range air-defense systems, modern anti —
submarine warfare (ASW) weapons, and advanced electronic warfare capabilities
needed to outfit its new ships. China’s other defense sectors have been slow to
produce modern versions of these crucial technologies beyond copies or
modifications of Soviet or Western systems. For example, Chinese firms have
experienced several delays in the indigenous production of a medium and
long-range SAM system for naval area defense, which has complicated the
completion of some naval projects.... [T]his situation is changing as China’s
defense-industrial complex modernizes. But, some past weaknesses persist and,
over the medium term, they will continue to constrain China’s ability to project
and sustain naval power for extended periods in the coming decade.
CRS-45
Navy test ship] Norton Sound for nine years of development testing prior to the
first installation on the USS Ticonderoga (CG-47) 20 years ago. Developing the
software for signal processing and tracking a hundred air, surface and submarine
targets will take even longer for China. Integration to various indigenous ship
guns and missiles and other sensors, as well as other ships’ data management and
weapons, will take longer. These Chinese “Aegis” ships may be limited to 1940s
era radar tasks of detecting and tracking air and surface targets for their own ship
weapons. Further in the future will be an 8,000-ton DDG that is predicted to be
a true area-control warship with additional Aegis capabilities. It is now in early
construction stages in the new Dalian shipyard.
What kind of record is provided by prior Chinese built warships with
imported Russian and Western technology? These include sensors, fire control,
weapons and communications as well as HM&E. The Chinese new-construction
DDGs are a mix of local designed and manufactured systems, foreign imports
with production rights, illegally copied import equipment and illegal examples
with no local production capability at all. The latter two represent serious
training and maintenance problems. Unfortunately for the PLAN, some of them
are in the highest mission-critical areas. For example, the DDGs being built have
a rapid-fire Gatling gun close-in weapon system that looks like the Dutch
Goalkeeper system. Signaal and the Dutch government deny exporting the
equipment or production rights to China. This key weapon responsible for
downing incoming cruise missiles is probably lacking documentation and
training because it must be illegally obtained.112
Goals or Significance of China’s Naval Modernization
PLA Navy as a Modernization Priority. The PLA Navy is one of three
stated priorities within China’s overall military modernization effort. China’s 2004
defense white paper said three times that the effort will emphasize the navy, air force,
and the ballistic missile force.113 China’s 2006 defense white paper stated: “Through
112
James C. Bussert, “China Builds Destroyers Around Imported Technology,” Signal,
August 2004, p. 67. For additional discussions of the issue, see James C. Bussert, “China
Copies Russian Ship Technology For Use and Profit,” Signal Online, June 2008, available
online at [http://www.afcea.org/signal/articles/templates/SIGNAL_Article_Template.asp?
articleid=1624&zoneid=7]; and “Replying to a recent Signal Magazine article,” a June 7,
2008, entry in a blog on China naval and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,”
available online at [http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2008/06/replying-to-recent-signalmagazine.html].
113
The white paper stated:
The PLA will promote coordinated development of firepower, mobility and
information capability, enhance the development of its operational strength with
priority given to the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force, and strengthen
its comprehensive deterrence and warfighting capabilities....
The Army is streamlined by reducing the ordinary troops that are technologically
backward while the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force are
strengthened....
While continuing to attach importance to the building of the Army, the PLA
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restructuring, the proportion of the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force in the
PLA has been raised by 3.8 percent while that of the Army has been lowered by 1.5
percent.”114 The 2006 white paper further stated:
The Navy aims at gradual extension of the strategic depth for offshore defensive
operations and enhancing its capabilities in integrated maritime operations and
nuclear counterattacks....
The Navy and Air Force have cut some ship groups and aviation divisions,
regiments and stations, and set up some high-tech surface ship, aviation and
ground-to-air missile units....
The Navy is working to build itself into a modern maritime force of
operation consisting of combined arms with both nuclear and conventional
means of operations. Taking informationization as the goal and strategic focus
in its modernization drive, the Navy gives high priority to the development of
maritime information systems, and new-generation weaponry and equipment.
Efforts are being made to improve maritime battlefield capabilities, with
emphasis on the construction of relevant facilities for new equipment and the
development of combat support capabilities. The Navy is endeavoring to build
mobile maritime troops capable of conducting operations under conditions of
informationization, and strengthen its overall capabilities of operations in coastal
waters, joint operations and integrated maritime support. Efforts are being made
to improve and reform training programs and methods to intensify training in
joint integrated maritime operations. The Navy is enhancing research into the
theory of naval operations and exploring the strategy and tactics of maritime
people’s war under modern conditions.115
The heads of the PLA Navy, Air Force, and missile force were added to the
Central Military Commission in September 2004, and Navy and Air Force officers
were appointed Deputy Chiefs of the General Staff.116 Regarding this development,
a 2007 report from the Office of Naval Intelligence stated:
In September 2004, the commander of the PLAN, Admiral Zhang Dingfa,
became the first PLAN commander ever to serve concurrently as a member of the
CCP Central Committee’s Military Commission (CMC). His promotion in grade
and appointment to the CMC provided a unique challenge for the PLAN within
the PLA hierarchy.
gives priority to the building of the Navy, Air Force and Second Artillery Force
to seek balanced development of the combat force structure, in order to
strengthen the capabilities for winning both command of the sea and command
of the air, and conducting strategic counter-strikes. (2004 China White Paper,
op cit, Chapter II national defense policy.)
114
2006 China White Paper, paragraph entitled “Downsizing the PLA.”
115
2006 China White Paper, paragraphs entitled “Implementing the military strategy of
active defense,” and “Improving the structure of services and arms,” and a paragraph in the
section entitled “Development of the Services and Arms.”
116
See, for example, 2005 DOD CMP, p. 1.
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[A]ll organizations within the PLA are assigned one of 15 grades. In
addition, the commander and political officer are assigned the same grade.
However, when Zhang Dingfa was promoted one grade as a CMC member,
neither the grade for the PLAN as an organization nor the grade of the PLAN
political commissar was raised to the same level. Therefore, although Zhang and
his successors will hold the same grade as the Chief of the General Staff and the
directors of the General Political Department (GPD), General Logistics
Department (GLD), and General Equipment Department (GED), the PLAN as
an organization is not equal to the four General Departments and is still at the
same grade as the seven Military Regions.117
Another set of observers states:
In recent years, senior Chinese Communist Party (CCP) leaders and
high-ranking military officers have repeatedly emphasized the importance of
naval modernization. Most prominently, CCP General Secretary, President and
Central Military Commission (CMC) Chairman Hu Jintao in a December 2006
speech to People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) officers underscored the need
“to build a powerful People’s navy that can adapt to its historical mission during
a new century and a new period” (International Herald Tribune, December 26,
2006). Similarly, PLAN Commander Wu Shengli and Political Commissar Hu
Yanlin promoted the importance of naval modernization in an article that
appeared in the authoritative CCP journal Seeking Truth. This growing sense of
urgency about naval modernization appears to be a function of increasing
concern about maritime security issues, particularly Taiwan, the protection of
maritime resources and energy security.118
Another observer stated in 2007:
If there had been any doubts about China’s plans to develop into a major
naval power, they were dispelled by President Hu Jintao on 27 December 2006.
In his speech to representatives of the navy’s 10th national Communist Party
congress in Beijing he said “in the process of protecting the nation’s authority
and security and maintaining our maritime rights, the navy’s role is very
important.” He called on military commanders to build a “powerful people’s
navy that can adapt to its historical mission during a new century and a new
period,” while adding that the Navy should be ready to protect the country’s
interests “at any time.” Two years after the promotion of the Commander-inChief, Admiral Zhang Dingfa, to a full seat on the Central Military Commission,
the navy’s evolution from being a coastal force to one that is at the centre of
Chinese strategy is now assured.119
Near-Term Focus: Taiwan Situation. DOD and other observers believe
that the near-term focus of China’s military modernization is to develop military
options for addressing the situation with Taiwan. DOD lists China’s potential
military options regarding Taiwan as follows:
117
U.S. Department of the Navy, Office of Naval Intelligence, China’s Navy 2007,
Washington, 2007. p. 11.
118
Andrew S. Erickson and Michael S. Chase, “PLA Navy Modernization: Preparing for
‘Informatized’ War at Sea,” China Brief, February 29, 2008: 2.
119
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2007-2008, pp. 30-31 (Executive Overview).
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!
limited force or “No War” options, in which “China might use a
variety of lethal, punitive, or disruptive military actions in a limited
campaign against Taiwan, likely in conjunction with overt and
clandestine economic and political activities. Such a campaign
could include CNA [computer network attack] against Taiwan’s
political, military, and economic infrastructure to target the Taiwan
people’s confidence in their leadership. Similarly, PLA special
operations forces infiltrated into Taiwan could conduct economic,
political, or military sabotage or attacks against leadership targets”;
!
an air and missile campaign, in which “Limited SRBM attacks and
precision strikes against air defense systems, including air bases,
radar sites, missiles, space assets, and communications facilities
could support a campaign to degrade Taiwan’s defenses, neutralize
Taiwan’s military and political leadership, and possibly break the
Taiwan people’s will to fight”;
!
a maritime quarantine or blockade, in which “Beijing could
declare that ships en route to Taiwan ports must stop in mainland
ports for safety inspections prior to transiting on to Taiwan. It could
also attempt the equivalent of a blockade by declaring exercise or
missile closure areas in approaches to ports with the effect of closing
port access and diverting merchant traffic — as occurred during the
1995-96 missile firings and live-fire exercises”; and
!
an amphibious invasion, about which DOD states that “China’s
Joint Island Landing Campaign envisions a complex operation
relying on interlocking, supporting, subordinate campaigns for
logistics, electronic warfare, and air and naval support — all
coordinated in space and time — to break through or circumvent
shore defenses, establish and build a beachhead, transport personnel
and materiel to designated landing sites, and then launch an attack
to split, seize, and occupy key targets and/or the entire island.”120
Regarding the option of a maritime quarantine or blockade, DOD states further
that:
Although a traditional maritime quarantine or blockade would have greater
impact on Taiwan, it would also tax PLA Navy capabilities. PLA doctrinal
writings describe potential lower cost solutions: air blockades, missile attacks,
and mining or otherwise obstructing harbors and approaches to achieve the
desired outcome at lower cost. Chinese elites could underestimate the degree to
which any attempt to limit maritime traffic to and from Taiwan would trigger
countervailing international pressure and risk military escalation.121
120
121
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 42-43.
2008 DOD CMP, p. 43. Analysts disagree regarding China’s potential for mounting an
effective blockade, particularly with its submarine force. For an analysis that casts a
skeptical eye on the potential, see Michael A. Glosny, “Strangulation from the Sea? A PRC
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Regarding the option of an amphibious invasion, DOD states further that:
The PLA currently is capable of accomplishing various amphibious
operations short of a full-scale invasion of Taiwan. With few overt military
preparations beyond seasonally routine amphibious training, China could launch
an invasion of a small Taiwan-held island such as Pratas or Itu Aba. Such a
limited invasion of a lightly defended island could demonstrate military
capability and political resolve, would achieve tangible territorial gain, and could
be portrayed as showing some measure of restraint. However, such an operation
includes significant — if not prohibitive — political risk as it could galvanize the
Taiwan populace and generate international opposition.
A PLA invasion of a medium-sized defended offshore island such as Mazu
or Jinmen, while within China’s capabilities, would involve logistic and military
preparation well beyond routine training.
Large-scale amphibious invasion is one of the most complicated and
logistics-intensive, and therefore difficult, military maneuvers. Success depends
upon air and sea supremacy in the vicinity of the operation, rapid buildup of
supplies and sustainment on shore, and an uninterrupted flow of support
thereafter. An invasion of Taiwan would strain the capabilities of China’s
untested armed forces and would almost certainly invite international
intervention. These stresses, combined with the combat attrition of China’s
forces, the complex tasks of urban warfare and counterinsurgency — assuming
a successful landing and breakout — make an amphibious invasion of Taiwan a
significant political and military risk for China’s leaders. Modest targeted
investments by Taiwan to harden infrastructure and strengthen defensive
capabilities could have measurable effects on decreasing Beijing’s ability to
achieve its objectives.122
Anti-Access Force for Short-Duration Conflict. More specifically, some
observers believe that China’s military modernization is aimed at fielding a force that
can succeed in a short-duration conflict. Consistent with this goal, some observers
believe, China wants its modernized military to be capable of acting as a so-called
anti-access force — a force that can deter U.S. intervention, or failing that, delay the
arrival or reduce the effectiveness of U.S. intervention forces, particularly U.S. naval
and air forces. DOD states that:
Some analysts hold that Beijing first would pursue a measured, judicious, and
deliberate approach characterized by signaling its readiness to use force in an
attempt to coerce Taiwan, followed by a deliberate buildup of force, which
would optimize speed of engagement over strategic deception. Others assess that
the more likely course of action would be for China to sacrifice deliberate
Submarine Blockade of Taiwan,” International Security, spring 2004, pp. 125-160. For an
analysis that expresses more concern about this potential, see the statement of Lyle J.
Goldstein and William Murray as printed in as printed in Hearing On Military
Modernization and Cross-Strait Balance, Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic and
Security Review Commission, February 6, 2004. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 2004,
pp. 132-133, 147-151. See also Michael C. Grubb, “Merchant Shipping In A Chinese
Blockade Of Taiwan,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 81-102.
122
2008 DOD CMP, p. 43-44.
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preparations in favor of strategic surprise to force a rapid military and/or political
resolution before the United States or other countries could respond. If a quick
resolution is not possible, Beijing would seek to deter potential U.S. intervention;
or, failing that, delay such intervention, seek to defeat it in an asymmetric,
limited, or quick war, or fight to a standstill and pursue a political settlement
after a protracted conflict.123
DOD also states that:
As part of its planning for a Taiwan contingency, China is prioritizing
measures to deter or counter third-party intervention in any future cross-Strait
crisis. China’s approach to dealing with this challenge centers on what DoD’s
2006 Quadrennial Defense Review refers to as “disruptive capabilities”: forces
and operational concepts aimed at deterring or denying the entry of enemy forces
into a theater of operations (anti-access), and limited duration denial of enemy
freedom of action in a theater of operations (area denial). In this context, the
PLA appears engaged in a sustained effort to develop the capability to interdict
or attack, at long ranges, military forces — particularly air or maritime forces —
that might deploy or operate within the western Pacific. Increasingly, China’s
anti-access/area denial forces overlap, providing multiple layers of offensive
systems, utilizing the sea, air, space, and cyber-space.
PLA planners are focused on targeting surface ships at long ranges from
China’s shores. Analyses of current and projected force structure improvements
suggest that China is seeking the capacity to hold surface ships at risk through
a layered capability reaching out to the “second island chain” (i.e., the islands
extending south and east from Japan, to and beyond Guam in the western Pacific
Ocean). One area of investment involves combining conventionally-armed
ASBMs based on the CSS-5 (DF-21) airframe, C4ISR for geo-location and
tracking of targets, and onboard guidance systems for terminal homing to strike
surface ships on the high seas or their onshore support infrastructure. This
capability would have particular significance, as it would provide China with
preemptive and coercive options in a regional crisis.
PRC military analysts have also concluded that logistics and mobilization
are potential vulnerabilities in modern warfare, given the requirements for
precision in coordinating transportation, communications, and logistics networks.
To threaten regional bases and logistics points, China could employ
SRBM/MRBMs, land-attack cruise missiles, special operations forces, and
computer network attack (CNA). Strike aircraft, when enabled by aerial
refueling, could engage distant targets using air-launched cruise missiles
equipped with a variety of terminal-homing warheads.
China’s emerging local sea denial capabilities — mines, submarines,
maritime strike aircraft, and modern surface combatants equipped with advanced
ASCMs — provide a supporting layer of defense for its long-range anti-access
systems. Acquisition and development of the KILO, SONG, SHANG, and
YUAN-class submarines illustrates the importance the PLA places on undersea
warfare for sea denial. In the past ten years, China has deployed ten new classes
of ships. The purchase of SOVREMENNYY II-class DDGs and indigenous
production of the LUYANG I/ LUYANG II DDGs equipped with long-range
123
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 41-42.
CRS-51
ASCM and SAM systems, for example, demonstrate a continuing emphasis on
improving anti-surface warfare, combined with mobile, wide-area air control.
The air and air defense component of anti-access/area-denial includes
SAMs such as the HQ-9, SA-10, SA-20 (which has a reported limited ballistic
and cruise missile defense capability), and the extended-range SA-20 PMU2.
Beijing will also use Russian-built and domestic fourth-generation aircraft (e.g.,
Su-27 and Su-30 variants, and the indigenous F-10 multirole fighter). The PLA
Navy would employ Russian Su-30MK2 fighters, armed with AS-17/Kh-31A
anti-ship missiles. Acquisition of an air refueling platform like the Russian IL-78
would extend operational ranges for PLAAF and PLA Navy strike aircraft armed
with precision munitions, thereby increasing the threat to surface and air forces,
bases, and logistics nodes distant from China’s coast. Additionally, acquisition
and development of longer-range unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs), including the Israeli HARPY,
expands China’s options for long-range reconnaissance and strike.124
Regarding the potential time line for a short-duration conflict with Taiwan, one
observer stated in 2005 that:
The U.S. (particularly the U.S. Pacific Command/PACOM) seems to want
Taiwan to focus on [acquiring] systems and defensive operational capabilities
that would lengthen the amount of time Taiwan could deny the PRC from gaining
air superiority, sea control, and physical occupation of Taiwan’s leadership core
(namely Taipei). The idea is to permit sufficient time to bring U.S. forces to
bear. The amount of time needed is understood to be at least 5 days, presumably
after credible warning that hostilities either are imminent or are already
underway.125
China’s emerging maritime anti-access force can be viewed as broadly
analogous to the sea-denial force that the Soviet Union developed during the Cold
War to deny U.S. use of the sea or counter U.S. forces participating in a NATOWarsaw Pact conflict. One potential difference between the Soviet sea-denial force
and China’s emerging maritime anti-access force is that China’s force could include
ASBMs.
Some analysts speculate that China may attain (or believe that is has attained)
a capable maritime anti-access capability, or important elements of it, by about
2010.126 Other observers believe China will attain (or believe that it has attained)
124
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 22-23.
125
Testimony of Fu S. Mei, Director, Taiwan Security Analysis Center (TAISAC), Before
the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission [regarding] “Taiwan Straits
Issues and Chinese Military-Defense Budget,” September 15, 2005, p. 3.
126
One observer stated in 2006 that:
By 2008, China will have the capability to credibly conduct short-term sea denial
operations out to about 400 nautical miles from its coastline; and by 2010 may
be able to sustain such operations for a few weeks. Obviously, this capability
does not accrue to the Straits of Malacca and the Indian Ocean — China can at
best hope to “show the flag” for coercive and/or defensive purposes in those
CRS-52
such a capability some time after 2010. DOD states that: “The U.S. Intelligence
Community estimates China will take until the end of this decade or longer to
produce a modern force capable of defeating a moderate-size adversary.”127 The term
“moderate-size adversary” would appear to apply to a country other than the United
States. The issue of when China might attain (or believe that it has attained) a
capable anti-access capability is significant because it can influence the kinds of
options that are available to U.S. policymakers for addressing the situation.
Broader or Longer-Term Goals. In addition to the near-term focus on
developing military options for addressing the situation with Taiwan, DOD and some
other observers believe that broader or longer-term goals of China’s military
modernization, including naval modernization, include one or more of the following:
waters until after 2015.
(Statement of Cortez A. Cooper III for a March 16, 2006, hearing before the
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, p.3.)
This observer also stated:
Looking at a net assessment of emerging Chinese capabilities and U.S. power
projection in the Pacific theater, there is a window of concern between roughly
2008 and 2015. Many Chinese programs focused on Taiwan and the near
periphery (new cruise and maneuverable ballistic missiles, submarines, and
destroyers) will be fully online around 2008; but some of the US capabilities to
defeat China’s sea denial strategy (missile defenses, littoral strike assets, a
state-of-the-art, integrated ASW network) may not be in place until around the
middle of the next decade.
(Ibid., p. 8.)
Another observer stated in 2005:
Because the Chinese submarine fleet will operate in nearby waters and in the
mid-Pacific, China need not wait until 2020 to challenge the U.S. at sea. It will
likely have a home-field advantage in any East Asian conflict contingency as
early as 2010, while the U.S. fleet will still have operational demands in the
Middle East, and in tracking Russian ballistic missile submarines elsewhere.
(Prepared statement of John J. Tkacik, Jr., for a July 27, 2005, hearing before the
House Armed Services Committee, p. 8.)
See also the prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a July 27, 2005, hearing before
the House Armed Services Committee, which cites the year 2010 on pages 3, 4, 7, 9 (twice),
11, and 16 in discussing China’s military modernization and the resulting impact on the
regional military balance, and Fisher’s statement as printed in Hearing On Military
Modernization and Cross-Strait Balance, Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic and
Security Review Commission, February 6, 2004. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 2004,
p. 85, which stated, “It is possible that before the end of the decade the PLA will have the
capability to coordinate mass missile attacks on U.S. Naval Forces by submarines and Su30s,” and p. 88, which prints his table summarizing potential PLA anti-carrier forces by
2010.
127
2008 DOD CMP, p. 22.
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!
asserting China’s regional military leadership, displacing U.S.
regional military influence, prevailing in regional rivalries, and
encouraging eventual U.S. military withdrawal from the region;
!
defending China’s claims in maritime territorial disputes, some
of which have implications for oil, gas, or mineral exploration
rights;128 and
!
protecting China’s sea lines of communication, which China
relies upon increasingly for oil and other imports.
Such broader or longer-term goals would be potentially significant for at least
three reasons. First, they imply that if the situation with Taiwan were somehow
resolved, China could find continuing reasons to pursue its naval modernization
effort.
Second, they would imply that if China completes its planned buildup of
Taiwan-related naval force elements, or if the situation with Taiwan were somehow
resolved, the composition of China’s naval modernization effort could shift to
include a greater emphasis on naval force elements that would be appropriate for
supporting these broader or longer-term interests, such as aircraft carriers, a larger
number of nuclear-powered attack submarines, serial production of destroyers,
underway replenishment ships, and overseas bases or support facilities.
Third, such broader or longer-term goals would suggest that even if China’s
military were never to engage in combat with an opposing military, China’s military
forces, including in particular its naval forces, could still be used on a day-to-day
basis to promote China’s political position in the Pacific. This would create an
essentially political (as opposed to combat-related) reason for the United States or
other countries to maintain a competitive presence in the region with naval and other
forces that are viewed by observers in the Pacific as capable of effectively countering
China’s forces.
DOD states that:
China’s near-term focus on preparing for contingencies in the Taiwan
Strait, including the possibility of U.S. intervention, is an important driver of its
modernization. However, analysis of China’s military acquisitions and strategic
thinking suggests Beijing is also developing capabilities for use in other
contingencies, such as conflict over resources or disputed territories.129
DOD also states that:
128
For more on this topic, see CRS Report RL31183, China’s Maritime Territorial Claims:
Implications for U.S. Interests, Kerry Dumbaugh, coordinator. See also Chris Johnson,
“Analysts Discuss Maritime Implications of China’s Energy Strategy,” Inside the Navy,
December 18, 2006.
129
2008 DOD CMP, p. I (Executive Summary).
CRS-54
China’s military appears focused on assuring the capability to prevent
Taiwan independence and, if Beijing were to decide to adopt such an approach,
to compel the island to negotiate a settlement on Beijing’s terms. At the same
time, China is laying the foundation for a force able to accomplish broader
regional and global objectives.130
At a June 25, 2008, hearing before the House Armed Services Committee on
recent security developments regarding China, the two witnesses, both from DOD,
were asked about the meaning of China’s military modernization effort, particularly
the development of its blue-water navy.131 One of the witnesses replied:
We have observed a definite long-term trend of Chinese investment in naval
expansion and not just quantity but sophistication and quality. It remains unclear
to us what the long-term intent of the use of that naval force would be. We do not
know if they intend or they might intend to use it in some way to assure
themselves of energy security. That’s a possibility, but we just don’t know.132
The other witness replied:
Sir, in the little bit of time we have left, I would say that it would be hard
to construe an aircraft carrier as being a purely defensive weapon. I believe that
some of the things we see China doing — like pursuing an aircraft carrier,
presuming some of the other longer-range capabilities that they have —
conventional capabilities — clearly indicate that they have aspirations beyond
the shores of Taiwan.
I wouldn’t use the terms that you did about [taking over] the entire world.
I think they’re very pragmatic and are looking at their economic zone that they
consider.133
In January 2007, the Director of National Intelligence stated:
Beijing continues its rapid rate of military modernization, initiated in 1999. We
assess that China’s aspirations for great power status, threat perceptions, and
security strategy would drive this modernization effort even if the Taiwan
problem were resolved.134
130
2008 DOD CMP, p. 22.
131
The question, posed by Representative Henry C. “Hank” Johnson, Jr., as reflected in the
hearing transcript, was: “Do you believe that the actions of Iraq — I mean, excuse me, of
China — in enhancing its military capabilities, particularly the development of its
blue-water navy, is purely defensive, or does it have some — or are you concerned that
perhaps there may be some offensive mindset about taking over the world or dominating
some area of the world through military power. What is your thinking on that?”
132
Spoken testimony of James Shinn, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Asian and Pacific
Security Affairs, as reflected in hearing transcript.
133
Spoken testimony of Major General Phillip Breedlove, USAF, Vice Director for Strategic
Plans and Policy, Joint Chiefs of Staff, as reflected in hearing transcript.
134
Annual Threat Assessment of the Director of National Intelligence, January 11, 2007,
John D. Negroponte, Director of National Intelligence, p. 10.
CRS-55
Regarding China’s economic interests, DOD states that:
As China’s economy grows, dependence on secure access to markets and
natural resources, particularly metals and fossil fuels, is becoming a more
significant factor shaping China’s strategic behavior....
China currently consumes approximately 7.58 million barrels of oil per day
and, since 2003, has been the world’s third largest importer of oil and second
largest consumer, after the United States. China currently imports over 53
percent of its oil (around 4.04 million barrels per day in the first three quarters
of 2007), with the vast majority coming by ship and transiting through the
Malacca or Lombok/Makkasar Straits. By 2015, China’s oil consumption will
rise to 10-12 million barrels per day. China is also working with Russia to
develop the East Siberia-Pacific Ocean oil pipeline, with a 1.6 million barrels per
day capacity, to ensure China’s continued access to Russian oil and reduce
dependence on sea-borne shipping for oil imports....
The extent to which Beijing’s concerns over the security of its access to
energy supplies shapes China’s defense policy and force planning is not known.
However, it is apparent that these concerns influence China’s thinking about the
problems of defense planning. China’s 2006 defense white paper states explicitly
in its description of the security environment that “security issues related to
energy, resources, finance, information and international shipping routes are
mounting.” It also defines the PLA’s primary tasks as “upholding national
security and unity, and ensuring the interests of national development.”
The PLA appears to be debating how to translate these tasks into doctrinal
evolution, resource allocations, force structure changes, and contingency
planning. However, as China’s current ability to project and sustain power at a
distance remains limited, the PLA, at least for the near and mid-terms, will face
an ambition-capability gap. Currently it is neither capable of using military
power to secure its foreign energy investments nor of defending critical sea lanes
against disruption.
Looking to the future, China’s leaders may seek to close this gap by
developing: extended-range power projection, including aircraft carrier
development; expeditionary warfare; undersea warfare; antiair warfare;
long-range precision strike; maritime C4ISR; expeditionary logistics and forward
basing; training and exercises, especially in open water; and a more activist
military presence abroad.135
Regarding territorial disputes, DOD states that:
Since 1998, China has settled eleven territorial disputes with six of its
neighbors. However, disputes continue over exclusive economic zones (EEZ) and
ownership of potentially rich oil and gas deposits, including some 7 trillion cubic
feet of natural gas and up to 100 billion barrels of oil in the East China Sea,
which has contributed to friction with Japan. Japan maintains that an equidistant
line should separate the EEZs, while China claims an Extended Continental Shelf
beyond the equidistant line to the Okinawa Trench — extending almost to
Japan’s shore. In the South China Sea, China claims exclusive sovereignty over
135
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 10, 12-13.
CRS-56
the Spratly and Paracel island groups — claims disputed by Brunei, the
Philippines, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. In December 2007, China
announced the establishment of “Sansha City” to assert “indisputable
sovereignty” and jurisdiction over the islands of the South China Sea “and the
adjacent waterways.”
The South China Sea plays an important role in Northeast Asian security
considerations. Over 80 percent of crude oil supplies to Japan, South Korea, and
Taiwan flow through the South China Sea — making these countries especially
dependant on South China Sea shipping routes. In 2007, Vietnam reported
repeated incidents with the PLA Navy in the waters near the Spratly Islands. In
April, Vietnam’s coast guard reported that PLA Navy vessels had captured four
Vietnamese fishing boats, detaining and fining 41 fishermen; and, in July, a PLA
Navy ship fired on Vietnamese fishing vessels, reportedly sinking one ship,
killing a fisherman, and injuring several others.136
Regarding investments relating to broader or longer-term goals, DOD states
that:
China continues to invest in military programs designed to improve
extended-range power projection. Current trends in China’s military capabilities
are a major factor in changing East Asian military balances, and could provide
China with a force capable of prosecuting a range of military operations in Asia
— well beyond Taiwan. Given the apparent absence of direct threats from other
nations, the purposes to which China’s current and future military power will be
applied remain unknown. These capabilities will increase Beijing’s options for
military coercion to press diplomatic advantage, advance interests, or resolve
disputes in its favor.
Official documents and the writings of PLA military strategists suggest
Beijing is increasingly surveying the strategic landscape beyond Taiwan. Some
PLA analysts have explored the geopolitical value of Taiwan in extending
China’s maritime “defensive” perimeter and improving its ability to influence
regional sea lines of communication....
Analysis of China’s weapons acquisitions also suggests China is looking
beyond Taiwan as it builds its force. For example, new missile units outfitted
with conventional theater-range missiles at various locations in China could be
used in a variety of non-Taiwan contingencies. AEW&C and aerial-refueling
programs would permit extended air operations into the South China Sea and
beyond.
Advanced destroyers and submarines reflect Beijing’s desire to protect and
advance its maritime interests up to and beyond the second island chain.
Potential expeditionary forces (three airborne divisions, two amphibious infantry
divisions, two marine brigades, about seven special operations groups, and one
regimental-size reconnaissance element in the Second Artillery) are improving
with the introduction of new equipment, better unit-level tactics, and greater
coordination of joint operations. Over the long term, improvements in China’s
C4ISR, including space-based and over-the-horizon sensors, could enable Beijing
136
2008 DOD CMP, p. 11.
CRS-57
to identify, track, and target military activities deep into the western Pacific
Ocean.137
At a December 13, 2007, hearing before the House Armed Services Committee,
Admiral Gary Roughead, the Chief of Naval Operations, was asked by
Representative Bartlett, “Why do you think the Chinese are so aggressively pursuing
a blue water navy? They don’t need one for Taiwan, do they? Won’t a brown water
navy do just fine there?” Admiral Roughead replied:
I believe that what the Chinese navy, the PLA navy, is doing is developing
a blue water navy that allows them to influence and control events in the western
Pacific, in — around some of the critical straits and into the Indian Ocean. That
is the navy they are building. They are very unabashed about the fact that they
are building a blue water navy that will operate out to the first island chain, as
they refer.
And as we have seen throughout history, and as we have seen in our own
country over the course of our nation’s history, that we are a maritime nation and
our Navy and Marine Corps and Coast Guard are the maritime forces that can
influence events in that maritime domain.
They also see, as do other countries, the importance of navies to assure their
security and their prosperity, and that is what is going on. And we, as a Navy,
Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, must also value our Navy and what it takes to
be a global navy, to be able to influence events in ways that are advantageous to
our country.138
A 2007 report by a task force sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations
stated:
China’s military modernization has two main drivers, one with a clear
operational objective (Taiwan) and the other with a clear strategic objective (to
build a modern military because China will be a modern power).139
Another observer, in discussing China’s 2006 defense white paper, stated in
2007 that
While the navy would have a major role in the event of Taiwan operations, it was
its wider role that was emphasised. “The Navy aims at gradual extension of the
strategic depth for offshore defensive operations and enhancing its capabilities
in integrated maritime operations and nuclear counterattacks,” the paper stated,
while the need to protect maritime trade, particularly crucial imports of oil and
raw materials, was also stressed.140
137
2008 DOD CMP, pp. 29-30.
138
Source: Transcript of hearing.
139
Council on Foreign Relations, U.S.-China Relations: An Affirmative Agenda, A
Responsible Course, Report of an Independent Task Force sponsored by the Council on
Foreign Relations, Washington, 2007, p. 43.
140
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2007-2008, p. 31 (Executive Overview)
CRS-58
Another observer stated in 2007:
While committed to deterring or defeating Taiwan and thwarting U.S.
intervention, the PLAN’s focus increasingly represents a more general — and
ambitious — goal of attaining the means of projecting power across the sea lines
of communication (SLOC) and protecting the ocean commerce on which China’s
economy relies. Such an objective explains certain aspects of its modernization,
such as the aggressive construction of a new class of nuclear attack submarines
(SSNs). The successful development of the SSNs would allow the PLAN to deter
would-be disrupters of Chinese energy supplies, the majority of which are
transported by sea. Moreover, sea-lane security presents a rationale for the
development of an aircraft carrier, a type of ship that would serve only as an easy
target in a Taiwan scenario — where China’s land-based airfields are more than
sufficient — but would allow for the Chinese military to project its power across
maritime regions far beyond the range of land-based aircraft.
Indeed, these developments indicate that China’s senior leaders and
strategists are increasingly concerned with traditional and non-traditional threats
(e.g. piracy, smuggling, terrorism and other disruptions by non-state actors) to
ocean commerce.141
Some PLA Navy units in recent years have been deployed outside China’s home
waters for purposes other than making diplomatic port calls. In November 2004, for
example, a Han-class SSN was detected in Japanese territorial waters near
Okinawa.142 DIA states that, as part of the same deployment, this submarine traveled
“far into the western Pacific Ocean....”143 Press reports state that the submarine
operated in the vicinity of Guam before moving toward Okinawa.144
As another example, on September 9, 2005,
China deployed a fleet of five warships ... near a gas field in the East China Sea,
a potentially resource-rich area that is disputed by China and Japan. The ships,
including a guided-missile destroyer, were spotted by a Japanese military patrol
141
Eric A. McVadon, “U.S.-PRC Maritime Cooperation: An Idea Whose Time Has Come,”
China Brief (Jamestown Foundation), June 13, 2007.
142
Mark Magnier, “China Regrets Sub Incident, Japan Says,” Los Angeles Times, November
17, 2004; Martin Fackler, “Japanese Pursuit Of Chinese Sub Raises Tensions,” Wall Street
Journal, November 15, 2004: 20; Kenji Hall, “Japan: Unidentified sub is Chinese,”
NavyTimes.com (Associated Press), November 12, 2004. See also 2006 DOD CMP, pp. 1112.
143
Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, Vice Admiral
Lowell E. Jacoby, U.S. Navy, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement for the
Record [before the] Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, 16 February 2005, p. 16-17.
See also Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, Vice Admiral
Lowell E. Jacoby, U.S. Navy, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement For the
Record [before the] Senate Armed Services Committee, 17 March 2005, p. 17.
144
Timothy Hu, “Ready, steady, go...,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, April 13, 2005: 27; “China
Sub Tracked By U.S. Off Guam Before Japan Intrusion,” Japan Times, November 17, 2004.
CRS-59
plane near the Chunxiao gas field, according to the [Japan] Maritime
Self-Defense Forces.145
Another press report stated:
China said on Sept. 29 [of 2005 that] it has sent warships to the disputed
East China Sea, a day ahead of talks with Japan over competing territorial claims
in the gas-rich waters.
“I can now confirm that in the East China Sea, a Chinese reserve vessel
squadron has been established,” foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang told a
regular briefing....
No details were given on the size of the squadron or the area it will patrol.
The establishment of the squadron follows China’s creation of two naval groups
in the Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea off the northern China coast, the agency said.146
On October 26, 2006, a Song-class SS reportedly surfaced five miles away from
the Japan-homeported U.S. Navy aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk (CV-63), which
reportedly was operating at the time with its strike group in international waters in
the East China Sea, near Okinawa. According to press reports, the carrier strike
group at the time was not actively searching for submarines, and the Song-class boat
remained undetected by the strike group until it surfaced and was observed by one
of the strike group’s aircraft.147 The Chinese government denied that the submarine
was following the strike group.148
A distance of five miles would be well within the typical defensive perimeter
for a carrier strike group. (Such a perimeter might extend tens of miles, or more than
100 miles, from a strike group’s ships.) It would also be within the reported firing
145
Norimitsu Onishi and Howard W. French, “Japan’s Rivalry With China Is Stirring A
Crowded Sea,” New York Times, September 11, 2005. See also “Japan Upset Over Chinese
Warships Near Disputed Area,” DefenseNews.com, October 3, 2005.
146
“China Sends Warships to East China Sea,” DefenseNews.com, September 29, 2005.
2006 DOD CMP, p. 2, states that in the Fall of 2005, “PLA Navy vessels trained their
weapons on Japanese Self Defense Forces aircraft monitoring Chinese drilling and survey
activity in the disputed area.”
147
Bill Gertz, “China Sub Secretly Stalked U.S. Fleet,” Washington Times, November 13,
2006: 13; Philip Creed, “Navy Confirms Chinese Sub Spotted Near Carrier,”
NavyTimes.com, November 13, 2006; Bill Gertz, “Defenses On [sic] Subs To Be
Reviewed,” Washington Times, November 14, 2006; En-Lai Yeoh, “Fallon Confirms
Chinese Stalked Carrier,” NavyTimes.com, November 14, 2006; Bill Gertz, “Admiral Says
Sub Risked A Shootout,” Washington Times, November 15, 2006; Jeff Schogol, “Admiral
Disputes Report That Kitty Hawk, Chinese Sub Could Have Clashed,” Mideast Starts and
Stripes, November 17, 2006.
148
Associated Press, “China Denies Reports That Sub Followed Kitty Hawk,”
NavyTimes.com, November 16, 2006. A shorter version of the same story was published as
Associated Press, “China Denies Sub Followed A Group Of U.S. Warships,” Asian Wall
Street Journal, November 17, 2006: 11.
CRS-60
range of certain modern submarine-launched torpedoes, and well within the firing
range of submarine-launched ASCMs.
The surfacing of an undetected submarine well within the defensive perimeter
of another country’s surface naval formation can sometimes be intended as a
deterrent action — a warning from the submarine-operating country that submarines
like the one in question can penetrate the ASW systems of the other country’s surface
naval forces. Whether that was the intent behind the Song-class boat’s decision to
surface is not clear; the boat may have surfaced for other reasons. Since the Kitty
Hawk strike group was not actively searching for submarines at the time, the
implications of the incident for assessing U.S. ASW capabilities against Song-class
submarines are also not clear. U.S. officials reportedly reviewed their ASW defenses
in light of the incident.149
Another observer stated, with respect to Chinese naval developments in 2007,
that:
While the military capabilities of the Chinese Navy continued to develop
rapidly during 2007, the most notable feature of the last year was an
unprecedented level of naval diplomacy. ‘Show the flag’ visits were paid to
Australia, France, Japan, Pakistan, Russia, Singapore, Spain and the UK. In
March 2007, the Jaianwei II-class frigates Lianyungang and Sanming took part
in Exercise Aman 07, conducted by the Pakistan Navy. During the four-day sea
phase, involving 23 ships from nine countries, the Chinese ships took part in 12
exercises which included surface firings, helicopter operations and command of
an SAR [search and rescue] serial. In a similar vein, the Jiangwei II-class frigate
149
Bill Gertz, “Defenses On [sic] Subs To Be Reviewed,” Washington Times, November 14,
2006: 1. One observer recounts the incident as follows:
In September 2006, Rear Admiral Ding Yiping, China’s top submarine
officer and PLAN Vice Chief of Staff, sent a Song submarine on a mission to
hunt an American carrier. On October 27 (October 26, Washington time), the
submarine surfaced in waters off Okinawa within torpedo range of the U.S.S.
Kitty Hawk, where it was seen in the Kitty Hawk’s wake by an F-18 pilot on
landing approach. It then submerged and disappeared, defeating all U.S.
anti-submarine warfare (ASW) efforts to detect it. The carrier battle group’s
ASW systems did not detect the sub because it had apparently waited —
submerged, stationary, and silent — for at least one day as the task force
approached the area. Beijing’s state-controlled media reported that Admiral
Ding had personally commanded the entire operation, perhaps even skippering
the submarine himself, and predicted that the success of his mission would lead
to a promotion....
The official Chinese press noted the PLA high command’s confidence in
Admiral Ding — ample evidence of their pleasure at the success the mission
against the Kitty Hawk. The Chinese foreign ministry’s protest that the vessel
had not stalked the Kitty Hawk is likely the literal truth, indicating that the
submarine simply waited submerged until the U.S. battle group sailed over it.
(John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 9 and 10.)
CRS-61
Xiangfan was one of 15 warships that took part in multinational exercises off
Singapore under the framework of the Western Pacific Naval Forum. She later
featured in the maritime industrial exhibition IMDEX Asia 2007 although the
visit was driven more by strategic interest in a critical maritime supply route than
by arms sales. The most ambitious undertaking of the year was the 12,000-mile
deployment to St. Petersburg, Portsmouth, Cadiz and Toulon by the three-year
old Luyang I-class destroyer Guangzhou, accompanied by the replenishment ship
Weishan Hu. Exercises were carried out with the UK carrier Ark Royal, the
Spanish frigate Reina Sofia and with the French navy. While these activities
were taking place in the Atlantic and Mediterranean, the Luhu-class destroyer
Harbin and the replenishment ship Hongzhu took part in tri-lateral exercises with
the Australian and New Zealand navies off the coast of New South Wales.
Finally, in a significant diplomatic event, the Luhai destroyer Shenzhen arrived
in Tokyo on 29 November 2007. This was the first time that a Chinese warship
had visited Japan since the foundation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
Overall, the series of deployments signified not only a major diplomatic
offensive but also a readiness to rise to the military challenge of co-ordinating
and supporting simultaneous operations across the globe. Although the exercises
themselves were not unduly complicated, they nevertheless suggested that the
confidence and professionalism of the PLAN has grown significantly over the
last five years. Looking ahead, such willingness to contribute to international
operations could lead to participation in multilateral patrols, such as in the
Malacca Strait, and in regional humanitarian operations.150
Regarding base access and support facilities to support more distant PLA Navy
operations, one press report in 2005 stated:
China is building up military forces and setting up bases along sea lanes
from the Middle East to project its power overseas and protect its oil shipments,
according to a previously undisclosed internal report prepared for Defense
Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld.
“China is building strategic relationships along the sea lanes from the
Middle East to the South China Sea in ways that suggest defensive and offensive
positioning to protect China’s energy interests, but also to serve broad security
objectives,” said the report sponsored by the director, Net Assessment, who
heads Mr. Rumsfeld’s office on future-oriented strategies.
The Washington Times obtained a copy of the report, titled “Energy
Futures in Asia,” which was produced by defense contractor Booz Allen
Hamilton.
The internal report stated that China is adopting a “string of pearls” strategy
of bases and diplomatic ties stretching from the Middle East to southern
China....151
150
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, pp. 28, 30 (Executive Overview).
151
Bill Gertz, “China Builds Up Strategic Sea Lanes,” Washington Times, January 18, 2005,
p.1. The report stated that China is:
!
operating an eavesdropping post and building a naval base at Gwadar,
Pakistan, near the Persian Gulf;
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An August 2008 press report stated:
Is China marking space for itself in Myanmar’s Coco Islands again? India
is suddenly up and alert after senior Chinese naval officers recently visited the
islands to “upgrade” facilities there.
On June 25, according to reports reaching India, in an unpublicised visit,
a Chinese naval delegation led by Col Chi Ziong Feng, accompanied a
Myanmarese delegation headed by Brig Gen Win Shein, into the Coco Islands.
According to sources, Brig Gen Shein is commander of Ayeyarwaddy
(Irrawaddy) naval headquarters, which controls the island.
!
!
!
!
!
!
building a container port facility at Chittagong, Bangladesh, and seeking
“much more extensive naval and commercial access” in Bangladesh;
building naval bases in Burma, which is near the Strait of Malacca;
operating electronic intelligence-gathering facilities on islands in the Bay
of Bengal and near the Strait of Malacca;
building a railway line from China through Cambodia to the sea;
improving its ability to project air and sea power into the South China Sea
from mainland China and Hainan Island;
considering funding a $20-billion canal that would cross the Kra Isthmus
of Thailand, which would allow ships to bypass the Strait of Malacca and
permit China to establish port facilities there.
According to the article,
The Pentagon report said China, by militarily controlling oil shipping sea
lanes, could threaten ships, “thereby creating a climate of uncertainty about the
safety of all ships on the high seas.”
The report noted that the vast amount of oil shipments through the sea
lanes, along with growing piracy and maritime terrorism, prompted China, as
well as India, to build up naval power at “chokepoints” along the sea routes from
the Persian Gulf to the South China Sea.
“China ... is looking not only to build a blue-water navy to control the sea
lanes, but also to develop undersea mines and missile capabilities to deter the
potential disruption of its energy supplies from potential threats, including the
U.S. Navy, especially in the case of a conflict with Taiwan,” the report said....
“The Iraq war, in particular, revived concerns over the impact of a
disturbance in Middle Eastern supplies or a U.S. naval blockade,” the report said,
noting that Chinese military leaders want an ocean-going navy and “undersea
retaliatory capability to protect the sea lanes.”
China believes the U.S. military will disrupt China’s energy imports in any
conflict over Taiwan, and sees the United States as an unpredictable country that
violates others’ sovereignty and wants to “encircle” China, the report said.
See also Edward Cody, “China Builds A Smaller, Stronger Military,” Washington Post,
April 12, 2005, p. 1.
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According to sources monitoring developments, China decided to help
Myanmar upgrade systems in the island.
Myanmar would increase its naval troop strength on the island, while China
would help in building two more helipads and storage systems for arms. What
was of greater interest to India was that China reportedly agreed to “upgrade”
communication facilities on the island.152
Potential Implications for Required U.S. Navy Capabilities
Potential implications of China’s naval modernization for required U.S. Navy
capabilities can be organized into three groups:
!
!
!
capabilities for a crisis or conflict in the Taiwan Strait area;
capabilities for maintaining U.S. Navy presence and military
influence in the Western Pacific; and
capabilities for detecting, tracking, and if necessary countering PLA
Navy SSBNs equipped with long-range SLBMs.
Each of these is discussed below.
Capabilities for Taiwan Strait Crisis or Conflict. U.S. military
operations in a potential crisis or conflict in the Taiwan Strait area would likely
feature a strong reliance on U.S. Navy forces and land-based U.S. Air Force
aircraft.153 If air bases in Japan and South Korea are, for political reasons, not
available to the United States for use in the operation, or if air bases in Japan, South
Korea, or Guam are rendered less useful by PLA attacks using TBMs, LACMs, or
special operations forces, then the reliance on U.S. Navy forces could become
greater.
For the U.S. Navy, a crisis or conflict in the Taiwan Strait could place a
premium on the following:
!
on-station or early-arriving forces;
!
forces with a capability to defeat PLA anti-access weapons and
platforms; and
152
Indrani Bagchi, “China Eyeing Base in Bay of Bengal?” Times of India, August 9, 2008,
posted online at
[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/China_eyeing_base_in_Bay_of_Bengal/articleshow/
3343799.cms]
153
For discussions relating to Taiwan’s potential military capabilities in such a scenario, see
CRS Report RL30957, Taiwan: Major U.S. Arms Sales Since 1990; and CRS Report
RL30341, China/Taiwan: Evolution of the ‘One China’ Policy — Key Statements from
Washington, Beijing, and Taipei, both by Shirley A. Kan.
CRS-64
!
forces with an ability to operate in an environment that could be
characterized by IW/IO and possibly EMP or the use of nuclear
weapons directly against Navy ships.
On-Station and Early-Arriving Forces. In the scenario of a short-duration
conflict, on-station and early-arriving U.S. Navy forces could be of particular value,
while later-arriving U.S. Navy forces might be of less value, at least in preventing
initial success by PLA forces.
On-Station Forces. Given the difficulty of knowing with certainty when a
Taiwan Strait crisis or conflict might occur, having forces on-station at the start of
the crisis or conflict is a goal that would most reliably be met by maintaining a
standing forward deployment of U.S. Navy forces in the area. Maintaining a standing
forward deployment of U.S. Navy forces in the area while also maintaining U.S.
Navy forward deployments in other regions, such as the Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean
region and the Mediterranean Sea, would require a Navy with a certain minimum
number of ships.
Although it is sometimes said that it takes three U.S.-homeported Navy ships
to keep one ship forward deployed in an overseas location, the actual ratio
traditionally has been higher. For example, if U.S. Navy ships are operated in the
traditional manner — with a single crew for each ship and deployments lasting six
months — then maintaining one U.S. Navy cruiser or destroyer continuously
forward-deployed to the Western Pacific might require a total of about five San
Diego-based cruisers or destroyers.154
Stationkeeping multipliers like these can be reduced by homeporting U.S. Navy
ships at locations closer to Taiwan (such as Japan, Guam, Hawaii, or perhaps
Singapore) or by deploying ships for longer periods of time and operating them with
multiple crews that are rotated out to each ship. The Navy has an aircraft carrier
strike group, amphibious ships, and mine warfare ships homeported in Japan, and
three attack submarines homeported in Guam. The Navy has also experimented with
the concept of deploying certain Navy ships (particularly surface combatants) for 12,
18, or 24 months and rotating multiple crews out to each ship.155 Navy cruise missile
submarines (SSGNs) that are homeported in Bangor, Washington, are to be operated
out of Guam with dual crews that each rotate out from Bangor. Each SSGN will be
operated by three crews before returning to Bangor.156
Early-Arriving Forces. Having early-arriving U.S. Navy forces could mean
having forces based in locations Western Pacific locations such as Japan, Guam,
154
For a discussion, see archived CRS Report 92-803, Naval Forward Deployments and the
Size of the Navy, by Ronald O’Rourke. (Out of print and available directly from the author.)
155
For a discussion see CRS Report RS21338, Navy Ship Deployments: New Approaches
— Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
156
Jacob Sippel, “USS Ohio Arrives In Guam For Crew Swap,” Navy News Service, January
11, 2008; and Oyaol Ngirairikl, “USS Ohio Moors at Bravo Wharf,” Navy News Service,
January 17, 2008.
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Singapore, or perhaps Hawaii, rather than on the U.S. West Coast.157 Table 5 shows
potential ship travel times to the Taiwan Strait area from various ports in the Pacific,
based on average ship travel speeds. All the ports shown in the table except
Singapore are current U.S. Navy home ports.158 U.S. Navy submarines, aircraft
carriers, cruisers, and destroyers have maximum sustained speeds of more than 30
knots, but their average speeds over longer transits in some cases might be closer to
25 knots or less due rough sea conditions or, in the case of the cruisers or destroyers,
which are conventionally powered, the need slow down for at-sea refueling. The
Navy’s Littoral Combat Ships (LCSs) are to have a maximum sustained speed of
about 45 knots, but their average speed over long transits would likely be less than
that.
As can be seen in the table, Yokosuka, Guam, and Singapore are less than half
as far from the Taiwan Strait area as are Pearl Harbor, Everett, WA,159 and San
Diego. Depending on their average travel speeds, ships homeported in Yokosuka,
Guam, and Singapore could arrive in the Taiwan Strait area roughly two to four days
after leaving port, ships homeported in Pearl Harbor might arrive about six to nine
days after leaving port, and ships homeported on the U.S. West Coast might arrive
about 7 to 12 days after leaving port. The time needed to get a ship and its crew
ready to leave port would add to their total response times. Depending on a ship’s
status at the moment it was ordered to the Taiwan Strait area, preparing it for rapid
departure might require anywhere from less than one day to a few days.
157
Other potential Western Pacific locations, at least in theory, include South Korea (where
other U.S. forces have been based for years), the Philippines (where the U.S. Navy ships
used as a major repair port until the early 1990s), and Australia.
158
U.S. Navy ships visit Singapore, and there is a U.S. Navy logistic group there, but no U.S.
Navy ships are currently homeported at Singapore.
159
Everett is located on the Puget Sound, about 23 nautical miles north of Seattle.
CRS-66
Table 5. Potential Ship Travel Times to Taiwan Strait Area
Minimum travel time in days,
based on average speeds belowb
Straight-line distance to
Taiwan Strait areaa
(nautical miles)
20 knots
25 knots
30 knots
Yokosuka, Japan
1,076
2.2
1.8
1.5
Guam
1,336
2.8
2.2
1.9
1,794
3.7
3.0
2.5
Pearl Harbore
4,283
8.9
7.1
5.9
Everett, WA
5,223
10.9
8.7
7.3
San Diego
5,933
12.3
9.9
8.2
Port
c
Singapore
d
Source: Table prepared by CRS using straight-line distances calculated by the “how far is it”
calculator, available at [http://www.indo.com/distance/].
a. Defined as a position in the sea at 24oN, 124oE, which is roughly 130 nautical miles east of Taiwan,
i.e., on the other side of Taiwan from the Taiwan Strait.
b. Actual travel times may be greater due to the possible need for ships to depart from a straight-line
course so as to avoid land barriers, remain within port-area shipping channels, etc.
c. Distance calculated from Tokyo, which is about 25 nautical miles north of Yokosuka.
d. No U.S. Navy ships are currently homeported at Singapore.
e. Distance calculated from Honolulu, which is about 6 nautical miles southeast of Pearl Harbor.
Regarding the possibility of transferring a carrier from the continental United
States to Hawaii or Guam — an option that DOD considered in 2005-2006 but
decided against in 2007160 — one observer stated in 2005:
Currently the United States maintains one aircraft carrier full-time in the Western
Pacific. In the event of a conflict with China over Taiwan, however, particularly
given the various [PLA] threats to land-based air outlined above, having more
aircraft carriers on the scene will be extremely valuable. Other than any carriers
that might be transiting through the region, however, currently the closest
additional carriers would be those based on the west coast of the United States.
Given that a conflict with China could begin with little warning, this means that
as much as two weeks could elapse before additional aircraft carriers reached the
area of combat operations. The Department of Defense has already
recommended forward-deploying an additional aircraft carrier in the Pacific, but
it is important to note that precisely where this carrier is forward-deployed is
significant. In particular, an aircraft carrier based in Hawaii would still take at
least a week to reach waters near Taiwan. An aircraft carrier based in Guam,
Singapore, or elsewhere in the Western Pacific, by contrast, could arrive on the
scene in about three days.161
160
161
DOD decided to home port the carrier in question, the Carl Vinson, at San Diego.
China’s Military Modernization and the Cross-Strait Balance, [Statement of] Roger Cliff,
September 2005, Testimony presented before the U.S.-China Economic and Security
Review Commission on September 15, 2005, pp. 9-10. (Hereafter cited as Cliff 9/15/05
testimony.)
CRS-67
Basing additional forces in Japan, Guam, Singapore, or Hawaii could increase
the importance of taking actions to defend these locations against potential attack by
TBMs, LACMs, or special operations forces.162 One set of observers states:
The operational significance of stationing SSNs on Guam is not lost on Chinese
naval analysts. One observes that “if [a submarine] sets out from Guam,
especially in a Taiwan Strait crisis, it may only require 2 days or so.” A
significant finding of the present study is that even in official journals, Chinese
analysts are exploring Guam’s vulnerabilities. The same author notes that Guam,
in addition to conferring some advantages to the United States in a Taiwan crisis,
also carries self-defense vulnerabilities having strategic implications...
... it is clear that some Chinese analysts perceive Guam to be vulnerable to
offensive attacks.163
Defeating PLA Anti-Access Forces. Defeating PLA maritime anti-access
forces would require capabilities for countering:
!
large numbers of TBMs, including some possibly equipped with
MaRVs;
!
large numbers of LACMs and ASCMs, including some advanced
ASCMs such as the SS-N-27 and SS-N-22;
!
substantial numbers of land-based fighters, strike fighters, maritime
bombers, and SAMs, including some built to modern designs;
!
a substantial number of submarines, including a few that are nuclearpowered and a significant portion that are built to modern designs;
!
a substantial number of destroyers, frigates, and fast attack craft,
including some built to modern designs; and
!
potentially large numbers of mines of different types, including some
advanced models.
Operating Amidst IW/IO, EMP, and Nuclear Weapons. Operating
effectively in an environment that could be characterized by IW/IO and possibly
EMP or the use of nuclear weapons directly against Navy ships could require, among
other things:
162
For a list of recommended actions for improving the ability of bases in the Western
Pacific to defend themselves from PLA attack, see Roger Cliff et al., Entering the Dragon’s
Lair: Chinese Antiaccess Strategies and Their Implications for the United States. Santa
Monica, CA, RAND Corporation, 2007. Pp. 95-101. (MG-524-AF, RAND Project Air
Force.)
163
Gabriel Collins, Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “Chinese
Evaluations of the U.S. Navy Submarine Force,” Naval College War Review, Winter 2008:
72.
CRS-68
!
measures to achieve and maintain strong computer network security;
!
hardening of ships, aircraft, and their various systems against EMP;
and
!
hardening of ships against the overpressure, thermal, and radiation
effects of a nuclear weapon that is detonated somewhat close to the
ship, but not close enough to destroy the ship outright.
Capabilities for Maintaining Regional Presence and Influence. For
the U.S. Navy, maintaining regional presence and military influence in the Western
Pacific could place a premium on the following, among other things:
!
maintaining a substantial U.S. Navy ship presence throughout the
region;
!
making frequent port calls in the region;
!
conducting frequent exercises with other navies in the region;
!
taking actions to ensure system compatibility between U.S. Navy
ships and ships of allied and friendly nations in the region; and
!
conducting frequent exchanges between U.S. Navy personnel and
military and political leaders of other countries in the region.
Factors influencing the Navy’s ability to maintain a substantial U.S. Navy ship
presence throughout the region include the total number of ships in the Navy’s
Pacific Fleet, the number of Navy ships forward-homeported at locations such as
Japan, Guam, Hawaii, and perhaps Singapore, and ship-crewing and -deployment
approaches (e.g., six-month deployments and single crews vs. longer deployments
with crew rotation).
Capabilities for Tracking and Countering PLA SSBNs. Detecting,
tracking, and if necessary countering PLA Navy SSBNs equipped with long-range
SLBMs could require some or all of the following:
!
a seabed-based sensor network analogous to the Sound Surveillance
System (SOSUS) that the U.S. Navy used during the Cold War to
detect and track Soviet nuclear-powered submarines;
!
ocean surveillance ships with additional sonars, which would be
similar to the TAGOS-type ocean-surveillance ships that the Navy
also used during the Cold War to help detect and track Soviet
nuclear-powered submarines; and
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!
enough SSNs so that some can be assigned to tracking and if
necessary attacking PLA SSBNs.164
Potential Oversight Issues for Congress
Potential oversight questions for Congress arising from China’s military
modernization and its potential implications for required U.S. Navy capabilities can
be organized into three groups:
!
questions relating to China’s military modernization as a defenseplanning priority;
!
questions relating to U.S. Navy force structure and basing
arrangements; and
!
questions relating to Navy warfare areas and programs.
Each of these is discussed below.
China as a Defense-Planning Priority
DOD Planning. Is DOD giving adequate weight in its planning to China’s
military modernization as opposed to other concerns, such as current operations in
Iraq and Afghanistan and the global war on terrorism (GWOT) generally? Is DOD
giving adequate weight in its planning to the funding needs of the Navy as opposed
to those of the other services, such as the Army?
Military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan have led to increased focus on the
funding needs of the Army and Marine Corps, since these two services are heavily
committed to those operations. Placing increasing emphasis on China in DOD
planning, on the other hand, would likely lead to increased focus on the funding
needs of the Navy and Air Force, since these two services are generally viewed as the
ones most likely to be of the most importance for a crisis or conflict in the Taiwan
Strait area. In a situation of finite DOD resources, striking the correct planning
balance between operations in Iraq and Afghanistan and the GWOT generally, and
China’s military modernization is viewed by some observers as a key DOD planning
challenge.
Navy Planning. Is the Navy is giving adequate weight in its planning to
China’s military modernization as opposed to other concerns, such as the GWOT?
Required Navy capabilities for participating in the GWOT overlap with, but are
not identical to, required Navy capabilities for responding to China’s naval
modernization. In a situation of finite Navy resources, striking the correct balance
164
Additional measures that could assist in tracking PLA SSBNs include satellite
surveillance (particularly when the SSBNs are in port or if they surface during their
deployments) and human intelligence.
CRS-70
between investments for participating in the GWOT and those for responding to
China’s naval modernization is viewed by some observers as a key Navy planning
challenge.
The Navy since 2005 has implemented several organizational and programmatic
initiatives that reflect an interest in increasing the Navy’s role in the GWOT.165 At
the same time, the Navy has occasionally affirmed the importance of China’s military
modernization in its budget planning. A Navy-Marine Corps-Coast Guard maritime
strategy document released on October 17, 2007,166 uses the terms “terrorism,”
“terrorists,” or “terrorist networks” eight times, and the terms “major power war,”
“major power,” and “major combat operations” six times. The document does not
mention specific terrorist organizations (such as al Qaeda) or specific foreign
countries (such as China, Iran, North Korea, or Russia) by name, perhaps because the
authors of the document believed it would be inappropriate to do so in a general
strategy document.167
An October 9, 2007, memorandum on Department of the Navy objectives for
FY2008 and beyond presents six major objectives, along with supporting tasks for
each objective. The second of the six objectives is “Use the Navy-Marine Corps
Team to aggressively prosecute the Global War on Terrorism.” None of the other
five objectives focuses specifically on preparing for major power conflict, though
several of them contain supporting tasks that relate to being prepared for major power
conflict. The document does not mention specific terrorist organizations or specific
foreign countries by name, perhaps because the authors of the document believed it
would be inappropriate to do so in an objectives memorandum.168
A September 4, 2008, press report states:
165
For further discussion, see CRS Report RS22373, Navy Role in Global War on Terrorism
(GWOT) — Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
166
A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower, October 2007, 18 pp.
167
The Navy’s final Cold War-era strategy document — the mid-1980s Maritime Strategy,
also called the Forward Maritime Strategy — referred to the Soviet Union and its military
forces, and to certain other named countries, on several occasions. (See James D. Watkins,
“The Maritime Strategy,” in The Maritime Strategy, a supplement to the January 1986 issue
of the U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings.)
168
Memorandum dated October 9, 2007, entitled “Department of the Navy Objectives for
FY 2008 and Beyond,” and signed by the Secretary of the Navy, the Chief of Naval
Operations, and the Commandant of the Marine Corps. The other five objectives listed in
the memorandum are “Provide a Total Naval Workforce capable and optimized to support
the National Defense Strategy,” “Build the Navy-Marine Corps Force for Tomorrow,”
“Safeguard the People and Resources of the Navy-Marine Corps Team [and] Integrate
Safety and Risk Management into all on and off-duty evolutions to maximize mission
readiness and to establish DON [the Department of the Navy] as an organization with world
class safety where no mishap is accepted as the cost of doing business,” “Strengthen ethics
as a foundation of exemplary conduct within the Department of the Navy,” and “Provide
first-rate facilities to support stationing, training and operations of Naval forces.”
(Underlining as in the original.)
CRS-71
Pacific-realm activity, Iranian behavior, resurgent major powers like China
and the prevalence of low-intensity conflict (LIC) will drive U.S. Navy
investments in the region, according to Marshall Billingslea, deputy under
secretary of the Navy.169
Navy Force Structure and Basing Arrangements
Size of the Fleet. Is the Navy planning a fleet with enough ships to address
potential challenges posed by China’s naval modernization while also meeting other
responsibilities?
As of August 8, 2008, the Navy included a total of 280 ships of various kinds.
The Navy is proposing to achieve and maintain in coming years a fleet of 313
ships.170 In assessing the adequacy of the 313-ship proposal, a key potential issue for
Congress is whether it includes enough ships to address potential challenges posed
by China’s naval modernization while also meeting other responsibilities, including
maintaining forward deployments of Navy ships in the Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean
region and conducting less-frequent operations in other parts of the world, such as
the Mediterranean Sea, the Caribbean, the waters around South America, and the
waters off West Africa. If increased numbers of Navy ships are needed to address
potential challenges posed by China’s naval modernization, fewer ships might be
available for meeting other responsibilities.
Some Members of Congress have expressed concern in recent years that the
declining total number of ships in the Navy may make it difficult for the Navy to
perform all if its various missions, at least not without putting undue stress on Navy
personnel and equipment. Navy officials have responded that the proposed 313-ship
Navy would be sufficient to perform the Navy’s various peacetime and wartime
missions.
Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy. Should a greater percentage of the
Navy be assigned to the Pacific Fleet?
The division of the Navy’s ships between the Atlantic and Pacific fleets is a
longstanding question in U.S. Navy planning. Atlantic Fleet ships conduct
operations in the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea,
while Pacific Fleet ships conduct operations in the Pacific Ocean. Ships from both
fleets are used to conduct operations in the Persian Gulf/Indian Ocean area. Atlantic
Fleet ships homeported on the U.S. East Coast that use the Suez Canal have a shorter
transit distance to the Persian Gulf than do Pacific Fleet ships homeported on the
U.S. West Coast.
The final report on the 2005 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) directed the
Navy “to adjust its force posture and basing to provide at least six operationally
169
Bettina H. Chavanne, “Security Environment in Pacific Will Drive Future Navy
Investment,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, September 4, 2004: 1
170
For a detailed discussion, see CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and
Shipbuilding Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-72
available and sustainable carriers and 60% of its submarines in the Pacific to support
engagement, presence and deterrence.”171
As shown in Table 6, the Navy in FY2007 shifted roughly 20 ships from the
Atlantic Fleet to the Pacific Fleet. As a result, the Pacific Fleet’s share of the total
Navy, which had been roughly 45% to 47% in earlier years, was increased in 2007
to about 54%, and the total number of Pacific Fleet ships in 2007 was about equal to
the number in FY1998, even though the total size of the Navy declined by 54 ships
between FY1998 and FY2007.
Table 6. Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy, FY1995-FY2007
FY
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Total
number of
ships in
Navy
373
356
354
333
317
318
315
313
297
291
282
281
279
Atlantic Fleet
Number of
% of Navy
ships
total
205
55.0%
292
53.9%
192
54.2%
183
55.0%
172
54.3%
174
54.7%
174
55.2%
168
53.7%
158
53.2%
153
52.6%
149
52.8%
149
53.0%
128
45.9%
Pacific Fleet
Number of
% of Navy
ships
total
168
45.0%
164
46.1%
162
45.8%
150
45.0%
145
45.7%
144
45.3%
141
44.8%
145
46.3%
139
46.8%
138
47.4%
133
47.2%
132
47.0%
151
54.1%
Source: Prepared by CRS based on U.S. Navy data.
As of the end of FY2007, the Pacific Fleet included, among other things, 6 of
the Navy’s 11 aircraft carriers, almost all of the 18 Aegis cruisers and destroyers that
have been modified for ballistic missile defense (BMD) operations, and 26 of the
Navy’s 57 attack submarines (SSNs), or about 46%. (When both ballistic missile
submarines [SSBNs] and SSNs are included in the count, the totals become 34 of 71
of submarines of all kinds, or about 48%.) The Navy reportedly plans to have 60%
of its SSNs in the Pacific Fleet by 2010.172 As of February 2008, the Pacific Fleet
SSN force included all three of the Navy’s powerful Seawolf (SSN-21) class attack
171
U.S. Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review Report. Washington, 2006.
(February 6, 2006) p. 47.
172
Mike Barber, “Navy’s Fast-Attack Submarine Signals News Mission In Pacific,” Seattle
Post-Intelligencer, February 1, 2008.
CRS-73
submarines (SSNs). The Seawolf design was originally developed in the 1980s in
large part to counter the Soviet Union’s large submarine force.173
In light of the transfer in 2007 of about 20 additional ships to the Pacific Fleet,
a potential oversight question for Congress is whether the Navy’s steps to increase
the Pacific Fleet’s share of the total Navy are inadequate, excessive, or about right.
Forward Homeporting in the Western Pacific. Is the Navy moving
quickly enough to forward-homeport additional ships in the Western Pacific? Should
the Navy expand the number of additional ships it is thinking of homeporting in the
area?
Increasing the number of ships forward homeported in the Western Pacific can
increase both the number of ships that the Navy can maintain forward-deployed to
that area on a day to day basis, and the number that can arrive in the early stages of
a conflict in the Western Pacific, including the Taiwan Strait area. Expanding the
number of ships to be homeported in the Western Pacific could require construction
of additional homeporting and support facilities, particularly in locations such as
Guam. Transferring ships from the U.S. West Coast to the Western Pacific can also
have implications for crew training and ship maintenance for those ships.
A 2002 Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report discussed the option of
homeporting as many as 11 SSNs at Guam,174 compared with the 3 that are currently
homeported there. In April 2007, it was reported that the Navy was considering
transferring a group of three amphibious ships, including a large amphibious assault
ship, from the continental United States to Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.175 In July 2007, it
was reported that the Navy had issued contracts indicating that it intends to transfer
two additional mine-countermeasures ships in 2009 from Ingleside, Texas (a Navy
home port that is scheduled to close in 2010), to Sasebo, Japan, where a group of
Navy amphibious ships and two mine warfare ships are already homeported.176
Number of Aircraft Carriers. How many aircraft carriers should the Navy
include?
The Navy’s proposal for a 313-ship fleet includes 11, and eventually 12, aircraft
carriers. The issue of how many carriers the Navy should operate is discussed at
some length in another CRS report.177 Advocates of maintaining a force of at least
11 carriers could argue that, in light of China’s naval modernization, including the
173
Ibid.
174
U.S. Congressional Budget Office, Increasing the Mission Capability of the Attack
Submarine Force, Washington, CBO, 2002. (A CBO Study, March 2002), 41 pp.
175
William Cole, “Pearl Harbor May Get Navy Ship Group,” NavyTimes.com, April 16,
2007.
176
Christopher J. Castelli, “U.S. Navy Plans To More Two More Minesweepers To Japan
In 2009,” Inside the Navy, July 23, 2007.
177
CRS Report RL32731, Navy Aircraft Carriers: Proposed Retirement of USS John F.
Kennedy — Issues and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-74
introduction of new land-based fighters and strike fighters and the possibility that the
PLA might, as part of a conflict in the Taiwan Strait area, use TBMs, LACMs, or
special operations forces to attack U.S. land bases in the Western Pacific, a force of
at least 11 carriers is needed to deter or prevail in such a conflict. Those supporting
a reduction in the carrier force to fewer than 11 ships could argue that such a
reduction is acceptable in light of the increasing capabilities of individual Navy
carrier air wings, the Navy’s plan to transfer an additional carrier to the Western
Pacific, and options for improving the defenses of U.S. bases in the Western Pacific
against attack from TBMs, LACMs, and special operations forces.
Number of Attack Submarines (SSNs). Should the number of nuclearpowered attack submarines be 48, or some other number?
The Navy’s proposal for a 313-ship fleet includes 48 SSNs (plus four converted
Trident cruise missile submarines, or SSGNs). Supporters of SSNs have argued that
China’s naval modernization, and in particular China’s submarine modernization, is
a significant reason for supporting a force of 48 or more SSNs. The issue of the SSN
force-level goal is discussed at length in another CRS report.178
Although discussions of how U.S. SSNs would fit into U.S. Navy operations
against PLA forces are sometimes cast in terms of U.S. SSNs fighting PLA Navy
submarines, this captures only a part of how U.S. SSNs would fit into such
operations. On the one hand, ASW is conducted by platforms other than SSNs, and
an SSN is not always the best platform for countering an enemy submarine. On the
other hand, SSNs perform a number of potentially significant missions other than
ASW.
Supporters of maintaining 48 or more SSNs in light of China’s naval
modernization could argue that, in addition to participating in operations against PLA
Navy submarines, U.S. SSNs could do the following:
178
!
Conduct pre-crisis covert intelligence, surveillance, and
reconnaissance (ISR) of PLA Navy forces and bases. Such
operations could improve U.S. understanding PLA capabilities and
weaknesses.
!
Covertly lay mines around China’s naval bases. In light of the
PLA Navy’s limited mine countermeasures capabilities, the presence
of mines around PLA Navy bases could significantly delay the
deployment of PLA Navy forces at the outset of a crisis or conflict.
!
Attack or threaten PLA Navy surface ships. In light of the PLA
Navy’s limitations in ASW, a threat from U.S. SSNs could
substantially complicate PLA military planning, particularly for an
intended short-duration conflict.
CRS Report RL32418, Navy Attack Submarine Force-Level Goal and Procurement Rate:
Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-75
!
Fire Tomahawk cruise missiles from unexpected locations.
Tomahawks could be used to attack on PLA command and control
nodes, air bases, and TBM, LACM, ASCM, and SAM launch sites.
!
Covertly insert and recover special operations forces (SOF).
SOF can be used to attack PLA Navy bases or other PLA coastal
facilities.
Supporters of maintaining 48 or more SSNs could also argue that submerged
U.S. SSNs cannot be attacked by conventionally armed TBMs and ASCMs and are
less vulnerable than are U.S. Navy surface ships to EMP effects and to certain other
nuclear weapon effects.
Supporters of maintaining fewer than 48 SSNs could argue that U.S. SSNs,
though very capable for performing certain missions, they are less capable for
performing others. U.S. SSNs, they can argue, cannot shoot down enemy missiles
or aircraft, nor can they act as platforms for operating manned aircraft. U.S. cruisers
and destroyers, they could argue, carry substantial numbers of Tomahawks. In light
of the complementary capabilities of Navy platforms and the need for an array of
U.S. Navy capabilities in operations against PLA forces, they could argue, the need
for SSNs needs to be balanced against the need for aircraft carriers and surface
combatants.
One set of observers stated in 2007 that China’s new nuclear-powered
submarines:
are entering the PLA Navy (PLAN) at a time when reductions are projected to
occur in the U.S. Navy submarine force; that fact was duly noted by a senior
PLAN strategist recently in one of China’s premier naval journals.179
These same observers stated that:
Chinese researchers display intimate familiarity with all U.S. Navy submarine
force programs, including the most cutting-edge platforms, such as Seawolf and
Virginia. Additionally, there is great interest in the ongoing transformation of
some SSBNs into SSGNs. Ample focus is also devoted to the capabilities of the
Los Angeles class as the backbone of the U.S. Navy submarine force. Beyond
platforms and programs, there is also a keen interest in America’s industrial
organization for nuclear submarine production and maintenance.180
These observers also stated that:
Chinese analysts acknowledge that America has long been dominant in
undersea warfare, especially after the Cold War. Many Westerners are therefore
surprised that China would have the temerity to challenge the United States
179
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 55-56.
180
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 61.
CRS-76
directly in this specialized domain of warfare. Yet PLAN analysts keep close tabs
on U.S. Navy submarine building rates and carefully probe for potential
American submarine force vulnerabilities. They have studied the 8 January 2005
accident involving [the Los Angeles-class SSN] USS San Francisco181 with great
interest. A 2006 article by a senior PLAN strategist suggests that “China already
exceeds [U.S. submarine production] five times over” and that eighteen U.S.
Navy submarines based in the Pacific might be at a severe disadvantage against
seventy-five or more Chinese submarines. While these assessments are ultimately
attributed to an American source, the PLAN analyst makes no effort to deny or
reject these assessments.182
These observers elsewhere state that:
Chinese naval analysts study the U.S. submarine force in excruciating detail, as
concretely manifested in thousands of both strategic and technical articles that
focus on it....
Chinese discussions of the American submarine force focus heavily on the
continuing decline in its size. As one article from a People’s Republic of China
(PRC) naval-interest publication states, “The decline of U.S. submarine strength
is inevitable.” Indeed, that a wide variety of Chinese naval sources share this
evaluation suggests that this “decline” now passes for conventional wisdom
within the PLA Navy. The Chinese naval community is likely paying close
attention to internal U.S. debates, knowing that investments made (or forgone)
today in submarine fleet modernization shape the future fleet....
Taking the long view, Chinese naval strategists recognize that force levels
have dropped drastically from Cold War levels. One source observes, “Since
1989, the U.S. Navy’s nuclear-powered attack submarine [force] has been
reduced by half.” A more recent Chinese naval press article estimates that
“[U.S.] nuclear attack submarines will decline in number by close to 40%,
eventually reaching 30 boats.” This calculation is roughly consistent with a
projection in Modern Navy that anticipated a sustained build rate of one boat per
year. Rear Admiral Yang Yi, writing in 2006 on the future size of the American
submarine force, quoted one American analysis as follows: “China already
exceeds [U.S. submarine production] five times over. . . . 18 [USN] submarines
against 75 or more Chinese navy submarines is obviously not encouraging [from
the U.S. perspective].”183
181
The quoted passage is referring at this point to the collision of the San Francisco with an
undersea mountain near Guam — an accident that severely damaged the ship.
182
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 71. The first bracketed
phrase identifying the San Francisco as a Los Angeles-class SSN was inserted by this CRS
report for purposes of explanation; the second bracketed phrase referring to U.S. submarine
production appears in the quoted passage.
183
Gabriel Collins, Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “Chinese
Evaluations of the U.S. Navy Submarine Force,” Naval College War Review, Winter 2008:
70 and 81.
CRS-77
Number of ASW-Capable Ships and Aircraft. Will the Navy have enough
ASW-capable ships over the next several years? Should recently deactivated ASWcapable ships and aircraft be returned to service?
The Navy in recent years has deactivated a substantial number of ASW-capable
ships and aircraft, including Spruance (DD-963) class destroyers, Oliver Hazard
Perry (FFG-7) class frigates, TAGOS-type ocean surveillance ships, carrier-based S-3
airplanes, and land-based P-3 maritime patrol aircraft. Since ASW traditionally has
been a platform-intensive undertaking — meaning that a significant number of
platforms (e.g., ships and aircraft) traditionally has been required to conduct an
effective ASW operation against a small number of enemy submarines, or even a
single submarine — some observers have expressed concern about the resulting
decline in numbers of U.S. Navy ASW-capable platforms.184
As discussed below in the section on ASW, the Navy plans to shift to a new,
less platform-intensive ASW concept of operations. The Navy also plans to
introduce new ASW-capable platforms in coming years, including Littoral Combat
Ships (LCSs). The Navy’s proposal for a 313-ship fleet includes 55 LCSs. Fully
realizing the new ASW concept of operations, however, may take some time,
particularly in light of the technical challenges involved, and LCSs will not be
available in large numbers for several years. This raises a potential question of
whether the Navy will have enough ASW-capable ships over the next several years,
and whether the Navy should reactivate recently retired ASW-capable platforms and
keep them in service until the new ASW concept is substantially implemented and
larger numbers of LCSs and other new ASW-capable platforms join the fleet.
Advocates of this option could argue that the recent retirements of ASWcapable platforms occurred before the dimensions of the PLA Navy submarine
modernization effort were fully understood. Opponents could argue that even with
these recent retirements, the Navy retains a substantial number of such platforms,
including SSNs, Aegis cruisers and destroyers, remaining Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG7) class frigates, carrier- and surface combatant-based SH-60 helicopters, and
remaining P-3s. They could also argue that there are more cost-effective ways to
improve the Navy’s ASW capabilities over the next several years, such as increased
ASW training and exercises (see discussion below).
Fleet Architecture — Larger vs. Smaller Ships. Should the Navy shift
over time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture featuring a reduced reliance
on larger ships and an increased reliance on smaller ships?
Some observers, viewing the anti-access aspects of China’s naval modernization
effort, including ASBMs, ASCMs, and other anti-ship weapons, have raised the
question of whether the U.S. Navy should respond by shifting over time to a more
184
See, for example, John R. Benedict, “The Unraveling And Revitalization Of U.S. Navy
Antisubmarine Warfare,” Naval War College Review, spring 2005, pp. 93-120, particularly
pp. 104-106; and the statement by Lyle J. Goldstein and William Murray in Hearing On
Military Modernization and Cross-Strait Balance, Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic
and Security Review Commission, February 6, 2004, pp. 149-150.
CRS-78
highly distributed fleet architecture featuring a reduced reliance on carriers and other
large ships and an increased reliance on smaller ships.185
The question of whether the U.S. Navy concentrates too much of its combat
capability in a relatively small number of high-value units, and whether it should
shift over time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture, has been debated at
various times over the years, in various contexts. Much of the discussion concerns
whether the Navy should start procuring smaller aircraft carriers as complements or
replacements for its current large aircraft carriers.
Supporters of shifting to a more highly distributed fleet architecture argue that
that the Navy’s current architecture, including its force of 11 or 12 large aircraft
carriers, in effect puts too many of the Navy’s combat-capability eggs into a
relatively small number of baskets on which an adversary can concentrate its
surveillance and targeting systems and its anti-ship weapons. They argue that
although a large Navy aircraft carrier can absorb hits from multiple conventional
weapons without sinking, a smaller number of enemy weapons might cause damage
sufficient to stop the carrier’s aviation operations, thus eliminating the ship’s primary
combat capability and providing the attacker with what is known as a “mission kill.”
A more highly distributed fleet architecture, they argue, would make it more difficult
for China to target the Navy and reduce the possibility of the Navy experiencing a
significant reduction in combat capability due to the loss in battle of a relatively
small number of high-value units.
Opponents of shifting to a more highly distributed fleet architecture argue that
large carriers and other large ships are not only more capable, but proportionately
more capable, than smaller ships, that larger ships are capable of fielding highly
capable systems for defending themselves, and that they are much better able than
smaller ships to withstand the effects of enemy weapons, due to their larger size,
extensive armoring and interior compartmentalization, and extensive damage-control
systems. A more highly distributed fleet architecture, they argue, would be less
capable or more expensive than today’s fleet architecture. Opponents of shifting to
a more highly distributed fleet architecture argue could also argue that the Navy has
already taken an important (but not excessive) step toward fielding a more distributed
fleet architecture through its plan to acquire 55 Littoral Combat Ships (LCSs), which
are small, fast surface combatants with modular, “plug-and-flight” mission
payloads.186
The issue of Navy fleet architecture, including the question of whether the Navy
should shift over time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture, was examined
in a report by DOD’s Office of Force Transformation (OFT) that was submitted to
Congress in 2005. OFT’s report, along with two other reports on Navy fleet
185
See, for example, Rebekah Gordon, “Highes: Smaller Ships With Narrow Mission Should
Be Fleet’s Future,” Inside the Navy, September 22, 2008.
186
For more on the LCS, see CRS Report RL33741, Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS)
Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-79
architecture that were submitted to Congress in 2005, are discussed at length in
another CRS report.187
Navy Warfare Areas and Programs
Destroyer Procurement. Should the Navy in coming years procure
additional Zumwalt (DDG-1000) class destroyers or Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) class
destroyers?
At a July 31, 2008, hearing before the Seapower and Expeditionary Forces
subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee, Navy officials announced
a major change in the service’s position on what kind of destroyers it wants to
procure over the next several years: The Navy officials testified that the service no
longer wants to procure additional Zumwalt (DDG-1000) class destroyers, and
instead now wants to restart procurement of Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) destroyers.
Navy officials testified that the service’s change in position on destroyer
procurement was due primarily to a change over the last two years in its assessment
of the kinds of threats that U.S. naval forces will face in coming years. The Navy’s
testimony on this issue contained multiple references to ballistic missiles, ASCMs,
and non-nuclear-powered submarines operating in blue (i.e., mid-ocean) waters. In
discussing their new preference for procuring DDG-51s rather than DDG-1000s,
Navy officials testified that the DDG-51 is better suited than the DDG-1000 for
BMD, area-defense AAW, and blue-water ASW operations. The issue of whether
to procure DDG-1000s or DDG-51s in coming years is discussed at length in another
CRS report.188
Missile Defense.189 Countering large numbers of TBMs, including ASBMs
equipped with MaRVs capable of hitting moving ships at sea, could entail some or
all of the following:
!
operating, if possible, in a way that reduces the likelihood of being
detected and tracked by PLA maritime surveillance systems;
!
attacking the surveillance systems that detect and track U.S. Navy
ships operating at sea, and the network that transmits this targeting
data to the TBMs;
!
attacking TBMs at their launch sites;
187
See CRS Report RL33955, Navy Force Structure: Alternative Force Structure Studies
of 2005 — Background for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke. The functions carried out by
OFT have since been redistributed to other DOD offices.
188
For a discussion, see CRS Report RL32109, Navy DDG-1000 and DDG-51 Destroyer
Programs: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
189
For more on sea-based defense, including the first two issues discussed in this section,
see CRS Report RL33745, Sea-Based Ballistic Missile Defense — Background and Issues
for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-80
!
decoying MaRVs away from U.S. Navy ships; and
!
intercepting TBMs in flight, which in some cases could require
firing two or perhaps even three interceptor missiles at individual
TBMs to ensure their destruction.
In addition to the issues discussed below, see also the earlier discussion, in the
section on Navy force structure and basing arrangements, on the type of destroyer to
procure in coming years.
Number of BMD-capable Aegis Ships. Should the planned number of
BMD-capable Aegis cruisers and destroyers be increased?
The Navy has a total of 84 Aegis ships (22 CG-47 class cruisers and 62 DDG-51
class destroyers) either in service or under construction. The current program of
record for sea-based BMD systems calls for 18 of those 84 ships (3 Aegis cruisers
and 15 Aegis destroyers) to be equipped for BMD operations. In light of
developments in China’s TBM force (including its ASBM development effort) as
well as developments in other countries that could affect demand for BMD-capable
Aegis ships, one potential question is whether planned number of Aegis ships
equipped for BMD operations should be increased from 18 to some higher number.
A July 2008 press report stated:
The U.S. Navy may eventually need as many as 90 Aegis Ballistic Missile
Defense ships — far more than the 18 planned by the end of this year —
especially if worldwide missile defense requirements help drive shipbuilding
needs, a key three-star admiral said July 30.
Vice Adm. Barry McCullough, deputy chief of naval operations for
integration of capabilities and resources, said combatant commanders
(COCOMS) in areas like Europe and the Pacific would need far more Aegis
BMD ships to meet continuous coverage needs. Officials in those locations,
which watch Iran and North Korea among other countries, increasingly eye the
naval system’s regional missile defense capabilities.
“The combatant commanders, the fleet commanders, want more of it; they
want it all the time,” McCullough told a National Defense University Foundation
breakfast audience. “That will drive our force structure requirements even
higher.”190
190
Michael Bruno, “Navy Acquisition Officer Sees Need For Bigger Aegis BMD Fleet,”
Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, July 31, 2008. See also Dave Ahearn, “More
Destroyers, Cruisers, Must Be Converted To Advanced Aegis BMD, Admiral Says,”
Defense Daily, July 31, 2008.
CRS-81
In August 2008, it was reported that the Navy has decided to expand the scope
of the Aegis destroyer modernization program to include the installation of a BMD
capability, so that every DDG-51 would eventually have a BMD capability.191
Number of SM-3 Missiles Planned For Procurement. Is the number of
SM-3 interceptors that DOD plans to procure sufficient?
The Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) is the Navy’s ballistic missile defense
interceptor. DOD is currently planning to procure a total of 147 SM-3s, of which 133
are to be deployed on Aegis ships. (The other 14 apparently are to be used for testing
or research.)192 One potential oversight issue for Congress is whether this planned
total is sufficient in light of potential numbers of Chinese TBMs to be countered.
A June 20, 2008, briefing by the Missile Defense Agency (MDA) on BMD
programs indicates that MDA anticipates increasing the planned number of SM-3
Block 1A and 1B interceptors to be deployed on Aegis ships from 133 to 249, and
having all 249 interceptors deployed by 2016.193 This apparent forthcoming increase
in the planned total number of SM-3 Block 1A and 1B interceptors follows
congressional report language and press reports on the issue of planned SM-3
inventory levels that are summarized below.
The House Armed Services Committee, in its report (H.Rept. 110-146 of May
11, 2007) on the FY2008 defense authorization bill (H.R. 1585), stated that:
the recent Capabilities Mix Study completed by U.S. Strategic Command has
indicated that combatant commanders require twice as many SM-3 interceptors
than the 147 that are currently planned.194
The Senate Armed Services Committee, in its report (S.Rept. 110-77 of June 5,
2007) on the FY2008 defense authorization bill (S. 1547), stated:
191
Otto Kreisher, “BMD Boost,” Seapower, August 2008: 12-14. For more on the Aegis
destroyer modernization program, see CRS Report RS22595, Navy Aegis Cruiser and
Destroyer Modernization: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
192
Of the 133 SM-3 Block 1A and IB interceptors to be deployed on Aegis ships, 34 are to
be deployed by the end of calendar 2008, and all 133 are to be deployed by 2013. Source:
Slides 7, 12, and 14 in the 20-slide briefing entitled “Ballistic Missile Defense Program
Overview For The Congressional Breakfast Seminar Series,” dated June 20, 2008, presented
by Lieutenant General Trey Obering, USAF, Director, Missile Defense Agency. Source for
briefing: InsideDefense.com (subscription required). Each slide in the briefing includes a
note indicating that it was approved by MDA for public release on June 13, 2008.
193
Source: Slide 14 in the 20-slide briefing entitled “Ballistic Missile Defense Program
Overview For The Congressional Breakfast Seminar Series,” dated June 20, 2008, presented
by Lieutenant General Trey Obering, USAF, Director, Missile Defense Agency. Source for
briefing: InsideDefense.com (subscription required). Each slide in the briefing includes a
note indicating that it was approved by MDA for public release on June 13, 2008. See also
Emelie Rutherford, “Obering: MDA Seeking Efficiencies To Fit Significant SM-3, THAAD
Boost In POM ‘10 Request,” Defense Daily, June 24, 2008.
194
H.Rept. 110-146, p. 235.
CRS-82
Currently MDA plans to procure only some 147 SM-3 missiles of all Block I
varieties. The Commander, Joint Forces Component Command for Integrated
Missile Defense (JFCC-IMD) testified in April 2007 that recent analyses indicate
a need to nearly double the number of planned SM-3 interceptors. The committee
urges MDA to plan and budget for increased numbers of SM-3 interceptors to
meet the needs of regional combatant commanders, as indicated by the
Commander, JFCC-IMD.195
A May 2007 press report stated that:
A preliminary DOD study points to the need for more Standard Missile-3
(SM-3) sea-based missile defense interceptors and Terminal High-Altitude Area
Defense (THAAD) interceptors, according to Lt. Gen. Kevin Campbell,
commander of U.S. Army Space and Missile Defense Command (SMDC).
The study examined various major combat operations around the world,
estimating the percentages of enemy missiles that would be taken out by
conventional forces or felled by system failures. The current SM-3/THAAD
interceptor inventory then was compared to a list of critical assets identified by
DOD combatant commanders that need to be defended.
Near-term U.S. missile defense capabilities are “limited” primarily by
interceptor inventory, Campbell said at a May 16 breakfast in Washington
sponsored by National Defense University. In addition to SM-3s and THAAD
interceptors, DOD also needs more Patriot battalions and ground-based
interceptors, according to Campbell.196
In late November 2007, Rear Admiral Alan Hicks, Aegis BMD program
director, reportedly stated that
that even with 132 Standard Missiles (SMs) expected in the inventory by 2013,
there should be more to meet potential global requirements.
“We need more than that,” he said Nov. 28. “Inventory is inadequate to
meet our needs.” ...
But the admiral acknowledged that Aegis SM inventory also must be
weighed against Theater High Altitude Area Defense and Patriot Advanced
Capability missile inventories.197
Another press report based on the same speech by Hicks stated that
Hicks observed that the military will have 153 short- and mid-term missile
interceptors in the inventory by the end of 2009, but added that he believes the
195
S.Rept. 110-77, p. 264.
196
Jefferson Morris, “Study Points To Need For More SM-3s, THAAD Interceptors,”
Aerospace Daily & Defense Report,” May 17, 2007: 3.
197
Michael Bruno, “Aegis BMD Program Chief Calls for More Missiles,” Aerospace Daily
& Defense Report, November 29, 2007: 1-2.
CRS-83
Navy needs to expand the program beyond current plans. “Is it enough? No,”
Hicks said. Inventory’s inadequate to meet our needs.198
An April 2008 press report stated that:
Two senior Pentagon officials said they are working to bolster ballistic
missile defense fielding in the near term, an effort that could double the number
of planned Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense and Terminal High Altitude Area
Defense (THAAD) assets in the coming years.
Missile Defense Agency Director Air Force Lt. Gen. Trey Obering told
reporters yesterday he wants the number of Aegis and THAAD interceptors to
be increased during Pentagon discussions on Program Objective Memorandum
10 (POM ‘10).199
He said plans now spelled out in the five-year future years defense plan
running until fiscal year 2013 call for approximately 133 Standard Missile-3s
(SM-3s) that are part of the Aegis system, and 96 THAADs. He said he would
like to see those numbers “roughly” double starting with the FY ‘10 budget and
going until the “‘15, ‘16 timeframe.”
“If you take a look at what’s in our budget today and you look over the
FYDP, and double that, you come close,” to the number of Aegis and THAAD
interceptors he would like, Obering said.
Specifically, he said he would like to roughly double the current production
rate.
“How much that equates to across the FYDP depends on how much money
the [Defense] Department allocates to them,” he said. “But if they allocate the
money that we would recommend to do this, it would roughly double the number
of missiles across the FYDP.”
Such an increase would not double the amount of needed money, he said,
because economies of scale and running of production lines would control costs.
Pentagon acquisition executive John Young submitted written testimony to
the House Armed Services strategic forces subcommittee yesterday talking about
this desire to field additional ballistic missile defense assets in the near-terms.
“System elements like Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense and the Terminal
High Altitude Area Defense could provide our Combatant Commanders as well
as our friends and allies a significant defensive capability in just a few years,”
Young wrote. “I am working with General Obering to achieve this goal through
the [Defense] Department’s programming and budgeting process.”...
198
Megan Scully, “FY08 Funding Boost To Help Navy Deploy Missile Defenses,” National
Journal’s CongressDailyPM, November 28, 2007.
199
The Program Objective Memorandum is an internal DOD memorandum that provides
guidance for the preparation of the defense budget for a future fiscal year. POM 10 is the
POM for preparing the FY2010 defense budget.
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Obering told reporters that the warfighters — Joint Staff and U.S. Strategic
Command — actually make decisions on the matter, and that MDA generally
doesn’t make force-structure decisions.
“That’s up to the warfighters,” he said. “So they came in and they said this
is the force structure we believe we need, looking at the scenarios that they may
be faced with, that’s what they’re doing.”
As to where the extra money would come from for the additional ballistic
missile defense interceptors, Obering said that would be hashed out during the
POM ‘10 process.
“Whether we take it out of our portfolio, whether it is a combination of
service money or our money, that’s what we have to go through this budget
process and we’ll come up with our POM ‘10 number,” he said.200
Another press report carrying the same date made similar points and stated that:
“The 2007 Joint Capabilities Mix Study II, recently approved by DOD’s Joint
Requirements Oversight Council, concluded that combatant commanders required
at least twice as many SM-3 and THAAD interceptors as currently planned.”201
Sea-Based Terminal Defense Program. Is the Missile Defense Agency’s
sea-based terminal missile defense program sufficiently robust?
In December 2001, DOD announced that it had canceled the Navy Area Defense
(NAD) program, the program that was being pursued as the Sea-Based Terminal
portion of the Administration’s overall missile-defense effort. (The NAD program
was also sometimes called the Navy Lower Tier program.) In announcing its
decision, DOD cited poor performance, significant cost overruns, and substantial
development delays.
The NAD system was to have been deployed on Navy Aegis cruisers and
destroyers. It was designed to intercept short- and medium-range theater ballistic
missiles in the final, or descent, phase of flight, so as to provide local-area defense
of U.S. ships and friendly forces, ports, airfields, and other critical assets ashore. The
program involved modifying both the Aegis ships’ radar capabilities and the Standard
SM-2 Block IV air-defense missile fired by Aegis ships. The missile, as modified,
was called the Block IVA version. The system was designed to intercept descending
missiles within the Earth’s atmosphere (endoatmospheric intercept) and destroy them
with the Block IVA missile’s blast-fragmentation warhead.
As the successor to the NAD program, MDA has initiated a new the sea-based
terminal-defense acquisition effort that it into two blocks — the Block 2.0 version,
and a far-term sea-based terminal capability that MDA places beyond Block 5.0.
200
Emelie Rutherford, “Pentagon Officials Eye Increasing Near-Term Ballistic Missile
Defense Assets In POM ‘10,” Defense Daily, April 18, 2008.
201
Michael Bruno, “MDA Looks to Double Aegis, THAAD Interceptor Production,”
Aerospace Daily & Defence Report, April 18, 2008: 1-2.
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The Block 2.0 sea-based terminal capability includes a fuze-modified SM-2
Block IV interceptor with a blast-fragmentation warhead. The missile is intended to
be capable of intercepting a finite set of SRBMs inside the atmosphere. The Navy
(not MDA) is funding the modification of up to 100 SM-2 Block IV missiles into this
configuration. The Block 2.0 capability is scheduled to enter service in FY2009.
The far-term sea-based terminal capability is envisioned as including a new type
of missile, the design of which is not yet determined, that is to provide a more
capable sea-based terminal capability. Under current plans, the far-term sea-based
terminal capability might enter service around 2015.202 Potential candidates for the
far-term sea-based terminal interceptor include a modified version of the Army’s
Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3) interceptor called the PAC-3 Missile
Segment Enhancement (MSE), or a modified version of the SM-6 Extended Range
Active Missile (SM-6 ERAM) air defense missile being developed by the Navy.203
In light of PLA TBM modernization efforts, including the possibility of TBMs
equipped with MaRVs capable of hitting moving ships at sea, one potential issue is
whether MDA’s sea-based terminal program is sufficiently robust in terms of
schedule and annual funding levels.
Accelerating CG(X) Procurement.204 Should planned procurement of the
CG(X) cruiser be accelerated?
The Navy is planning to procure a new kind of cruiser called the CG(X) as the
replacement for its 22 remaining Ticonderoga (CG-47) class Aegis cruisers. Navy
plans call for the CG(X) to be equipped with a new radar that, compared to the Aegis
system’s SPY-1 radar, is more powerful and thus more capable for supporting
ballistic missile defense operations.
As part of its FY2006-FY2011 Future Years Defense Plan (FYDP) submitted
to Congress in February 2005, the Navy accelerated the planned start of CG(X)
procurement from FY2018 to FY2011. More recently, it has been reported that the
Navy now plans to defer procurement of the first CG(X) to about FY2017.205
202
Dan Taylor, “Navy Still Interested in Second MKV, MDA Will Talk to Congress,” Inside
the Navy, December 3, 2007.
203
See, for example, Bettina H. Chavanne, “Aegis Ships To Get Protection From Ballistic
Missile Threats,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, March 20, 2008: 2; Jason Ma and
Christopher J. Castelli, “Adaptation Of PAC-3 For Sea-Based Terminal Missile Defense
Examined,” Inside the Navy, July 19, 2004; Malina Brown, “Navy Rebuilding Case For
Terminal Missile Defense Requirement,” Inside the Navy, April 19, 2004.
204
For more on this issue, see CRS Report RL34179, Navy CG(X) Cruiser Program:
Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
205
One press report (Katherine McIntire Peters, “Navy’s Top Officer Sees Lessons in
Shipbuilding Program Failures,” GovernmentExecutive.com, September 24, 2008) quotes
Admiral Gary Roughead, the Chief of Naval Operations, as saying: “What we will be able
to do is take the technology from the DDG-1000, the capability and capacity that [will be
achieved] as we build more DDG-51s, and [bring those] together around 2017 in a
replacement ship for our cruisers.” (Material in brackets in the press report.) Another press
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In light of PLA TBM modernization efforts, including the possibility of ASBMs
equipped with MaRVs capable of hitting moving ships at sea, one issue is whether
it would be feasible to accelerate planned CG(X) procurement. Given the time
needed to design the CG(X) and to develop key technologies to be incorporated into
the ship (such as the ship’s radar or its power plant), it might not be possible to
accelerate the procurement date of the first CG(X). Once CG(X) procurement were
to begin, however, it might be possible to accelerate the procurement dates of later
ships in the program, so as to get more of the ships in service sooner. In light of the
CG(X)’s potential procurement cost, accelerating procurement of CG(X)s to earlier
years would, in a situation of a constrained Navy budget, leave less funding available
in those years for meeting other Navy needs.
Air Warfare.
Carrier-Based Unmanned Combat Air System (UCAS). Should
development of the Navy’s carrier-based unmanned combat air system (UCAS) be
accelerated? Should the Navy increase the number of UCASs that it plans to deploy
on its carrier air wings?
The Navy is currently developing a stealthy, long-range, unmanned combat air
system (UCAS) for use in the Navy’s carrier air wings. The prototype for the aircraft
looks somewhat like a small version of the B-2 bomber. The aircraft potentially
could be used for intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) operations, airto-air warfare, air-to-ground warfare, and perhaps even antisubmarine warfare. The
demonstration program for the system is called UCAS-D. The subsequent
production version of the aircraft is called N-UCAS, with the N standing for Navy.
Some observers, including analysts at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary
Assessments (CSBA), believe that N-UCAS would be highly useful, if not critical,
for countering improved Chinese maritime military forces. N-UCASs, they argue,
could be launched from a carrier shortly after the ship leaves port in Hawaii, be
refueled in flight, and arrive in the Taiwan Strait area in a matter of hours, permitting
the carrier air wing to contribute to U.S. operations there days before the carrier itself
would arrive. They also argue that N-UCASs would permit Navy carriers to operate
effectively while remaining outside the reach of China’s anti-access weapons,
including ASBMs. These observers argue that funding for UCAS-D should be
increased, so as to accelerate the completion of the demonstration program, and that
report (Zachary M. Peterson, “Part One of Overdue CG(X) AOA Sent to OSD, Second Part
Coming Soon,” Inside the Navy, September 29, 2008) quotes Vice Admiral Barry
McCullough, the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Integration of Capabilities and
Resources, as saying that the Navy did not budget for a CG(X) hull in its proposal for the
Navy’s budget under the FY2010-FY2015 Future Years Defense Plan (FYDP) to be
submitted to Congress in early 2009. An earlier report (Christopher P. Cavas, “DDG 1000
Destroyer Program Facing Major Cuts,” DefenseNews.com, July 14, 2008) stated that the
CG(X) would be delayed until FY2015 or later.
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the Navy should expand the number of N-UCASs that it plans to put on its carrier air
wings.206
Mix of F/A-18E/Fs and F-35 Joint Strike Fighters (JSFs). Should the
Navy’s planned mix of carrier-based F/A-18E/F strike fighters and F-35 Joint Strike
Fighters (JSFs) be changed to include more JSFs and fewer F/A-18E/Fs?
The Department of the Navy, which includes the Navy and the Marine Corps,
plans to procure a mix of F/A-18E/F Super Hornet strike fighters and F-35 Joint
Strike Fighters (JSFs). The F/A-18E/Fs would be operated by the Navy, and the JSFs
would be operated by both services. Marine Corps JSFs could be operated from
Navy carriers to perform Navy missions. The F/A-18E/F incorporates a few stealth
features and is believed to be very capable in air-to-air combat. Compared to the
F/A-18E/F, the JSF is much more stealthy and is believed to be more capable in airto-air combat.
The growing number of fourth-generation fighters and strike-fighters in the PLA
Air Force and the PLA Naval Air Force, and the growing number of modern PLA
SAM systems, raises a potential question of whether the Navy should change its
planned mix of carrier-based strike fighters to include more Navy JSFs and fewer
F/A-18E/Fs. Such a change would produce a force with a better ability to avoid PLA
SAM systems and more total air-to-air combat capability than the currently planned
force.
The Department of the Navy’s planned mix of F/A-18E/Fs and JSFs can be
compared to the Air Force’s strike fighter procurement plans. The Air Force plans
to replace its current force of F-15 and F-16 fighters with a mix of F-22 Raptor strike
fighters and JSFs. The F-22 is more stealthy and capable in air-to-air combat than
the JSF. The Navy does not have an equivalent to the F-22. The Air Force argues
that a mix of F-22s and JSFs will be needed in the future in part to counter fourthgeneration fighters and strike fighters operated by other countries, including China.
Supporters of the F-22 argue that the challenge posed by fourth-generation fighters
in combination with modern integrated air defenses, is a key reason for procuring 381
or more F-22s, rather than the planed number of 179.207 Potential oversight questions
include the following:
206
Thomas P. Ehrhard and Robert O. Work, The Unmanned Combat Air System Carrier
Demonstration Program: A New Dawn For Naval Aviation?, Center for Strategic and
Budgetary Assessments, Washington, 2007. 39 pp. (CSBA Backgrounder, May 10, 2007).
The authors briefed key points from this document on July 11, 2007, in room S-211 of the
Capitol. Another observer states that China’s deployment of ASBM’s and supporting
surveillance and targeting systems “argues for a stealth long-range attack aircraft as part of
the [carrier] airwing to provide more flexibility on how we employ our carriers.” (James
Lyons, “China’s One World?” Washington Times, August 24, 2008: B1
207
For more on the F-22, JSF, and F/A-18E/F, see CRS Report RL33543, Tactical Aircraft
Modernization: Issues for Congress; CRS Report RL31673, F-22A Raptor; CRS Report
RL30563, F-35 Lightning II Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) Program: Background, Status, and
Issues; and CRS Report RL30624, Navy F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and EA-18G Growler
Aircraft: Background and Issues for Congress, all by Christopher Bolkcom.
CRS-88
!
If the Air Force is correct in its belief that a combination of F-22s
and JSFs will be needed in part to counter fourth-generation fighters
and modern SAM systems operated by other countries, including
China, would the Department of the Navy’s planned mix of JSFs and
F/A-18E/Fs be sufficient to counter a PLA force that includes
includes fourth-generation fighters and strike fighters and modern
SAMs?
!
If PLA attacks on U.S. air bases in the Western Pacific reduce the
number of Air Force F-22s and JSFs that can participate in a conflict
in the Taiwan Strait area, would the Department of the Navy’s
planned mix of F/A-18E/Fs and JSFs have sufficient air-to-air
combat capability to counter the PLA’s force of fighters and strike
fighters?208
A January 30, 2008 defenses trade press article stated:
Boeing is touting an even newer version of its F/A-18E/F Super Hornet
that, paired with an advanced sixth-generation fighter in the works at the
company, would give customers what Boeing deems a better package of
capabilities than Lockheed Martin’s combination of the F-22 Raptor and F-35
Joint Strike Fighter.
The idea is that customers could buy 4.5 generation Super Hornets (perhaps
4.75 generation with the planned extra forward stealth and extra range of Block
3 aircraft) and then switch to a new, sixth generation faster than if they bought
the fifth generation Joint Strike Fighter. To be available circa 2024, the sixth
generation aircraft would feature a combat radius of more than 1,000 miles and
stealth against a much wider spectrum of radars.
“The [Navy] C-version of the F-35 doesn’t buy you a lot that the Super
Hornet doesn’t provide,” says Bob Gower, Boeing’s vice president for F/A-18
and EA-18G programs. “Our strategy is to create a compelling reason for the
services to go to the next [sixth] generation platform. How do you bridge
F/A-18E/F to get us there? We want to convince customers to stay with [Super
Hornet] a few years longer — by adding advanced capabilities and lowering
price — so that they can get to the sixth generation faster. If you go to JSF first,
it’s going to be a long time.”
Another part of Boeing’s argument is that the “Navy is comfortable with
the Super Hornet against the highest [enemy] threat through 2024, with the
[improved] capabilities we have in the flight plan,” Gower says. “The ability to
208
An article by an Air Force officer raises a related issue — whether Air Force aircraft
have sufficient capability for attacking targets at sea to adequately assist Navy aircraft in
countering Chinese naval forces operating in the Strait of Mallaca area as part of a “string
of pearls” strategy. See Lawrence Spinetta, “Cutting China’s ‘Sting of Pearls,’” U.S. Naval
Institute Proceedings, October 2006: 40-42. As mentioned in a previous footnote, another
observer states that China’s deployment of ASBM’s and supporting surveillance and
targeting systems “argues for a stealth long-range attack aircraft as part of the [carrier]
airwing to provide more flexibility on how we employ our carriers.” (James Lyons,
“China’s One World?” Washington Times, August 24, 2008: B1
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counter the threat gets you to about the point that [Boeing’s] sixth generation is
available.”
It’s part of Boeing’s counterattack on Lockheed Martin’s claim that the
decreasing price of the F-22, which is now at $140 million each, will make it so
attractive that Australia may reconsider its buy — already being paid for — of
24 two-seat F/A-18F Super Hornets. Until Australia’s recent change in
government, a number of U.S. officials said the government was considering a
second lot of 24 Super Hornets and a six-plane squadron of EA-18G Growlers.
Boeing makes the argument that a sliding in-service date for the JSF is
worrying both the Australians and the U.S. military.
“The U.S. Air Force and Navy are now talking a lot more about where they
need to go with sixth generation to get beyond JSF,” Gower says. “It could be
unmanned, but I think you will see a combination of missions — some manned,
some unmanned.”
For Boeing, the real discriminators are going to be extended range
(1,000-1,500 miles), a small radar signature against low-frequency radars,
expanded awareness through connections with the network, and the ability to
carry a number of bombs internally.209
An August 2008 RAND study raises a number of questions about the ability of
U.S tactical aircraft, including aircraft as sophisticated as the Air Force’s new F-22
fighter, to successfully counter larger numbers of Chinese aircraft in a scenario
centered on the Taiwan Strait.210 An October 2008 press report about the study
states:
A new RAND study suggests U.S. air power in the Pacific would be
inadequate to thwart a Chinese attack on Taiwan in 2020. The study, entitled
“Air Combat Past, Present and Future,” by John Stillion and Scott Perdue, says
China’s anti-access arms and strategy could deny the U.S. the “ability to operate
efficiently from nearby bases or seas.”
According to the study, U.S. aircraft carriers and air bases would be
threatened by Chinese development of anti-ship ballistic missiles, the fielding of
diesel and nuclear submarines equipped with torpedoes and SS-N-22 and
SS-N-27 anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs), fighters and bombers carrying
ASCMs and HARMs, and new ballistic missiles and cruise missiles.
The report states that 34 missiles with submunition warheads could cover
all parking ramps at Kadena Air Force Base, Okinawa.
209
David A. Fulghum, “Boeing Plans Sixth Generation Fighter Along With Block 3 Super
Hornet,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, January 30, 2008: 1-2.
210
John Stillion and Scott Perdue, slide briefing entitled, “Air Combat Past, Present and
Future,” RAND, August 2008, accessed online November 19, 2008 at:
[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/files/2008_RAND_Pacific_View_Air_Combat_B
riefing.pdf]
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An “attack like this could damage, destroy or strand 75 percent of aircraft
based at Kadena,” it says.
In contrast, many Chinese air bases are harder than Kadena, with some
“super-hard underground hangers.”
To make matters worse, Kadena is the only U.S. air base within 500
nautical miles of the Taiwan Strait, whereas China has 27.
U.S. air bases in South Korea are more than 750 miles distant, and those in
Japan are more than 885 miles away. Anderson Air Force Base, Guam, is 1,500
miles away. The result is that sortie rates will be low, with a “huge tanker
demand.”
The authors suggest China’s CETC Y-27 radar, which is similar to Russia’s
Nebo SVU VHF Digital AESA, could counter U.S. stealth fighter technology.
China is likely to outfit its fighters with improved radars and by “2020 even very
stealthy targets likely [would be] detectable by Flanker radars at 25+ nm.” China
is also likely to procure the new Su-35BM fighter by 2020, which will challenge
the F-35 and possibly the F-22.
The authors also question the reliability of U.S. beyond-visual-range
weapons, such as the AIM-120 AMRAAM. U.S. fighters have recorded only 10
AIM-120 kills, none against targets equipped with the kinds of countermeasures
carried by Chinese Su-27s and Su-30s. Of the 10, six were beyond-visual-range
kills, and it required 13 missiles to get them.
If a conflict breaks out between China and the U.S. over Taiwan, the
authors say it is difficult to “predict who will have had the last move in the
measure-countermeasure game.”
Overall, the authors say, “China could enjoy a 3:1 edge in fighters if we can
fly from Kadena — about 10:1 if forced to operate from Andersen. Overcoming
these odds requires qualitative superiority of 9:1 or 100:1” — a differential that
is “extremely difficult to achieve” against a like power.
If beyond-visual-range missiles work, stealth technology is not countered
and air bases are not destroyed, U.S. forces have a chance, but “history suggests
there is a limit of about 3:1 where quality can no longer compensate for superior
enemy numbers.”
A 24-aircraft Su-27/30 regiment can carry around 300 air-to-air missiles
(AAMs), whereas 24 F-22s can carry only 192 AAMs and 24 F-35s only 96
AAMs.
Though current numbers assume the F-22 could shoot down 48 Chinese
Flankers when “outnumbered 12:1 without loss,” these numbers do not take into
account a less-than-perfect U.S. beyond-visual-range performance, partial or
complete destruction of U.S. air bases and aircraft carriers, possible deployment
of a new Chinese stealth fighter around 2020 or 2025, and the possible use of
Chinese “robo-fighters” to deplete U.S. “fighters’ missile loadout prior to mass
attack.”
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The authors write that Chinese counter stealth, anti-access, countermissile
technologies are proliferating and the U.S. military needs “a plan that accounts
for this.”211
A separate October 2008 press report on a U.S. wargame states that:
In a war-game run by Pacific Air Forces here, aviators concluded that U.S.
airpower would be sufficient to defeat a “near-peer competitor” in the
Asia-Pacific region over the next seven years — provided a strategy of dispersal
was adopted and certain investments are made.
For the “near-peer competitor” in the war-game called “Pacific Vision,”
read China. Air Force officers cautioned, however, that an adversary could also
be a resurgent Russia. In any case, the war game was intended not only to test
strategic plans but to deter China and Russia from miscalculating U.S. power and
intentions, a priority for U.S. commanders in this region....
In contrast to Pacific Air Forces’ upbeat assessment, the publication
Defense News reported this week that a study by RAND, the research
organization in California, suggested that “U.S. airpower in the Pacific would be
inadequate to thwart a Chinese attack on Taiwan in 2020.”...
Among the conclusions drawn from the weeklong Pacific Vision were:
Dispersal. Before hostilities begin, U.S. fighters, bombers, and aerial
tankers should be dispersed to bases along an arc anchored in Alaska and
wending south through Japan and South Korea, the U.S. territory in Guam, and
on to Southeast Asia and Australia. Said one officer: “This would complicate
targeting for an adversary.”
Access. Starting now, the U.S. should intensify efforts to cultivate nations
along that arc, including treaty allies such as Japan and South Korea, to assure
access to bases within their borders and the freedom to operate from them in the
event of hostilities.
Hardening. Aircraft hangars, command posts, electrical plants, ammunition
depots and supply warehouses should be hardened to withstand attack,
particularly from missiles rapidly being acquired or developed by China.
Repair. Crews and equipment to repair damaged bases should be trained
and positioned so they can move quickly to bases where they are needed. Airfield
runways, for instance, would need to be repaired within hours of suffering
damage.
Tankers. The aging of the Air Force’s tankers has been documented.
Because of long distances in the Pacific, more tankers would be needed to defend
this region than were needed in Europe to deter the Soviet Union during the Cold
War.
211
Wendell Minnick, “Rand Study Suggests U.S. Loses War With China,”
DefenseNews.com, October 16, 2008. Material in brackets as in the original.
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Stealth. Pacific Vision validated the advantages of stealth technology that
permits B-2 bombers and F-22 fighters to evade radar detection. “We are sure
that we can shoot them before they can see us,” said a staff officer.
Communications. The war game underscored the vulnerability of
communications because the Air Force relies on unprotected commercial
channels. Moreover, China knocked down an inactive satellite in 2007 with an
anti-satellite missile.
Integration. The U.S. Navy’s aircraft carriers and submarines armed with cruise
missiles would need to be dispersed, just like land-based aircraft. The Navy was
represented in the war game but Air Force officers said more work was needed
to fully integrate war plans.
Intelligence. Pacific Vision confirmed the need for Global Hawk, the large
unmanned reconnaissance plane that can fly a long way, covering 40,000 square
miles a day in all weather. The first of three Global Hawks is due to be stationed
on Guam next year.
Cyber warfare. Players in the war game discovered that the U.S. has lagged
in cyber warfare, which includes all manner of electronic operations, from
jamming enemy radar to attacking computer networks as well as protecting U.S.
radar and computers. China has emphasized cyber operations.
Control. The Air Operations Center in the 13th Air Force, which is next
door to and part of Pacific Air Forces, has been up and running for two years.
Pacific Air Forces and 13th Air Force fight the aerial war in Asia and the Pacific
through this center, which still needs to improve controls over Pacific Air
Forces’ widely dispersed forces.
After Pacific Air Forces officers have digested the lessons learned in
Pacific Vision, they plan to incorporate them into operations and to feed them to
Air Force trainers. A Pacific Air Forces officer asserted: “We’ve maintained a
long period of peace because we continually prepare for war. That’s what Pacific
Vision was all about.”212
Anti-Air Warfare (AAW). In addition to the issues discussed below, see also
the earlier discussion, in the section on Navy force structure and basing
arrangements, on the type of destroyer to procure in coming years.
Surface Ship AAW Upgrades. Are current Navy plans for upgrading
surface ship anti-air warfare (AAW) capabilities adequate?
The PLA’s acquisition of advanced and highly capable ASCMs such as the SSN-27 Sizzler and the SS-N-22 Sunburn raises the question of whether current plans
for modernizing Navy surface ship AAW capabilities are adequate. The Government
Accountability Office (GAO) in previous years has expressed concerns regarding the
212
Richard Halloran, “War Game Shows U.S. Airpower Up To Task,” Honolulu Advertiser,
October 26, 2008.
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Navy’s ability to counter ASCMs.213 Potential areas for modernization include,
among other things, the following:
!
ship radars, such as the SPY-1 radar on Aegis ships or the radars
now planned for the DDG-1000 destroyer and CG(X) cruiser;214
!
AAW-related computer networking capabilities, such as the
Cooperative Engagement Capability (CEC) and the Naval Integrated
Fire Control-Counter Air (NIFC-CA) system;215
!
air defense missiles such as the Standard Missile,216 the Evolved Sea
Sparrow Missile (ESSM), and the Rolling Airframe Missile (RAM);
!
close-in weapon systems, such as the Phalanx radar-directed gun;
!
potential directed-energy weapons, such as solid state or freeelectron lasers;
!
decoys, such as the U.S.-Australian Nulka active electronic decoy;
and
!
aerial targets for AAW tests and exercises, particularly targets for
emulating supersonic ASCMs.217
213
General Accounting Office, Navy Acquisitions[:] Improved Littoral War-Fighting
Capabilities Needed, GAO-01-493, May 2001; and General Accounting Office, Defense
Acquisitions[:] Comprehensive Strategy Needed to Improve Ship Cruise Missile Defense,
GAO/NSIAD-00-149, July 2000.
214
For more on the DDG-1000 and CG(X), see CRS Report RL32109, Navy DDG-1000
Destroyer Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald
O’Rourke, and CRS Report RL34179, Navy CG(X) Cruiser Program: Background,
Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
215
For more on CEC and NIFC-CA, see CRS Report RS20557, Navy Network-Centric
Warfare Concept: Key Programs and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
216
The Navy is currently developing a new version of the Standard Missile called the SM-6
Extended Range Active Missile (ERAM) that will have a considerably longer range than the
current SM-2 air defense missile. The SM-6 will also have an active seeker that will permit
the missile to home in on the target on its own, without being illuminated by a ship-based
radar, as is the case with the SM-2.
217
An October 2005 report from the Defense Science Board (DSB) highlights “The dire
need for several types of supersonic targets to represent existing anti-ship cruise missile
threats.” (Page 1) The report states:
The Russians have produced and deployed a variety of supersonic, anti-ship
cruise missiles. Some of these missiles are sea-skimming vehicles; others attack
from high altitudes. At the time of the Task Force, the United States had zero
capability to test its air defense systems such as AEGIS or Improved Sea Sparrow
against supersonic targets, and the Task Force views this shortfall as the major
deficiency in our overall aerial targets enterprise. Aggressive actions are needed
CRS-94
In late August and early September 2008, it was reported that the Navy had
awarded a $97 million contract for the development of the GQM-173 Multi-Stage
Supersonic Target (MSST), an aerial target designed to emulate supersonic, seaskimming ASCMs. The target is scheduled to enter service in 2014.218 One press
report stated that “the MSST will replicate [the flight profile of] the Russian Novator
3M-54E Klub [aka Club] two-stage anti-ship missile, the NATO code-named SS-N27 Sizzler.”219 Another report stated that “the Navy will use MSST to evaluate the
operational effectiveness of weapons/combat systems against next-generation
surface-to-surface anti-ship missiles that cruise at subsonic speeds, initiate a
separation event, and then make a supersonic dash to the intended target, [contract
recipient] ATK said.”220 The reported flight profile of the SS-N-27 is consistent with
this description.
A July 28, 2008, press report stated:
The U.S. Navy is reprogramming nearly $13 million in fiscal 2008 to
address threats posed by new capabilities in anti-ship missiles employed in the
to fix the problem. (Department of Defense, Report of the Defense Science
Board Task Force on Aerial Targets. Washington, 2005. (October 2005, Office
of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics)
pp. 2.)
A cover memorandum attached to the report from William P. Delaney and General Michael
Williams, USMC (Ret.), the co-chairmen of the task force, stated:
The area of greatest concern to the Task Force was our gap in supersonic antiship cruise missiles for testing. The Russians have deployed at least three such
cruise missiles that involve either sea-skimming flight profiles or a high-altitude
profile involving a power dive to the target. At this time, we have no test
vehicles for either flight profile.
See also Tony Capaccio, “Navy Can’t Test Defense Against China’s ‘Sizzler’ Until 2014,”
Bloomberg.com, April 3, 2008; John Liang, “DSB Highlights ‘Dire’ Need For Supersonic
Cruise Missile Targets,” Inside the Navy, November 14, 2005.
The lack of targets for fully emulating supersonic ASCMs has been an issue since the early
1980s, when the Navy first deployed the Aegis AAW system. See CRS Report 84-180, The
Aegis Anti-Air Warfare System: Its Principal Components, Its Installation On The CG-47
And DDG-51 Class Ships, And Its Effectiveness, by Ronald O’Rourke. (October 24, 1984)
pp. 16-17. (This report is out of print and is available directly from the author.)
218
“ATK Scores U.S. Navy Target Win With MSST,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report,”
August 27, 2008: 3; Dan Taylor, “Navy Awards $97 Million Contract For Supersonic
Missile Target,” Inside the Navy, September 1, 2008; “NAVAIR Awards ATK $97 Million
Contract For Multi-Stage Supersonic Target,” Defense Daily, September 3, 2008. See also
Dan Taylor, “Shannon: Contract Award For Supersonic Target Imminent,” Inside the Navy,
August 25, 2008.
219
“ATK Scores U.S. Navy Target Win With MSST,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report,”
August 27, 2008: 3.
220
“NAVAIR Awards ATK $97 Million Contract For Multi-Stage Supersonic Target,”
Defense Daily, September 3, 2008.
CRS-95
Pacific region. About $7 million will provide an active/passive sensor simulator
that will help the Navy to develop countermeasures for new missiles that employ
both passive and active guidance seekers. Another $5.8 million is requested for
this fiscal year that would help to develop the “high power, broadband,
millimeter-wave power amplifiers needed for countermeasures systems to defeat
this emerging threat.” Today, those countermeasures do not exist.221
Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) AAW Capability. Should the currently
planned AAW capability of the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) be increased?
The Navy’s Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) is to be armed with 11 Rolling
Airframe Missiles (RAMs). The ship will also be equipped with an AAW decoy
launcher.222
The PLA’s acquisition of ASCMs that can be fired from aircraft, surface ships,
and submarines raises the possibility that LCSs participating in a conflict in the
Taiwan Strait area could come under attack by substantial numbers of ASCMs.
Other Navy ships, such as Aegis cruisers and destroyers and, in the future, DDG1000 destroyers and CG(X)s cruisers, could help defend LCSs against attacking
ASCMs, but such ships might not always be in the best position to do this,
particularly if ASCMs are launched at LCSs from undetected submarines or if the
supporting U.S. Navy ships are busy performing other duties. If LCSs were damaged
or sunk by ASCMs, the Navy’s ability to counter enemy mines, submarines, and
small boats — the LCS’s three primary missions — would be reduced.
The possibility that the LCS’s AAW system might be overwhelmed or
exhausted by attacks from multiple ASCMs raises the question of whether the AAW
capability planned for the LCS should be increased. Options for increasing the
LCS’s planned AAW capability include, among other things, adding another 11round RAM launcher or supplementing the currently planned RAM launcher with a
battery of Evolved Sea Sparrow (ESSM) missiles. In assessing such options, one
factor to consider would be whether installing additional RAMs or ESSMs would
require an increase in the planned size and cost of the LCS.
Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW). Countering a substantial number of PLA
submarines would likely require a coordinated effort by an ASW network consisting
of some or all of the following: distributed sensors, unmanned vehicles, submarines,
surface ships, helicopters, and maritime patrol aircraft. Defeating torpedoes fired by
PLA submarines would require U.S. submarines and surface ships to have systems
for detecting, decoying, and perhaps destroying those torpedoes.
ASW operations against well-maintained and well-operated submarines
traditionally have often been time-consuming. Acoustic conditions in at least some
of the waters around Taiwan are reportedly poor for ASW, which could make the
221
222
“Countermeasures Needed,” Aerospace Daily & Defense Report, July 28, 2008: 1.
For more on the LCS, see CRS Report RL33741, Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS)
Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
CRS-96
task of countering PLA submarines in these areas more difficult.223 Success in an
ASW operation is highly dependent on the proficiency of the people operating the
ASW equipment. ASW operational proficiency can take time to develop and can
atrophy significantly if not regularly exercised.
In December 2004, the Navy approved a new concept of operations (CONOPS)
— a new general approach — to ASW. As described in one article,
The Navy’s new concept of operations for anti-submarine warfare calls for
the use of standoff weapons, networked sensor fields and unmanned vehicles to
detect and attack diesel submarines in littoral waters, rather than a reliance on
“force on force” engagements.
Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Vern Clark approved the CONOPS Dec.
20, according to a Navy spokesman. The five-page document will guide the
development of a comprehensive ASW master plan that is expected to be
classified, though it might have an unclassified version.
The CONOPS envisions hundreds or thousands of small sensors that would
“permeate the operating environment, yielding unprecedented situational
awareness and highly detailed pictures of the battlespace.” Attack submarines
that today carry sensors and weapons could in the future provide logistical
support to and serve as command and control bases for off-board sensors and
“kill vehicles,” the CONOPS states. The networking of autonomous sensor
fields with manned and unmanned vehicles will change ASW from a
“platform-intensive” to a “sensor-rich” operation, it adds.224
223
See, for example, the statement of Lyle J. Goldstein and William Murray in Hearing On
Military Modernization and Cross-Strait Balance, Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic
and Security Review Commission, February 6, 2004, pp. 148, 150, and 152.
224
Jason Ma, “ASW Concept Of Operations Sees ‘Sensor Rich Way Of Fighting Subs,”
Inside the Navy, February 7, 2005. A January 2005 article stated:
The Navy cannot fight diesel subs with “force on force,” such as sending
one sub to defeat another sub, because that is not cost effective, [Rear Admiral
John Waickwicz, chief of Fleet Anti-Submarine Warfare Command] told Inside
the Navy. For example, the new Virginia-class subs cost about $2 billion each,
while advanced diesel subs cost hundreds of millions of dollars each.
Instead of force on force, ASW tactics will emphasize using networked
sensors and communications to allow one platform — like a sub, Littoral Combat
Ship, or aircraft — to defeat multiple diesel subs, he said. “You have to be able
to destroy them at a very large rate, because potential enemies may have a large
number” of subs, he explained.
“We don’t have that luxury to go one against one anymore,” he added,
noting that individual ASW platforms will rely on their greater capability to take
on multiple subs. (Jason Ma, “Admiral: Navy’s ASW Tactics To Be Aggressive
And Offense-Minded,” Inside the Navy, January 17, 2005.)
CRS-97
At a June 20, 2005, conference on the future of the Navy organized by the
American Enterprise Institute (AEI), Admiral Vernon Clark, who was the Chief of
Naval Operations (CNO) until July 22, 2005, stated:
[The Chinese are] building submarines at a rapid rate. They’re buying them
from other countries. They’re building their own capabilities. And let me just
to make a long story short, I published a new ASW concept [of operations] a
couple of months ago. I fundamentally don’t believe that the old attrition
warfare[,] force on force anti-submarine warfare[,] construct is the right way to
go in the 21st century. [The questioner] mentioned that I had spent part of my
past life in the submarine warfare business. I have. I trailed the Soviets around.
I know what that’s about. And what I really believe is going to happen in the
future is that when we apply the netted force construct in anti-submarine warfare,
it will change the calculus in that area of warfighting forever. And it will be a
courageous commander who decides that he’s going to come waltzing into our
network.225
Implementing this new ASW concept of operations reportedly will require
overcoming some technical challenges, particularly with regard to linking together
225
Transcript of conference, as posted on the Internet by AEI at [http://www.aei.org/events/
filter.all,eventID.1051/transcript.asp].
An October 2004 article stated:
more than just improving antisubmarine operations, Clark’s goal is to
“fundamentally change” ASW operations away from individual platforms —
ship, submarine or aircraft — to a system with the attributes of “pervasive
awareness, persistence and speed, all enabled by technological agility.”
To meet this goal, “we think we’re going to have to go offboard of our
platforms,” using unmanned aerial, surface and underwater vehicles, and a
network of distributed sensors to provide the identification and localization that
would allow quick transition to the attack, [Rear Admiral Mark W. Kenny, the
flag officer in charge of Task Force ASW] said. “That’s what we’re focused on:
(finding) a high number of quiet contacts in a demanding environment with a
timeline that requires us to gain access quickly.”
The task force has tested those concepts in at-sea experiments focused on
distributive systems, which could be an array of easily deployed underwater
sensors, passive and active, networked together and linked to manned platforms,
he explained.
Among them is the Advanced Deployable System, which the Program
Executive Office for Integrated Warfare Systems currently is studying, along
with such other ASW-related concepts as a multisensor Torpedo Recognition and
Alertment Function Segment (previously known as Torpedo Recognition and
Alertment Function Processor) and the Multifunction Towed Array to improve
detection and tracking capability. (Otto Kreisher, “As Underwater Threat ReEmerges, Navy Renews Emphasis On ASW,” Seapower, October 2004, p. 15.)
CRS-98
large numbers of distributed sensors, some of which might be sonobuoys as small as
soda cans.226
In addition to the issues discussed below, see also the earlier discussion, in the
section on Navy force structure and basing arrangements, on the type of destroyer to
procure in coming years.
Technologies. Are current Navy efforts for improving antisubmarine warfare
(ASW) technologies adequate?
In addition to the issue discussed earlier of whether the Navy between now and
2010 will have enough ASW-capable platforms, another potential issue raised by the
PLA submarine modernization effort is whether current Navy plans for improving
antisubmarine warfare (ASW) technologies are adequate. The Navy states that it
intends to introduce several new ASW technologies, including distributed sensors,
unmanned vehicles, and technologies for networking ASW systems and platforms.
In March 2007, Admiral Mullen, who was then the CNO, testified that:
Submarines with improving stealth and attack capability — particularly
modern diesel attack submarines — are proliferating world-wide at an alarming
rate. Locating these relatively inexpensive but extremely quiet boats presents our
Navy with a formidable challenge. Navy is pursuing a distributed and netted
approach to ASW. Some of the key ASW programs we must continue to develop
and field as quickly as possible include: the Deployable Distributed Autonomous
system (DADS); the Reliable Acoustic Path Vertical Line Array (RAPVLA); the
Surface Ship Torpedo Defense System (SSTD); the Aircraft Carrier Periscope
Detection Radar (CVNPDR); and, the High Altitude ASW Weapon Concept
(HAAWC)....
The Navy continues to pursue research and development of Distributed
Netted Sensors (DNS); low-cost, rapidly deployable, autonomous sensors that
can be fielded in sufficient numbers to provide the cueing and detection of
adversary submarines far from the Sea Base. Examples of our FY 2008 request
of $24 million in these technologies include:
• Reliable Acoustic Path, Vertical Line Array (RAP VLA). A passive-only
distributed system exploiting the deep water propagation phenomena. In essence,
a towed array vertically suspended in the water column.
• Deep Water Active Distributed System (DWADS). An active sonar distributed
system optimized for use in deep water.
• Deployable Autonomous Distributed System (DADS). A shallow water array,
using both acoustic and non-acoustic sensors to detect passing submarines.
DADS will test at sea in FY 2008.
226
Jason Ma, “Autonomous ASW Sensor Field Seen As High-Risk Technical Hurdle,”
Inside the Navy, June 6, 2005. See also Jason Ma, “Navy’s Surface Warfare Chief Cites
Progress In ASW Development,” Inside the Navy, January 17, 2005.
CRS-99
• Littoral ASW Multi-static Project (LAMP). A shallow water distributed buoy
system employing the advanced principles of multi-static (many receivers,
one/few active sources) sonar propagation.
Further developing the Undersea Warfare Decision Support System
(USW-DSS) will leverage existing data-links, networks, and sensor data from air,
surface, and sub-surface platforms and integrate them into a common ASW
operating picture with tactical decision aids to better plan, conduct, and
coordinate ASW operations. We are requesting $23 million in FY 2008 towards
this system.
To engage the threat, our forces must have the means to attack effectively
the first time, every time. The Navy has continued a robust weapons development
investment plan including $293 million requested in the FY 2008 on such
capabilities as:
• High-Altitude ASW Weapons Concept (HAAWC). Current maritime patrol
aircraft must descend to very low altitude to place ASW weapons on target, often
losing communications with the sonobuoy (or distributed sensor) field. This
allows the aircraft to remain at high altitude and conduct an effective attack
while simultaneously enabling the crew to maintain and exploit the full sensor
field in the process. This capability will be particularly important in concert with
the new jet-powered P-8A MMA. A test is scheduled for May 2007.
• Common Very Lightweight Torpedo (CVLWT). The Navy is developing a
6.75” torpedo suitable for use in the surface ship and submarine antitorpedo
torpedo defense, and the offensive Compact Rapid Attack Weapon (CRAW)
intended for the developing manned and unmanned aerial vehicles....
Platform Sensor Improvements. Against the quieter, modern diesel-electric
submarines, work continues on both towed arrays and hull mounted sonars. Our
$410 million request in FY 2008 includes work on the following:
• TB-33 thin-line towed array upgrades to forward deployed SSN’s provides near
term improvement in submarine towed array reliability over existing TB-29
arrays. TB-33 upgrades are being accelerated to Guam based SSN’s.
• Continued development of twin-line thin line (TLTL) and vector-sensor towed
arrays (VSTA) are under development for mid-far term capability gaps. TLTL
enables longer detection ranges/contact holding times, improves localization, and
classification of contacts. VSTA is an Office of Naval Research project that
would provide TLTL capability on a single array while still obviating the bearing
ambiguity issue inherent in traditional single line arrays.227
Training and Exercises. Are current Navy plans for ASW training and
exercises adequate?
As mentioned earlier, success in an ASW operation is highly dependent on the
proficiency of the people operating the ASW equipment, and ASW operational
227
Statement of Admiral Michael G. Mullen, Chief of Naval Operations, Before the House
Armed Services Committee, 01 March 2007, pp. 8, 43-45.
CRS-100
proficiency can take time to develop and can atrophy significantly if not regularly
exercised. At various times since the end of the Cold War, some observers have
expressed concerns about whether the Navy was placing adequate emphasis on
maintaining ASW proficiency. The Navy in April 2004 established a new Fleet
ASW Command, based in San Diego, to provide more focus to its ASW efforts, and
since then has taken various steps to enhance its ASW training and exercises. In light
of these actions, the potential question is whether the Navy ASW training and
exercises are now adequate, or whether they should be expanded further.228
Active-Kill Torpedo Defense. If feasible, should Navy plans for acquiring
an active-kill torpedo defense system be accelerated?
Navy surface ships and submarines are equipped with decoy systems for
diverting enemy torpedoes away from their intended targets. Such decoys, however,
might not always work, particularly against wake-homing torpedoes, which can be
difficult to decoy. Under the Navy’s surface ship torpedo defense (SSTD)
development program, the U.S. Navy is developing an “active-kill” torpedo-defense
capability for surface ships and also submarines that would use a small (6.75-inch
diameter) anti-torpedo torpedo (ATT) to physically destroy incoming torpedoes. In
March 2007, Admiral Michael Mullen, who was then the CNO, testified that the
Navy’s surface ship torpedo defense (SSTD) program
delivers near term and far term torpedo defense. The planned FY 2008 $16
million R&D [research and development] investment supports ongoing
development of the 6 ¾ inch Common Very Lightweight Torpedo (CVLWT)
which supports both the Anti-Torpedo Torpedo (ATT) and the Compact Rapid
Attack Weapon (CRAW). Also, several capability upgrades to the AN/SLQ-25A
(NIXIE) [torpedo decoy system] are being incorporated to improve both acoustic
and nonacoustic system performance to counter current threat torpedoes. These
enhancements also support their use in the littorals and are scheduled to complete
in FY 2009. The AN/WSQ-11 System uses active and passive acoustic sensors
for an improved torpedo Detection Classification and Localization (DCL)
capability, and a hard kill Anti-Torpedo Torpedo (ATT) to produce an effective,
automated and layered system to counter future torpedo threats. DCL
improvements include lower false alarm rates and better range determination.229
The ATT is currently scheduled to enter service in 2017. Navy officials state
that changes to the program’s funding profile could accelerate the ATT’s entry into
service by two years, to 2015.230
In light of the modern torpedoes, including wake-homing torpedoes, that are
expected to be carried by modern PLA submarines, a potential question is whether
the current ATT acquisition schedule should be accelerated.
228
For an article providing additional discussion of this issue, see Geoff Fein, “Navy Needs
To Regain ASW Proficiency, Official Says,” Defense Daily, May 8, 2008.
229
Statement of Admiral Michael G. Mullen, Chief of Naval Operations, Before the House
Armed Services Committee, 01 March 2007, p. 45.
230
Source: Navy briefing to CRS and Congressional Budget Office, April 14, 2008.
CRS-101
Mine Warfare. Are current Navy mine warfare plans adequate?
Countering naval mines is a notoriously time-consuming task that can require
meticulous operations by participating surface ships, submarines, and helicopters.
The Navy’s mine countermeasures (MCM) capabilities have been an area of concern
in Congress and elsewhere in previous years.231 The Navy for the past several years
has been developing several new MCM systems that are scheduled to enter service
over the next few years. Unmanned surface vehicles (USVs) and unmanned
underwater vehicles (UUVs) are playing an increasing role in MCM operations.
The PLA’s interest in modern mines may underscore the importance of the
Navy’s efforts to develop and acquire new mine countermeasures (MCM) systems,
and perhaps raise a question regarding whether they should be expanded or
accelerated. The Navy’s MCM capabilities have been a matter of concern among
members of the congressional defense committees for several years.
Conversely, the PLA Navy’s own reported vulnerability to mines (see section
on PLA Navy limitations and weaknesses) can raise a question regarding the lessfrequently-discussed topic of the U.S. Navy’s offensive mine warfare capability. To
what degree can minelaying complicate PLA plans for winning a conflict, particularly
a short-duration conflict, in the Taiwan Strait area? Do U.S. Navy plans include
sufficient mines and minelaying platforms to fully exploit the PLA Navy’s
vulnerability to mines? The Navy has various mines either in service or under
development.
Computer Network Security. Are Navy efforts to ensure computer network
security adequate?
The PLA’s published interest in cyberwarfare, and concerns that recent attacks
on U.S. computer networks have in some cases originated in China, underscore the
importance of U.S. military computer network security. The Navy in July 2002
established the Naval Network Warfare Command in part to prevent and respond to
attacks on Navy computer networks.232 A December 2007 article stated:
The Navy Cyber Defense Operations Command, located in Norfolk, VA,
has about 170 people running a “24/7 watch,” said James Granger, the
command’s technical director.
They are monitoring Navy-Marine Corps Networks, which includes [sic]
the Navy-Marine Corps Intranet and tactical networks, with 761,000 uers on 300
bases in 16 countries. Those networks receive about 90,000 potentially harmful
231
See, for example, General Accounting Office, Navy Acquisitions[:] Improved Littoral
War-Fighting Capabilities Needed, GAO-01-493, May 2001; and General Accounting
Office, Navy Mine Warfare[:] Plans to Improve Countermeasures Capabilities Unclear,
GAO/NSIAD-98-135, June 1998.
232
Harold Kennedy, “Navy Command Engages In Info Warfare Campaign,” National
Defense, November 2003. See also Frank Tiboni, “DOD’s ‘Manhattan Project’,” Federal
Computer Week, August 29, 2005.
CRS-102
probes every hour, and have been affected by 60,000 software worms and viruses
since 2001, according to Network Warfare Command statistics....
What is now the Cyber Defense Command started in about 1995 as a
division of the Fleet Information Warfare Center and became a separate
command as the Navy Computer Instant Response Team in 2003, before
assuming its current identity under Network Warfare Command....
The command’s operations are also closely tied in with the overall Defense
Department network security efforts, directed by the Joint Task Force for Global
Network Operations in Washington, which, in turn, falls under the U.S. Strategic
Command in Omaha, Neb.233
Another CRS report discusses computer network security at length.234
EMP Hardening. Are Navy efforts to harden its systems against
electromagnetic pulse (EMP) adequate?
The possibility that the PLA might use nuclear weapons or high-power
microwave (HPM) weapons to generate electromagnetic pulse (EMP) effects against
the electronic systems on U.S. Navy ships and aircraft raises a potential question
regarding the adequacy of the Navy’s efforts to harden its systems against EMP
effects. A 2004 commission studying the EMP issue expressed concerns about the
potential vulnerability of U.S. tactical forces to EMP.235
233
Otto Kreisher, “‘Risk to One Is Risk to All,’” Seapower, December 2007: 28-30.
234
CRS Report RL32114, Botnets, Cybercrime, and Cyberterrorism: Vulnerabilities and
Policy Issues for Congress, by Clay Wilson.
235
2004 EMP commission report. The report of the commission stated on page 1 that “The
high-altitude nuclear weapon-generated electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is one of a small
number of threats that has the potential to hold our society seriously at risk and might result
in defeat of our military forces.” The report stated later that
The end of the Cold War relaxed the discipline for achieving EMP
survivability within the Department of Defense, and gave rise to the perception that
an erosion of EMP survivability of military forces was an acceptable risk. EMP
simulation and test facilities have been mothballed or dismantled, and research
concerning EMP phenomena, hardening design, testing, and maintenance has been
substantially decreased. However, the emerging threat environment, characterized
by a wide spectrum of actors that include near-peers, established nuclear powers,
rogue nations, sub-national groups, and terrorist organizations that either now have
access to nuclear weapons and ballistic missiles or may have such access over the
next 15 years have combined to place the risk of EMP attack and adverse
consequences on the US to a level that is not acceptable.
Current policy is to continue to provide EMP protection to strategic [i.e.,
long-range nuclear] forces and their controls; however, the end of the Cold War
has relaxed the discipline for achieving and maintaining that capability within
these forces....
The situation for general-purpose forces (GPF) is more complex.... Our
CRS-103
The commission’s report was received at a July 22, 2004, hearing before the
House Armed Services Committee. At the hearing, Representative Steve Israel asked
about the role of EMP in exercises simulating operations in the Taiwan Strait:
Representative Steve Israel: [Representative Roscoe] Bartlett and I just
attended an NDU [National Defense University] tabletop [exercise] with respect
to the Straits of the Taiwan just last week. To your knowledge, has there been
any tabletop exercise, has there been any simulation, any war-game that
anticipates an EMP attack, and, if there has not been, do you believe that that
would, in fact, be a useful exercise for NDU, the Pentagon or any other relevant
entity? Dr. Graham, do you want to answer that?
Dr. William R. Graham (Commission Chairman): Thank you. Let me
poll the commission and see if they have any experience with that. General
Lawson?
General Richard L. Lawson, USAF (Ret.) (Commissioner): No, sir.
Graham: Dr. Wood?
Dr. Lowell L. Wood, Jr. (Commissioner): I don’t believe there’s been
any formal exercise, certainly not to my knowledge. There’s been extensive
discussion of what the impact of Chinese EMP laydowns would be, not on
Taiwan, which is, after all, considered by China to be part of its own territory,
but on U.S. forces in the region which might be involved in the active defense of
Taiwan. In particular, the consequences the EMP laydown on U.S. carrier task
forces has been explored, and while, it’s not appropriate to discuss the details in
increasing dependence on advanced electronics systems results in the potential
for an increased EMP vulnerability of our technologically advanced forces, and
if unaddressed makes EMP employment by an adversary an attractive
asymmetric option.
The United States must not permit an EMP attack to defeat its capability to
prevail. The Commission believes it is not practical to protect all of the tactical
forces of the US and its coalition partners from EMP in a regional conflict. A
strategy of replacement and reinforcement will be necessary. However, there is
a set of critical capabilities that is essential to tactical regional conflicts that must
be available to these reinforcements. This set includes satellite navigation
systems, satellite and airborne intelligence and targeting systems, an adequate
communications infrastructure, and missile defense.
The current capability to field a tactical force for regional conflict is
inadequate in light of this requirement. Even though it has been US policy to
create EMP-hardened tactical systems, the strategy for achieving this has been
to use the DoD acquisition process. This has provided many equipment
components that meet criteria for durability in an EMP environment, but this
does not result in confidence that fielded forces, as a system, can reliably
withstand EMP attack. Adherence to the equipment acquisition policy also has
been spotty, and the huge challenge of organizing and fielding an EMP-durable
tactical force has been a disincentive to applying the rigor and discipline needed
to do so. (Pages 47-48.)
CRS-104
an open session like this, the assessed consequences of such an attack, a
single-explosion attack, are very somber.
Since that is a circumstance in which the target might be considered a pure
military one in which the loss of life might be relatively small, but the loss of
military capability might be absolutely staggering, it poses a very attractive
option, at least for consideration on the part of the Chinese military.
I would also remark that Chinese nuclear explosive workers at their very
cloistered research center in northwestern China very recently published an
authoritative digest and technical commentary on EMP in English, in a Chinese
publication. It is very difficult to understand what the purpose of publishing a
lengthy, authoritative article in English in a Chinese publication would be, if it
was not to convey a very pointed message. This came not from military workers.
It came from the people who would be fielding the weapon that would conduct
the attack.
Graham: Dr. Pry on our staff has made a survey of foreign writings on
EMP, and he noted that while U.S. exercises have not to our knowledge played
that scenario, Chinese military writings have discussed that scenario. So it’s
certainly something they have thought of and it is within their mind. I have
observed generally over the last 40 years that there’s a tendency in the U.S.
military not to introduce nuclear weapons in general and EMP in particular into
exercise scenarios or game scenarios because it tends to end the game, and that’s
not a good sign. I think it would be a very interesting subject for the NDU group
to take up and see and force them not to end the game. Time will not stop if such
an event happens. Let them understand what the consequences will be.236
Later in the hearing, Representative Roscoe Bartlett returned to the topic of the
potential effects of EMP on Navy ships:
Representative Bartlett: If China were to detonate a weapon high over
our carrier task force, can we note in this [open] session what would the effects
on the carrier task force be?
Graham: Mr. Bartlett, several years ago, the Navy dismantled the one
simulator it had for exposing ships directly [to EMP]. It was the Empress
simulator located in the Chesapeake Bay. So I don’t believe any direct
experimental work has been done for quite some time.
However, the general character of modern naval forces follows the other
trends we’ve described, which is an increasing dependence upon sophisticated
electronics for its functionality, and, therefore, I believe there’s substantial
reason to be concerned.
[Would] Any other commissioners [care to comment]?
Representative Bartlett: Dr. Wood?
236
Source: Transcript of hearing.
CRS-105
Wood: In open session, sir, I don’t believe it’s appropriate to go much
further than the comment that I made to [Representative] Israel that the
assessments that are made of such attacks and their impacts are very somber.
The Navy generally believes — that portion of the Navy that’s at all
cognizant of these matters — that because they operate in an extremely
radar-intensive environment, [since] they have a great deal of electromagnetic
gear on board, some of which radiates pulses — radar pulses, for instance —
because they can operate in that type of environment, that they surely must be
EMP robust. These free-floating beliefs on the part of some Navy officers are
not — repeat not — well grounded technically.237
Legislative Activity
FY2009
FY2009 legislative activity for some of the issues covered in this report is
covered in other CRS reports, as follows:
237
!
for the size of the fleet, see CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force
Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and Issues for
Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke;
!
for the number of aircraft carriers, see CRS Report RS20643, Navy
Ford (CVN-78) Class (CVN-21) Aircraft Carrier Program:
Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke;
!
for the number of attack submarines, see CRS Report RL32418,
Navy Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for
Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke;
!
for missile defense, see CRS Report RL33745, Sea-Based Ballistic
Missile Defense — Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald
O’Rourke;
!
for CG(X) cruiser procurement, see CRS Report RL34179, Navy
CG(X) Cruiser Program: Background, Oversight Issues, and
Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke;
!
for strike-fighter procurement, see CRS Report RS22875,
Navy-Marine Corps Strike-Fighter Shortfall: Background and
Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke; and
!
for the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) program, see CRS Report
RL33741, Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) Program: Background,
Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
Ibid.
CRS-106
Additional FY2009 legislative activity not covered in these reports is noted
below.
FY2009 Defense Authorization Bill (H.R. 5658/S. 3001).
House. The House Armed Services Committee, in its report (H.Rept. 110-652
of May 16, 2008) on H.R. 5658, stated the following regarding the development of
an anti-air warfare target for simulating Threat D, which some press reports suggest
might be a term that refers to an ASCM with a flight profile similar that of the SS-N27 Sizzler:238
The committee is pleased to note the anticipated source selection for the
development of a Threat D missile target development program in the summer
of 2008. The committee remains concerned that the estimated initial operating
capability of such a target in 2014 creates substantial risk during the interim
period. The committee encourages the Secretary to accelerate the target
development program to the maximum extent practicable. In addition, the
committee directs the Secretary of the Navy to notify the congressional defense
committees in writing if the estimated initial operating capability of the Threat
D target is delayed more than 90 days or if the costs associated with such
program exceeds 10 percent of programmed funding. The committee further
directs the Secretary to provide such notification within 30 days, along with the
reasons for such delay or cost overrun and a mitigation plan consisting of actions
that could restore the program to its original timeline. (Page 204)
FY2008
FY2008 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1585/S. 1547/H.R. 4986/P.L.
110-181).
House. Section 1244 of the House-reported version of the FY2008 defense
authorization bill (H.R. 1585) stated:
SEC. 1244. SENSE OF CONGRESS CONCERNING THE STRATEGIC
MILITARY CAPABILITIES AND INTENTIONS OF THE PEOPLE’S
REPUBLIC OF CHINA.
It is the sense of Congress that —
238
See “United States: The Supersonic Anti-Ship Missile Threat,” Stratfor.com, April 18,
available online at [http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/
united_states_supersonic_anti_ship_missile_threat?ip_auth_redirect=1]; Tony Capaccio,
“Navy Can’t Test Defense Against China’s Sizzler,” Until 2014,” Bloomberg.com, April 3,
2008; Chris Johnson, “Navy Issues Draft Request For Threat-D Target Development,”
Inside the Navy, July 30, 2007; Chris Johnson, “Industry Day Planned To Develop Threat-D
Target For Ship Tests,” Inside the Navy, July 9, 2007; and Chris Johnson, “Pentagon: Lack
Of Threat-D Target Hinders Testing For New Vessels,” Inside the Navy, January 22, 2007.
See also the transcript of the March 12, 2008, hearing before the House Armed Services
Committee on the posture of the Pacific Command.
CRS-107
(1) United States military war-fighting capabilities are potentially threatened by
the strategic military capabilities and intentions of the People’s Republic of
China, as demonstrated by —
(A) the October 2006 undetected broach of a Chinese SONG-class diesel-electric
submarine in close proximity of the USS Kitty Hawk in international waters; and
(B) the January 2007 test of a direct ascent anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon, posing
a potential threat to United States military assets in space;
(2) it is in the national security interests of the United States to make every effort
to understand China’s strategic military capabilities and intentions; and
(3) as part of such an effort, the Secretary of Defense should expand efforts to
develop an accurate assessment of China’s strategic military modernization,
particularly with regard to its sea- and space-based strategic capabilities.
Senate. The Senate-passed version of the FY2008 defense authorization bill
(S. 1547; S.Rept. 110-77 of June 5, 2007) did not contain a provision analogous to
Section 1244 of the House-passed version of H.R. 1585 (see above).
Conference. The conference report (H.Rept. 110-477 of December 6, 2007)
on H.R. 1585 did not contain a provision analogous to the Sec. 1244 of the Housepassed version of H.R. 1585. The conference report stated:
The conferees note China’s continued investment in strategic military
capabilities that could be used to support power projection and access denial
operations beyond the Asia Pacific region, and the lack of transparency
surrounding the strategic military capabilities and intentions relating to China’s
military modernization. The Pentagon’s 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review
Report (QDR) found that China is at a strategic crossroads and that, “of the
major and emerging powers, China has the greatest potential to compete
militarily with the United States.” The conferees note that during the last year,
China demonstrated such potential, including the October 2006 broach of a
Chinese SONG-class diesel-electric submarine in close proximity to the USS
Kitty Hawk aircraft carrier in international waters and the January 2007 test of
a direct ascent anti-satellite missile against a Chinese weather satellite in
low-earth orbit.
The conferees encourage the Secretary of Defense to expand efforts to
develop an accurate assessment and understanding of China’s strategic military
modernization and strategic intentions, particularly with regard to its sea- and
space-based strategic capabilities. (Page 1031)
H.R. 1585 was vetoed by the President on December 28, 2008. A new bill, H.R.
4986, was passed with changes that took into account the President’s objection to
certain parts of H.R. 1585. The President’s objection to certain parts of H.R. 1585
did not relate to the passage quoted above. H.R. 4986 was signed into law as P.L.
110-181 of January 28, 2008. Except for the changes made by Congress to take into
account the President’s objection to certain parts of H.R. 1585, H.Rept. 110-477 in
effect serves as the conference report for H.R. 4986.
CRS-108
Appendix A. Examples of Expressions of Concern
This appendix presents some examples since 2005 of expressions of concern
about China’s military modernization, and of its potential implications for U.S. Navy
requirements.
A May 2005 press report stated that:
China is one of the central issues, along with terrorism and weapons of mass
destruction, in the U.S. military’s 2005 Quadrennial Defense Review, a
congressionally directed study of military plans.... [W]hen the [then-]chief of
naval operations, Adm. Vern Clark, held a classified briefing for congressional
defense committees earlier this month about threats, his focus was “mainly” on
China, about which he is “gravely concerned,” recalled John W. Warner, the
Virginia Republican who chairs the Senate Armed Services Committee....
China has come up repeatedly in congressional debate over the size of the Navy.
The 288-ship fleet of today is half the size it was three decades ago. “You never
want to broadcast to the world that something’s insufficient,” Warner says, “but
clearly China poses a challenge to the sizing of the U.S. Navy.”239
In an address delivered on February 7, 2007, Secretary of the Navy Donald
Winter stated:
Naval forces must be ready, above all, to conduct major combat operations
should the need arise.
We cannot ignore events and trends that reinforce that belief. A recent
White Paper prepared by the Chinese military outlined a three-step strategy for
modernizing its defense, to include its blue-water ambitions. The third step in
their strategy states as a strategic goal “building modernized armed forces and
being capable of winning modern, net-centric wars by the mid-21st century.”
This document implicitly suggests that China hopes to be in a position to
successfully challenge the United States, a challenge that would certainly entail
blue-water operations.
Public declarations such as this statement and many others serve as
reminders that we must be prepared for a world that does not always follow our
preferences. Of course, we hope that China will choose a peaceful path. But
hope is not a strategy, so we must be prepared.
Those who might be tempted to dismiss or discount the need to be prepared
for major combat operations ought to keep in mind that their goodwill and
optimism towards totalitarian regimes may not be reciprocated.240
239
John M. Donnelly, “China On Course To Be Pentagon’s Next Worry,” CQ Weekly, May
2, 2005, p. 1126.
240
Donald C. Winter, “Navy Transformation: A Stable, Long-Term View,” Heritage
Lectures, No. 1004, March 19, 2007, [remarks] delivered February 7, 2007, p. 2. (Published
by The Heritage Foundation)
CRS-109
A press article reporting on an April 3, 2007, address by Admiral Michael
Mullen, then the Chief of Naval Operations and now the Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, stated that in addition to other topics,
The admiral also commented on the threats that drive military spending
needs. For example, he noted, China is building a new, modernized navy.
“The Chinese are shifting from land-centric” forces as their main focus “to
air-centric and naval-centric” buildups. China is acquiring cutting-edge aircraft,
new destroyers, four new classes of submarines, and hundreds of radar-guided
missiles. “Those investments very much have our attention,” Mullen said.241
Another short news article, reporting on comments made by Mullen at a
breakfast meeting in early May 2007, stated that:
In response to a question about the need for large Navy vessels, Mullen
[told] attendees that while he doesn’t expect to see big sea battles, the service has
to be mindful of China’s naval build up. “China is very actively investing in their
navy, building more ships each year. Their building rate is much higher than ours
right now,” he says. “We have to be mindful of that. Not to be mindful of that
would be irresponsible.”242
At a December 13, 2007, hearing before the House Armed Services Committee,
Admiral Gary Roughead, the current Chief of Naval Operations, acknowledged that
China’s rate of submarine production is a concern243 and stated later that “my
judgment is that it is a navy that is modernizing at a rate that is exceeding what our
expectations have been.”244
At a March 6, 2008, hearing before the House Armed Services Committee,
Admiral Roughead was asked by one Member, “can you tell us what attention is
being paid to the China fleet and what we’re doing to counter-balance that?”
Admiral Roughead replied:
Yes, sir. Having been the Pacific fleet commander and having served in the
Pacific for several years, watching the evolution of China’s navy has been of
great professional interest to me and then obviously in my positions out there, of
great import to the Navy. There is no question that China is building a navy that
241
Dave Ahearn, “Mullen Says Military Faces Financial Crisis, But Nation Can Afford
Arms,” Defense Daily, April 5, 2007. The passage as originally published was in the form
of five one-sentence paragraphs and has been condensed here into two paragraphs for ease
of reading.
242
“Interesting Times,” Defense Daily, May 7, 2007.
243
At the hearing, Representative Hunter stated to Admiral Roughead: “With respect to the
increased [Chinese rate of submarine] production, in terms of them outstripping us by
three-to-one on submarine production, and your own figures show that they are going to
eclipse us in submarine numbers in 2011 — maybe little earlier, maybe a little later,
depending on which analysis you go with: Clearly, that should be a concern to you.”
Admiral Roughead replied: “Well, it is.” (Source: Transcript of the hearing.)
244
Source: Transcript of hearing.
CRS-110
is increasing in sophistication and capacity. It is a navy that is focusing more on
being able to influence events in the region and then being able to move on to the
global stage.
As I watch what they are buying, what they are building, that’s one
component of watching the PLA Navy. But the other is their leadership and the
expertise and competence of the leadership. I’ve had the opportunity to meet with
several of the PLA Navy leaders. And it is clear to me that they have a path that
they see for their navy.
It is a path that does not necessarily end with them being a threat. But it is
a navy that, I believe, will have greater influence in the Pacific and then also
moving into the Indian Ocean regions.
The key for us is to be able to engage with that leadership to gauge the
intent, not only of the PLA Navy, but the PLA and to have a relationship that
allows us to see where they are taking their navy and how competent that navy
is. As you know, we have shifted force structure into the Pacific, carriers and
submarines. But I would submit that that’s not simply because of a rising PLA
Navy.
It is because that is part of the world, that and the Indian Ocean region and the
Arabian Gulf, where our prosperity hinges on. And that is the reason why I
believe a rebalancing of the fleet into those areas where we can respond, where
we can be present is so important. And it is from that response and presence that
I am committed to the 313-ship Navy because of our need to be able to cover the
many requirements that are there, not simply at the high end of naval capability,
but also to be able to work with some of the other countries.245
An April 20, 2008, news report stated:
Chinese efforts to assure the world of its “peaceful rise” are being
contradicted by a lack of transparency about its military build-up, the top US
military commander in the Pacific said on Thursday.
China has failed to explain how the development of key weapons fit with
its stated aim of becoming a great power without confrontation, US Pacific
Command chief Admiral Timothy J Keating told reporters in the Indonesian
capital.
“They (China) profess to seek a ‘peaceful rise’ and ‘harmonious
integration’ and we’re all for that. They have to show us how they intend to
achieve that while developing these certain weapons,” he said.
“And we think there is some contradiction between their stated role versus
the practice, but we’ll continue to work with them.”
Adm Keating, who was on an official visit to Indonesia, said he had raised
his desire for more transparency from the Chinese on two visits to the country so
far this year, but talks had been “not entirely fruitful.”
245
Source: Transcript of hearing. The question was asked by Representative Mike McIntyre.
CRS-111
“It’s our clear purpose to draw them out, to engage with them, to offer them
the opportunity to observe exercises on a multilateral basis, simple though they
may be, so as to ensure they are aware of what it is we are about,” Adm Keating
said.246
246
Agence France Press, “China’s Military rise ‘Lacks Transparency’: US commander,” The
Straits Times, April 10, 2008.
CRS-112
Appendix B. Additional Details on China’s Naval
Modernization Efforts247
This appendix presents additional details and commentary on several of the
elements of China’s military modernization discussed in the “Background” section
of this report.
Missiles.
Anti-Ship Ballistic Missiles (ASBMs). Regarding the potential for using
TBMs against moving U.S. Navy ships at sea, ONI stated in 2004 that “one of the
newest innovations in TBM weapons developments involves the use of ballistic
missiles to target ships at sea. This is assessed as being very difficult because it
involves much more than just a missile.”248 ONI continued:
The use of ballistic missiles against ships at sea has been discussed for
years. Chinese writings state China intends to develop the capability to attack
ships, including carrier strike groups, in the waters around Taiwan using
conventional theater ballistic missiles (TBMs) as part of a combined-arms
campaign. The current conventional TBM force in China consists of CSS-6 and
CSS-7 short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs) deployed in large numbers. The
current TBM force would be modified by changing some of the current missiles’
ballistic reentry vehicles (RVs) to maneuvering reentry vehicles (MaRVs) with
radar or IR seekers to provide the accuracy needed to attack ships at sea. The
TBMs with MaRVs would have good defense penetration capabilities because
of their high reentry speed and maneuverability. Their lethality could be
increased, especially with terminally guided submunitions.
In order to attack a ship or a carrier battle group with TBMs, the target must
be tracked, and its position, direction, and speed determined. This information
would be relayed in near real time to the missile launchers. China may be
planning ultimately to use over-the-horizon (OTH) radar, satellites, and
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to monitor the target’s position.
Reconnaissance assets would be used to detect the ship or carrier strike group
before it entered into the range of Chinese TBMs, facilitating early preparation
for the engagement, and refining the target’s position. Target information would
be relayed through communication satellites or other channels to a command
center, and then to the missile launchers. TBMs with MaRVs would then be
launched at the target’s projected position. The missiles would fly their
247
Unless otherwise indicated, shipbuilding program information in this section is taken
from Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, and previous editions. Other sources of information
on these shipbuilding programs may disagree regarding projected ship commissioning dates
or other details, but sources present similar overall pictures regarding PLA Navy
shipbuilding.
248
U.S. Department of the Navy, Worldwide Maritime Challenges 2004, Washington,
prepared by the Office of Naval Intelligence. (Hereafter cited as 2004 ONI WMC.) On Page
3 (Overview), ONI notes, without reference to any specific country, that “antiship ballistic
missiles could be fired at our ships at sea.”
CRS-113
preplanned trajectories until onboard seekers could acquire the ship and guide
the missiles to impact.249
Another observer stated in 2005:
The PLA’s historic penchant for secrecy and surprise, when combined with
known programs to develop highly advanced technologies that will lead to new
and advanced weapons, leads to the conclusion that the PLA is seeking [to] field
new weapon systems that could shock an adversary and accelerate their defeat.
In the mid-1990s former leader Jiang Zemin re-popularized an ancient Chinese
term for such weapons, “Shashaojian,” translated most frequently as “Assassin’s
Mace,” or “silver bullet” weapons.
One potential Shashoujian is identified by the [DOD’s 2005 report on
China military power]: a maneuvering ballistic missile design to target U.S. naval
forces. In 1996 a Chinese technician revealed that a “terminal guidance system”
that would confer very high accuracy was being developed for the DF-21
[intercontinental ballistic missile, or ICBM]. Such a system could employ a
radar similar to the defunct U.S. Pershing-2 MRBM or could employ off-board
sensors with rapid data-links to the missile tied to satellite-navigation systems.
Nevertheless, should such missiles be realized they will pose a considerable
threat as the U.S. Navy is not yet ready to deploy adequate missile defenses.250
A separate observer stated in 2005:
Land-based conventional tipped ballistic missiles with maneuverable
(MarV) warheads that can hit ships at sea ... would be a Chinese “assassin’s
mace” sort of capability — something impossible to deal with today, and very
difficult under any circumstances if one is forced to defend by shooting down
ballistic missiles. The capability is dependent on Beijing’s ability to put together
the appropriate space-based surveillance, command, and targeting architecture
necessary to make this work.251
One more observer stated in 2005:
There is yet another exceedingly important chapter being written in the
[PLA] ballistic-missile saga. China is trying to move rapidly in developing
ballistic missiles that could hit ships at sea at MRBM [medium-range ballistic
missile] ranges — in other words, to threaten carriers beyond the range at which
they could engage Chinese forces or strike China. Among its other advantages
for China, this method of attack avoids altogether the daunting prospect of
having to cope with the U.S. Navy submarine force — as anti-submarine warfare
249
2004 ONI WMC, p. 22. Page 20 stated: “Maneuvering reentry vehicles serve two
purposes: one to provide an unpredictable target to complicate missile defense efforts and
the other, potentially, to adjust missile flight path to achieve greater accuracy.”
250
Prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a July 27, 2005, hearing on China grand
strategy and military modernization before the House Armed Services Committee, p. 6.
251
Presentation entitled “Beijing Eye View of Strategic Landscale” by Mike McDevitt at a
June 20, 2005, conference on the future of the U.S. Navy held in Washington, DC, by the
American Enterprise Institute. Quote taken from McDevitt’s notes for the presentation,
which he provided to CRS.
CRS-114
is a big Chinese weakness. Along with these efforts to develop ballistic missiles
to hit ships, they are, of course, working diligently to perfect the means to locate
and target our carrier strike groups (CSGs). In that regard, an imperfect or
rudimentary (fishing boats with satellite phones) means of location and targeting
might be employed even earlier than the delay of several more years likely
needed to perfect more reliable and consistent targeting of ships. Chinese missile
specialists are writing openly and convincingly of MaRV’d ballistic missiles
(missiles with maneuverable reentry vehicles) that maneuver both to defeat
defenses and to follow the commands of seekers that spot the target ships. There
seems little doubt that our naval forces will face this threat long before the
Taiwan issue is resolved.252
Land-Attack Cruise Missile (LACMs). Regarding LACMs, one observer
stated in 2006:
Taiwanese civilian and military officials contend that in 2005 the PLA has
started deployment of its long-awaited new land attack cruise missiles (LACMs).
Asian sources contend that two Chinese companies are making LACMs; one for
the Second Artillery missile forces, and one for PLA Navy and PLA Airforce
platforms, most likely based on the new 300+ km range YJ-62 anti-ship missile.
It has been well reported that China has sought to develop modern LACMs since
the 1970s and has sought technology from Russia, Israel, and has obtained at
least six Russian Novator Kh-55 LACMs via the Ukraine, and has obtained parts
of U.S. RGM/UGM-109 Tomahawk LACMs via Iraq, Afghanistan and very
likely, Pakistan. When these LACMs are married to new Russian-assisted EO
and Radar satellites, French assisted communication satellite, access to U.S.,
Russian and European navigation satellites signals, and then carried by Russian
assisted nuclear submarines or future Russian-made bombers, then the PLA will
have its first limited non-nuclear global strike capability. Such a synergy could
emerge by 2010 or shortly thereafter. This might not equal the U.S. all-weather
intimate moving-target hitting capability, but China may be able to use LACMs
for political-military influence much as the U.S. does today.253
Land-Based Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs). Regarding SAM systems,
DOD stated in 2007:
In the next few years, China will receive its first battalion of Russian-made
S-300PMU-2 surface-to-air missile systems. With an advertised intercept range
of 200 km, the S-300PMU-2 provides increased lethality against tactical ballistic
missiles and more effective electronic countermeasures. China also is developing
the indigenous HQ-9 air defense missile system, a phased array radar-based SAM
with a 150 km range.254
Another observer stated in 2006:
252
Prepared Statement of Eric McVadon for a September 15, 2005, hearing before the
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission, pp. 4-5.
253
Prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a March 16, 2006, hearing before the
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission hearing, p. 9.
254
2007 DOD CMP, p. 4.
CRS-115
One area where Russian technology in particular is producing a new and
dangerous PLA capability is that of modern air defenses. The PLA Air Force is
on its way to purchasing up to 14 to 20 Battalions of Russian
S-300/PMU-1/PMU-2 surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), which could mean the
purchase of 700 to 1,000 of these deadly missiles. The S-300 family is very
difficult to jam and can only be evaded with some assurance by stealthy F-22A
or B-2 aircraft. The range of the S-300PMU-2 allows it to target aircraft that
operate over Taiwan, thus denying the Taiwan Strait as an air defense buffer
zone for the Taiwan Air Force. Jane’s reports that China may be funding the
development of the even longer-range S-400 missile, while Asian sources report
that China may be co-producing the deadly short range TOR-M1,44 which can
shoot down precision-guided cruise missiles and bombs.255
Mines. A detailed open-source discussion of China’s naval mining capabilities
appeared in the Winter 2007 edition of Undersea Warfare, a publication of the U.S.
Navy’s submarine community. Because such discussions are few in number, it is
excerpted here at length. The except runs for about five pages. The authors state
that, compared to the China’s submarine modernization effort,
Less well understood by naval analysts and planners is the People’s Liberation
Army (PLA) Navy’s dynamic mine warfare component. It is important to
understand this emerging capability, because sea mines appear to be a big
component of Beijing’s Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW) strategy....
The major conclusions of [a larger study that surveyed nearly one thousand
Chinese language articles related to mine warfare] are that China’s naval mine
inventory likely contains some of the world’s most lethal systems and that
Beijing may be on the cutting edge of mine warfare (MIW) technology and
concept development. The study elucidates a preliminary outline of a Chinese
MIW doctrine that emphasizes speed, psychology, obfuscation, a mix of old and
new technologies, and a variety of deployment methods that target very specific
U.S. Navy platforms and doctrines....
It seems that the PLA Navy sees mine warfare as a feasible “poor man’s ASW”
— providing a stopgap measure until Beijing has put a more robust ASW
posture into place. Chinese strategists note that “submarines are acutely
vulnerable to mines, because passive sonar is not likely to be effective in locating
mines, and because submarines have very limited organic256 mine counter
measures (MCM) capabilities.”...
Lacking a substantial modern naval history, Chinese naval analysts are
scrupulously analyzing foreign naval history for lessons to facilitate their
development, and have duly noted the potential for mine warfare to “baffle the
enemy, and thus achieve exceptional combat results.”... Perhaps not surprisingly,
Chinese naval strategists have a keen understanding of Soviet naval doctrine,
appreciating in particular how mine warfare was revived during the late Cold
War in part for the purpose of countering American nuclear powered fast-attack
255
Prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a March 16, 2006, hearing before the
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission hearing, p. 11.
256
“Organic” here mines MCM capabilities that are installed on the submarine itself and are
therefore intrinsic (i.e., organic) to the submarine.
CRS-116
submarines (SSNs). Indeed, one Chinese survey of ASW explains how new
mines emerged in the 1980s “that are more appropriate to the requirements of
modern anti-submarine warfare.” A detailed Chinese analysis of Russian rocket
mines concludes: “…these weapons will attack SSNs too rapidly for
countermeasures to engage, and are also rated to be highly effective against the
mono-hull construction of U.S. submarines.” Chinese strategists have also very
closely analyzed the mine warfare aspects of the Persian Gulf War during
1990-91, noting that although two U.S. Navy (USN) ships were severely
damaged, Iraq’s MIW campaign had numerous flaws, including an
“inappropriate reliance on moored mines [and a failure to execute] long range
offensive mine warfare operations.” It is now conventional wisdom in the PLA
Navy that “relative to other combat mission areas, [the U.S. Navy’s] mine
warfare capabilities are extremely weak.”
PLA Navy strategists envision a wide array of platforms (including
non-military vessels) for delivery of sea mines for operational deployment.
Having systematically analyzed the advantages and disadvantages of these
mine-laying platforms, they appear to have concluded that submarine delivery of
mines is optimal for offensive, and especially long-range offensive, mining
missions....
China reportedly possesses between 50,000 and 100,000 mines, consisting
of “over 30 varieties of contact, magnetic, acoustic, water pressure and mixed
reaction sea mines, remote control sea mines, rocket-rising and mobile mines….”
People’s Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) submarines are said to use the Chen-1,
-2, -3, and -6 type influence mines, “appropriate for use in the sea area
immediately outside of harbor mouths;” the T-5 mobile mine, “appropriate for
port channels and sea areas immediately outside a port;” and the Soviet-produced
PMK-1 and the Chinese-developed Mao-5 rocket rising mines, “appropriate for
waters up to 15 kilometers outside a port.”
China’s remotely controlled mines, such as the EM53 bottom influence
mine, are thought to be deactivated by coded acoustic signals to allow the safe
passage of friendly vessels, and again activated to prevent the transit of those of
an enemy....
China likely also possesses an inventory of submarine launched mobile
mines (SLMMs). Called “self-navigating mines” (zihang shuilei) in Chinese,
these mines are simply torpedo bodies that carry a mine payload to waters
inaccessible by other means. Apparently derived from Yu-class torpedoes,
China’s SLMMs would travel along a user-determined course for a set period of
time. When SLMMs arrived at their programmed destination (e.g. in the middle
of a harbor), the torpedo’s engine would shut off, and the weapon would sink to
the bottom where the warhead would be controlled by a fuse similar to that of
any other bottom mine.
Significantly, China began to develop rocket rising mines in 1981 and
produced its first prototype in 1989. Thus, Beijing has been working on this
technology for well over two decades. Today, China reportedly offers two types
of rising mines for export. Rising mine systems are moored, but have as their
floating payload a torpedo or explosive-tipped rocket that is released when the
mine system detects a suitable passing vessel. The torpedo or rocket rises from
deep depth to home in on and destroy its intended target, typically a submarine.
As one source notes, “The so-called ‘directional rocket rising sea mine’ is a type
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of high technology sea mine with accurate control and guidance and initiative
attack capacity.… Attack speed [e.g., against a target submarine] can reach
approximately 80 meters per second.” China’s EM52, a guided rocket propelled
destructive charge, reportedly has an operating depth of at least 200 meters.
Russian rising torpedo mines such as the PMK-2 are said to be capable of being
laid in waters as deep as 2,000 meters.
Recent focus on rocket rising mine development indicates for China “a new
understanding of the art of sea mine warfare [whereby] it is essential to
implement effective sea mine warfare over a vast range of deep sea areas [and to]
develop and equip rocket sea mines capable of … mobile attack.” The PLA Navy
is therefore augmenting its existing inventory of 1970s-80s mines designed to
defend littoral areas, most of which “can only be deployed in shallow seas,” and
only a fraction of which can be deployed in medium depths. In particular,
China’s navy has “started to outfit vertical rocket rising sea mines, and is
energetically developing directional rocket sea mines, rocket rising guided
missile sea mines and rocket assisted propulsion sea mines.”
An article in China’s leading naval publication refers to Russia as “the
world’s ‘sea mine kingdom.’” China has reportedly imported Russian mines,
technology, and even engineers to bolster its indigenous MIW programs. In this
domain of warfare, Russia’s wide-ranging assistance has been a natural fit for
PLA priorities. While the true scope of this collaboration remains unknown,
Chinese analysts have clearly developed a sophisticated understanding of
Russian mine development and doctrine. They note that Soviet interest in sea
mines actually waned under Khrushchev, but was subsequently reinvigorated in
the late 1960s, as it was realized that for conventional war scenarios, sea mines
would play an ever greater role. One Chinese article emphasizes that Russia “has
continuously paid great attention to the development of high speed undersea
rocket techniques.”
Ongoing Chinese research foci suggest, however, that Beijing is not content
to rely solely on Russian mines and technology. China appears, for instance, to
be keenly interested in developing and enhancing the effectiveness of its
indigenous deep water rising mines. Scientists at China’s Naval Aviation
Engineering and Dalian Naval academies have developed methods to predict
rocket propelled mine attack probability. A variety of additional studies have
analyzed launch platform stability, underwater rocket propulsion, and launch
trajectory. Additional naval mine research examines target tracking, blast
maximization, and damage to ships. Researchers at one of China’s top technical
universities have analyzed the extent to which targets can react to and evade deep
water rising mines, and suggest using the passive signature of target vessels to
aim the mines.
Submarines have attracted particular attention as a deployment platform for
rising mines. An article by Dalian Naval Academy researchers suggests
significant PLAN interest in SLMMs. A researcher at Institute 705 advocates
acquisition of an encapsulated torpedo mine, similar to the Cold War-era U.S.
Captor mine, which could be laid in very deep waters to attack passing
submarines. Mine belts — external conformal containers designed to carry and
release large numbers of mines — can be fitted to submarines in order to bolster
their otherwise limited payloads. One article emphasizes that the Soviet navy
developed a “mine laying module capable of carrying 50 sea mines on either side
of the submarine” and states, “For the past few years related PLA experts have
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expressed pronounced interest in submarine mine belts…. The PLA very
probably has already developed submarine mine belts.” Another source notes,
however, that “submarines built after World War II rarely carry mines
externally.”
Disturbingly, there is some discussion of a theoretical nature in Chinese
naval analyses concerning arming sea mines with tactical nuclear weapons. One
such analysis, in the context of discussing Russian MIW, notes that nuclear sea
mines could sink adversary nuclear submarines from a range of 2000 meters....
A second article finds that a nuclear payload is one logical method to increase
the destructive power of sea mines, while a third analysis argues that nuclear
MIW is especially promising for future deep-water ASW operations. It
concludes: “At this time, various countries are actively researching this
extremely powerful nuclear-armed sea mine.” An article in the July 2006 issue
of Modern Navy (Dangdai Haijun), published by the PLA Navy itself, in the
context of discussing potential future PLA Navy use of sea mines, also notes the
potential combat value of nuclear-armed sea mines. While there is no direct
evidence of the existence of such naval tactical nuclear weapons programs in
China, these articles do perhaps suggest the need to closely monitor any Chinese
efforts in this direction.
Recent Chinese MIW exercises have involved air, surface and even civilian
platforms extensively. Of particular interest in this forum, however, is that
China’s navy also considers mine laying from submarines to be “the most basic
requirement of submarine warfare.” Mine-laying has become an integral
component of recently enhanced Chinese submarine force training in which
crews strive to conduct a wider variety of increasingly challenging exercises
attuned to local environmental, hydrographic, and weather conditions. Such
exercises are documented in some detail in the PLA Navy’s official newspaper,
People’s Navy (Renmin Haijun). In particular, China’s navy views submarine
delivery of mines as a critical aspect of future blockade operations. By 2002,
mine-laying had become one of the most common PLAN submarine combat
methods. Accordingly, PLAN crews train to handle submarines loaded with large
quantities of mines. Drill variants include “‘hiding and laying mines in deep
water.’” Broad and deep mine-laying against port targets is also emphasized.
Chinese naval officers recognize the challenges inherent in “penetrating the
enemy’s anti-submarine forces and laying mines behind enemy lines.” According
to one PLA Navy captain, “Secretly penetrating the combined mobile formation
deployed by the enemy’s anti-submarine forces is a prerequisite to fulfilling the
mine-laying task.” There is some evidence that China may rely on centralized
control of its submarines when conducting offensive mining missions. In carrying
out offensive mine blockades, notes one Chinese analysis, “…if there is a
shore-based submarine command post to handle command and guidance of the
submarine for its entire course, it will not only ensure its concealment but also
improve the strike effectiveness of the mines… that are laid.”
The Chinese Navy is working hard to improve the quality of its submarine
officers and sailors, including their proficiency in MIW....
What would PLA Navy MIW operations look like in any potential conflict
scenario? It is possible to imagine the extensive deployment of Chinese sea
mines in conflicts arising out of hostilities in the South China Sea, or a possible
conflict involving the Korean Peninsula. But the most operative scenario for
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Chinese defense analysts now and in the foreseeable future involves the delicate
future status of Taiwan.
The bathymetry of the waters proximate to Taiwan immediately reveals that
the Taiwan Strait itself, as well as waters to the immediate north and south
(adjacent to the island’s largest ports), are shallow enough to create an
environment for the use of all types of mines. Although Taiwan’s eastern coast
has deeper waters, the authors nevertheless believe that by relying on a
combination method of deployment (air, surface, submarine and civilian) that a
major Chinese MIW campaign could efficiently blockade Taiwan, especially if
working in concert with the PLA Navy’s submarine force. Chinese analysts,
moreover, assess that Taiwan’s MCM is inadequate to this challenge and that
efforts by Taiwan to deploy its own mines could be dealt with by the PLA.
The above scenario represents the minimum that could be expected from
offensive PLA MIW operations in a Taiwan scenario. One Chinese study on
ASW suggests that mines are best employed against adversary submarines by
laying “mines in the egress routes proximate to the enemy’s bases… thus limiting
the ability of enemy submarines to get out to the ocean.” Indeed, it is conceivable
that the PLA Navy could attempt to lay mines outside foreign bases. Such ranges
are well within the endurance limits of PLA Navy submarines. When considering
long distance offensive MIW operations, it is perhaps noteworthy that Chinese
naval analysts have evaluated the “success” of German submarine mining efforts
along the American coast during WWII. The waters around Japan’s southern
Ryukyus are also susceptible to Chinese offensive mining operations. Another
article suggests: “On the basis of a great quantity of research, the PLA believes
that U.S. nuclear submarines are very quiet, [are] difficult to… counterattack…
[and] must [be] restrained….” According to this analysis, this concern has been
a major impetus for Chinese research on mobile mines and the priority would be
laying “[mobile] sea mines in each channel of the Pacific [Ocean’s] First Island
Chain, thereby forming together [a] blockade line [and] preventing U.S. nuclear
submarines from entering China’s nearby sea areas.”...
Although China’s naval development program remains rather opaque, it is clear
mine warfare is a dynamic component of that program. The sources discussed
above further suggest mine warfare may be a central component of China’s
evolving ASW doctrine. This has a variety of important implications. First and
foremost, a strong consciousness with respect to the Chinese mine challenge
should be developed. Training and doctrine must adjust accordingly. Programs
related to submarine mine detection and neutralization deserve additional
impetus. Second, the Navy should be actively involved in a mine warfare
deterrence strategy. Nations should understand that the widespread use of mines
in any maritime conflict would be extremely costly as these weapons could be
deployed effectively against themselves. Finally, U.S. Navy planning must
consider that the PLA Navy is preparing a strategy to counter American SSNs,
such that deployment in a conflict scenario would entail new risks.257
In another article, these same observers (plus an additional fourth author) state:
257
Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “China’s Undersea Sentries,”
Undersea Warfare, Winter 2007, available online at [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/
cno/n87/usw/issue_33/china.html]
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While the overall impression [produced by a review of Chinese military
literature] is that of [a] Chinese [self-assessment of] ASW [antisubmarine
warfare] weakness, there is one notable exception. Significant prioritization
appears to be given to the use of sea mines for the antisubmarine mission, as if
to produce a “poor man’s ASW capability.” One discussion explains, “Because
of a tremendous change in the maritime strategic environment, since the early
1990s the PLA has made mobile ASW sea mines a focal point of weapons
development.” The analysis continues, “[China] is energetically undertaking the
research mission [of] using [mobile ASW sea mines] against U.S. nuclear
submarines.” The same discussion also hints at a possible PLA Navy ASW role:
“The major mission of self-guided sea mines is to isolate American nuclear
submarines outside the First Island Chain.”258
Two of these same authors stated in a presentation in 2004 that China has
a large inventory of mines. And we see a tremendous interest in some of the
most modern deadly mines going. These deep water rising mines [on the
projection screen] can be purchased from Russia. They have tremendous ability
to mine deeper waters where we would prefer to operate. So what we would
consider to have been a haven [for U.S. Navy ships] may no longer be a haven.259
ONI stated in 2004 that:
China is developing and exporting numerous advanced mines of all types. One
example is the wireless remote controlled EM57, a mine that offers many tactical
options. For example, the mine can be turned off and on remotely to prolong its
life, or it can be activated and deactivated to allow safe passage for friendly
vessels.260
DOD stated in 2003 that the PLA’s mines
include bottom and moored influence mines, mobile mines, remotely controlled
mines, command-detonated mines, and propelled-warhead mines. Use of
propelled-warhead mines in deep waters has the potential to deny enemy naval
formations large operational areas.261
DOD stated in 2002 that China “likely has enough mine warfare assets to lay a
good defensive and a modest offensive minefield using a wide variety of launch
platforms.”262
258
Gabriel Collins, Andrew Erickson, Lyle Goldstein, and William Murray, “Chinese
Evaluations of the U.S. Navy Submarine Force,” Naval College War Review, Winter 2008:
78-79.
259
Statement of Lyle J. Goldstein and William Murray as printed in Hearing On Military
Modernization and Cross-Strait Balance, Hearing Before the U.S.-China Economic and
Security Review Commission, February 6, 2004. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 2004,
p. 133. See also p. 152.
260
2004 ONI WMC, p. 19.
261
2003 DOD CMP, p. 27.
262
2002 DOD CMP, p. 23.
CRS-121
DOD stated in 2000 that:
The PLAN’s mine stockpiles include vintage Russian moored-contact and bottom
influence mines, as well as an assortment of domestically built mines. China
currently produces the EM11 bottom-influence mine; the EM31 moored mine;
the EM32 moored influence mine; the EM52 rocket-propelled rising mine; and,
the EM-53 ship-laid bottom influence mine which is remotely controlled by a
shore station. China is believed to have available acoustically activated remote
control technology for its EM53. This technology probably could be used with
other Chinese ship-laid mines including the EM52. Application of this
technology could allow entire mines to be laid in advance of hostilities in a
dormant position and activated or deactivated when required. China reportedly
has completed development of a mobile mine and may be producing improved
variants of Russian bottom mines and moored-influence mines. Over the next
decade, China likely will attempt to acquire advanced propelled-warhead mines,
as well as submarine-launched mobile bottom mines.263
Nuclear Weapons. Regarding the potential use of nuclear weapons against
U.S. Navy forces, a 2004 study stated that
there is some evidence the PLA considers nuclear weapons to be a useful element
of an anti-access strategy. In addition to the nuclear-capable [ballistic] missiles...
China has nuclear bombs and aircraft to carry them, and is reported to have
nuclear mines for use at sea and nuclear anti-ship missiles. At the very least,
China would expect the presence of these weapons and the threat to use them to
be a significant deterrent to American action.264
Regarding the possibility of China using a high-altitude nuclear detonation to
create an EMP effect, DOD stated in 2005 that:
Some PLA theorists are aware of the electromagnetic effects of using a
high-altitude nuclear burst to generate high-altitude electromagnetic pulse
(HEMP), and might consider using HEMP as an unconventional attack, believing
the United States and other nations would not interpret it as a use of force and as
crossing the nuclear threshold. This capability would most likely be used as part
of a larger campaign to intimidate, if not decapitate, the Taiwan leadership.
HEMP causes a substantial change in the ionization of the upper atmosphere,
including the ionosphere and magnetosphere. These effects likely would result
in the degradation of important war fighting capabilities, such as key
communication links, radar transmissions, and the full spectrum of electro-optic
sensors. Additional effects could include severe disruptions to civil
electric/power and transportation. These effects cannot easily be localized to
Taiwan and would likely affect the mainland, Japan, the Philippines, and
commercial shipping and air routes in the region.265
263
2000 DOD CMP, section on subsurface warfare.
264
The Chinese Military, An Emerging Maritime Challenge, Washington, Lexington
Institute, 2004, pp. 13-14.
265
2005 DOD CMP, p. 40.
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Whether China would agree with the above view that EMP effects could not
easily be localized to Taiwan and surrounding waters is not clear. The effective
radius of a high-altitude EMP burst is dependent to a strong degree on the altitude at
which the warhead is exploded (the higher the altitude, the greater the radius).266
China might therefore believe that it could detonate a nuclear warhead somewhere
east of Taiwan at a relatively low altitude, so that the resulting EMP radius would be
sufficient to affect systems in Taiwan and on surface ships in surrounding waters, but
not great enough to reach systems on China’s mainland.267 Following the detonation,
China could attempt to confuse the issue in the public arena of whose nuclear
warhead had detonated. Alternatively, China could claim that the missile launch was
an accident, and that China command-detonated the warhead at altitude as a failsafe
measure, to prevent it from detonating closer to the surface and destroying any nearby
ships.268
266
A report by the Office of Technology Assessment (a congressional support agency that
was closed in 1995), stated: “The size of the area that could be affected by EMP is
primarily determined by the height of burst and is only very weakly dependent on the yield.”
(MX Missile Basing. Washington, Office of Technology Assessment, 1981. (September
1981) p. 297. The document is available on the Internet at [http://www.fas.org/ota/
reports/8116.pdf].
267
CRS Report RL32544, op cit., states that “creating a HEMP [high-altitude EMP] effect
over an area 250 miles in diameter [i.e., a radius of 125 miles], an example size for a
battlefield, might only require a rocket with a modest altitude and payload capability that
could loft a relatively small nuclear device.”
One observer stated in 1999 that a detonation height of 200 kilometers (108 nautical miles)
would produce an EMP effect out to a radius of about 1,600 kilometers (864 nautical
miles), while a detonation height of 50 kilometers would produce an EMP effect out to a
radius of about 800 kilometers (432 nautical miles). (Written Statement by Dr. Michael
Bernardin, Provost for the Theoretical Institute for Thermonuclear and Nuclear Studies,
Applied Theoretical and Computational Physics Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory,
before the Military Research and Development Subcommittee of the House Armed Services
Committee, October 7, 1999.)
A map presented by another observer shows that a detonation height of 100 kilometers (54
nautical miles) would produce an EMP effect out to a radius of about 1,000 kilometers (540
nautical miles). (Statement of Dr. Gary Smith, Director, The Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory, before Military Research and Development Subcommittee of
the House Armed Services Committee, July 16, 1996.)
Another published map stated in 2000 that a detonation height of 30 miles would produce
an EMP effect out to a radius of 480 miles. A source note attached to the map attributes it
to the above-cited July 16, 1997 testimony of Gary Smith. (See page 3 of Jack Spencer,
America’s Vulnerability To A Different Nuclear Threat: An Electromagnetic Pulse.
Washington, Heritage Foundation, 2000. 7 pp. (Backgrounder No. 1372, May 26, 2000)
The document is available at [http://www.heritage.org/Research/MissileDefense/
bg1372.cfm]).
268
Even if China does not have the capability to command the early detonation of a warhead
on a ballistic missile in flight, it could claim afterward that it did.
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High-Power Microwave (HPM) Weapons. Regarding radio-frequency
weapons, DOD stated in 2006 that:
Chinese technicians are working to develop several types of “new concept”
weapon systems, two of which are radio frequency and laser-based systems.
Long-range beam weapons would use narrow radio frequency (RF) beams
to engage targets such as aircraft or precision guided munitions (PGMs).
Short-range systems would be packaged into missiles or artillery shells and
launched into the vicinity of targets such as radars or command posts before
releasing an RF pulse. In recent years, the application of RF weapons has
expanded to include deployment on small vehicles or in suitcases for targeting
critical military or civilian infrastructures where close access is possible.
PRC officials have publicly indicated their intent to acquire RF weapons
as a means of defeating technologically advanced military forces. Chinese
writings have suggested that RF weapons could be used against C4ISR, guided
missiles, computer networks, electronically-fused mines, aircraft carrier battle
groups, and satellites in orbit.
Analysis of Chinese technical literature indicates a major effort is underway
to develop the technologies required for RF weapons, including high-power
radiofrequency sources, prime-power generators, and antennas to radiate RF
pulses.269
One observer stated in 2005 that “at least one U.S. source indicates the PLA has
developed” non-nuclear radio frequency warheads for ballistic missiles.270 When
asked at a hearing in 2005 about the possibility of China using a nuclear weapon to
generate an EMP effect against Taiwan and U.S. naval forces, this observer stated:
What worries me more, Congressman, is non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse
weapons. Non-nuclear explosive propelled radio frequency or EMP-like devices
that could be used with far greater frequency and far more effect because they
would not run the danger for China of prompting a possible nuclear response.
Thereby it would be much more tempting to use and use effectively.
If you could combine a non-nuclear radio frequency weapon with a
maneuvering ballistic missile of the type that the Pentagon report describes very
briefly this year, that would constitute a real Assassin’s Mace weapon. One that,
in my opinion, we cannot defend ourselves against and would possibly
effectively deny effective military — effective American military intervention
in the event of — not just a Taiwan crisis, but other crises as well.271
269
2006 DOD CMP, p. 34.
270
Prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a July 27, 2005, hearing before the
House Armed Services Committee, p. 6. A footnote at this point in Fisher’s statement says
this information was: “Disclosed to the author by a U.S. source in September 2004.” See
also page 9.
271
Transcript of spoken testimony of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., at July 27, 2005 hearing before
House Armed Services Committee, in response to a question from Representative Curt
Weldon.
CRS-124
Aircraft.
Land-Based Aircraft. In addition to the land-based aircraft discussed earlier
in this report, China’s front-line naval aircraft include, among other models, 110 J-8
Finback fighters (with another 450 or more in the air force); 70 Q-5 (Fantan-A)
fighters (a derivative of the J-6 design); 100 J-7 (MiG-21-like) fighters; about 30 H6D/H-6X (Tu-16 Badger-type) maritime bombers/reconnaissance aircraft; 3 KJ-2000
AWACS aircraft based on the A-50 Mainstay/Il-76 airframe; perhaps 30 older H-5
(Il-28 Beagle-type) maritime strike aircraft; 4 SH-5 amphibious ASW/multipurpose
airplanes; and 3 Y-8X maritime patrol aircraft. One observer stated in 2007 that
“Xian Aircraft has also begun test flying a new variant of the BADGER, designated
H-6K. Redesigned to accommodate Russian DA-30 turbo fans, the aircraft has been
seen with six pylons for air-launched anti-ship missiles. If tests go well, the fuel
economy of the DA-30 and greater reliability will likely result in the replacement of
all H-6D aircraft.”272
Regarding land-based aircraft, DOD stated in 2007:
China has more than 700 combat aircraft based within an un-refueled
operational range of Taiwan and the airfi eld capacity to expand that number
significantly. Many aircraft in the PLA force structure are upgrades of older
models (e.g., re-engined B-6 bombers for extended ranges); however, newer
aircraft make up a growing percentage of the inventory.
— The PLA Air Force (PLAAF) is deploying the F-10 multi-role fighter to
operational units. The F-10, a fourth generation aircraft, will be China’s premier
fighter in the coming decades.
— China is now producing the multi-role Su-27SMK/FLANKER (F-11A)
fighter under a licensed co-production agreement with Russia following an initial
production run of Su-27SKs (F-11). China is employing increasing numbers of
the multi-role Su-30MKK/FLANKER fighter-bomber and its naval variant, the
Su-30MK2.
— Chinese aircraft are armed with an increasingly sophisticated array of
air-to-air and air-to-surface weapons, satellite and laser-guided precision
munitions, and cruise missiles....
— Improvements to the FB-7 fighter program will enable this older aircraft to
perform nighttime maritime strike operations and use improved weapons such as
the Kh-31P (AS-17) anti-radiation missile and KAB-500 laser-guided
munitions.273
DOD also stated in 2007 that:
PLA air defense has shifted from point defense of key military, industrial,
and political targets to a new Joint Anti-Air Raid Campaign based on a modern,
integrated air defense system and offensive and defensive counter-air operations.
272
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 30.
273
2007 DOD CMP, p. 4.
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These operations extend beyond the defense of Chinese airspace to include
strikes against an adversary’s bases (including aircraft carriers) and logistics to
degrade the adversary’s ability to conduct air operations.
The air defense component of anti-access/area-denial includes SAMs such
as the SA-10, SA-20, HQ-9, HQ-15, and extended-range C2 suites such as the
S-300PMU2. Beijing will also use Russian-built and domestic fourth-generation
aircraft (e.g., Su-27 and Su-30 FLANKER variants, and the indigenous F-10).
The PLA Navy would employ recently acquired Russian Su-30MK2 fighters,
armed with AS-17/Kh-31A anti-ship missiles. The acquisition of refueling
aircraft, including the Russian IL-78/MIDAS and the indigenously developed
B-6U refueling aircraft, will extend operational ranges for PLAAF and PLA
Navy strike aircraft armed with precision munitions, thereby increasing the threat
to surface and air forces distant from China’s coast. Additionally, acquisition of
UAVs and UCAVs, including the Israeli HARPY, expands China’s options for
long-range reconnaissance and strike.274
Another observer stated in 2007:
Although the modernization of the PLA Air Force has taken a backseat to
nuclear, space, and naval development, the PLAAF is a much more modern
fighting force in 2007 than it was in 1997. It now boasts about 450 advanced
fighter aircraft, including about 300 Russian-designed fourth-generation Su-27
Flankers and Chinese Jian-11s and 76 Su-30MKK fighter-bombers, which
display substantial ground attack capabilities and are armed with Russia’s most
advanced air-to-air missiles.
In January 2007, the PLAAF unveiled its new Jian-10 multirole fighter jet,
which is based on the Israeli Lavi airframe, itself an evolutionary offshoot of the
F-16. As of March 2007, the PLAAF had reportedly deployed 60 Jian-10s, with
the total production run estimated at around 250. Although its forward-wing
canards are a novelty among Chinese-designed fighters, the Jian-10’s most
remarkable characteristic is its midair refueling module. The PLAAF has been
practicing in-flight refueling since at least 2005 with both Su-27 and older Jian-8
fighters. Following Peace Mission 2005, a joint Chinese — Russian military
exercise on China’s Shandong peninsula, China contracted for six to 10
Illyushin-78s configured as aerial refueling platforms and 30 Illyushin-76 cargo
aircraft configured for paratroop drops.
The increasing size of China’s fourth-generation fighter fleet, which is
heavily armed with the latest Russian and Chinese air-to-air missiles and
equipped with fire control systems and refueling modules, gives the PLAAF a
technological and numerical edge in the Taiwan Strait.275
Submarines.
The paragraphs below discuss China’s submarine
modernization effort in more detail on a class-by-class basis.
274
275
2007 DOD CMP, p. 18.
John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 13-14.
CRS-126
Jin-class (Type 094) SSBN. China is building a new class of SSBN known
as the Jin class or Type 094. One observer stated in 2008 that:
The first of [this] class became operational as a submarine in mid-2007 and
[will become operational] as a ballistic missile submarine in 2008-09, depending
on the successful introduction into service of the JL-2 missile. Four further boats
are thought to be under construction [after the first two] and are likely to
commission at two year intervals. A class of six is projected.276
This observer also stated in 2008 that the Jin-class design is “Likely to be based
on the Type 093 SSN design which in turn is believed to be derived from the Russian
Victor III [class] design.”277 Another observer stated in 2007:
The future mission of the missile submarines appears to be regional because
the range of the missiles and operational constraints facing the submarines limit
the targets that can be held at risk. The range of the Julang-2 is estimated by the
US intelligence community at more than 8,000 km (4,970+ miles), which brings
Hawaii and Alaska (but not the continental United States) within reach from
Chinese territorial waters. Assuming they made it out of port past lurking U.S.
attack submarines, the Chinese missile submarines would have to sail through the
narrow straight between South Korea and Japan into the Sea of Japan for its
Julang-2 missiles to be able to strike the Seattle area.
The Bo Hai Bay has been suggested as a possible deployment area for
China’s missile submarines because it would offer more protection against
hostile attack submarines. From the shallow bay, the Julang-2 missiles could be
used to target Guam and Alaska, India, Russia, and — at the limit of its range —
Hawaii.
There are also rumors - one apparently even with a photo — that China may
plan to homeport some of its ballistic missile submarines at the new submarine
base under construction at Hainan Island in the South China Sea. The
infrastructure includes what appears to be a waterway entrance to an
underground facility similar to the underground facility at Jianggezhuang
submarine base near Qingdao where the Xia is based. Hainan Island has access
to deeper waters than Jianggezhuang, but is also less protected. From Hainan
Island the Julang-2 would be within range of Guam, India and most of Russia,
but not Hawaii.
The U.S. Navy has assessed that China might build as many as five
Jin-class submarines “in order to provide more redundancy and capacity for a
near-continuous at-sea SSBN presence,” but is yet unclear whether China plans
to develop a near-continuous sea-based deterrent or just a surge capability for
deployment in a crisis. If all current ballistic missile boats became fully
276
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 120. This source also states, on page 30 (Executive
Overview), that “Building of the Type 094 Jin-class ballistic missile submarines continues
and recent imagery has confirmed both the existence of the first two boats and that they are
quipped with 12 missile tubes. However, until a JL-2 missile launch has been successfully
achieved, they remain non-operational.” DOD stated in 2008 that up to five might be built.
(2008 DOD CMP, p. 25.)
277
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 120.
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operational, China could deploy a maximum of 36 warheads at sea, although at
least one of the boats would probably be in overhaul at any given time. Whatever
the future mission, absent any deterrent patrols so far, the Chinese military will
first have to learn how to operate the missile submarines in a way that would
matter.278
Shang-class (Type 093) SSN. China has built a new class of SSN, called
the Shang (or Type 093) class. The boats are viewed as replacements for at least
some of China’s five aging Han-class (Type 091) SSNs, which entered service
between 1974 and 1990.279 (The first Han-class boat was reportedly decommissioned
in 2003, and observers expect the other four will be decommissioned as replacement
boats enter service.280) DOD stated in 2007 that the first Shang-class SSN began sea
trials in 2005.281 The first was commissioned in 2006 and the second in 2007.
A total of five boats has been expected, but one observer stated in 2008 that
“Following the entry into service of two units of the Shang class, it is believed that
construction of further [nuclear-powered] attack submarines is in progress. These are
likely to be a modified evolutionary design, possibly to be known as the Type 095
class.”282 Another observer stated in 2007 that “[the] Pentagon estimates 3-4 [units]
in commission by 2010, with requirements likely to run to eight to ten submarines
(providing mostly escort for ‘Jin’ [class SSBNs] and the ‘Xia’ No. 406 SSBN.)”283
Observers believe the Shang-class SSNs will likely represent a substantial
improvement over the reportedly fairly noisy Han class SSNs. The Shang class
reportedly was designed in conjunction with Russian experts and is derived from the
Soviet Victor III-class SSN design that was first deployed by the Soviet Union
around 1978. The Victor III was the first in a series of quieter Soviet SSN designs
that, by the mid-1980s, led to substantial concern among U.S. Navy officials that the
Soviet Union was closing the U.S. lead in SSN technology and thereby creating what
278
Hans M. Kristensen, “Chinese Submarine Patrols Rebound in 2007, but Remain
Limited,” Federation of American Scientists Strategic Security Blog, available online at
[http://www.fas.org/blog/ssp/2008/01/chinese_submarine_patrols_rebo.php].
279
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 122.
280
Another observer paints a somewhat different picture of plans for the Han class, stating:
“[The] Type 091/09 (Han) [class boat with the hull number] #403 underwent modernization
and overhaul during 2003-04, including [an] 8m hull extension possibly to accommodate [a]
new towed passive array, [a] new bow sonar, plus [the] ability to fire Ying-ji-82 ASuW
[anti-surface warfare] torpedoes. Others are expected to be modernized in similar fashion.
#401 is non-operational, [and] maybe [it will be] next scheduled for re-build and
modernisation beginning 2007.” (Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No.
1, 2007:24.)
281
2007 DOD CMP, p. 3.
282
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 121. See also p. 30 (Executive Overview).
283
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 20.
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Navy officials described an antisubmarine warfare (ASW) “crisis” for the U.S.
Navy.284
Regarding the Jin- and Shang-class programs, one set of observers stated in
2007:
Whereas the Yuan’s debut allegedly surprised Western analysts, the
emergence of China’s [Type] 093 SSN and [Type] 094 SSBN has been
anticipated for some time. Nevertheless, these programs remain shrouded in
mystery, and there is little consensus regarding their operational and strategic
significance. In the broadest terms, it can be said that a successful [Type] 093
program will significantly enlarge the scope of Chinese submarine operations,
perhaps ultimately serving as the cornerstone of a genuine blue-water navy. The
[Type] 094 could take the survivability of China’s nuclear deterrent to a new
level, potentially enabling more aggressive posturing by Beijing in a crisis.
Moreover, these platforms are entering the PLA Navy (PLAN) at a time when
reductions are projected to occur in the U.S. Navy submarine force; that fact was
duly noted by a senior PLAN strategist recently in one of China’s premier naval
journals.285
These observers also stated in 2007 that:
Chinese sources universally recognize that noise reduction is one of the greatest
challenges in building an effective nuclear submarine. PRC scientists have long
been conducting research concerning the fundamental sources of propeller noise.
For instance, experts at China Ship Scientific Research Center developed a
relatively advanced guide-vane propeller by the late 1990s. This, and the fact that
China already has advanced seven-blade propellers with cruciform vortex
dissipaters on its indigenous Song-class and imported Kilo-class diesel
submarines, suggests that the [Type] 093 and [Type] 094 will have significantly
improved propellers. A researcher in Qingdao’s 4808 Factory also demonstrates
Chinese attention to the need to use sound-isolation couplings to prevent
transmission of vibrations to the ocean from major fresh-water circulating pumps
in the steam cycle. Advanced composite materials are credited with capability to
absorb vibrations and sound.
One Chinese researcher states that the [Type] 093 is not as quiet as the U.S.
Seawolf class or Virginia class but is on a par with the improved Los Angeles
class. Another analyst estimates that the [Type] 093’s noise level has been
reduced to that of the Russian Akula-class submarine at 110 decibels. He states
that the [Type] 094’s acoustic signature has been reduced to 120 decibels.
According to this report, this is definitely not equal to that of the Ohio class, but
is on a par with the Los Angeles. There is no additional information given to
evaluate concerning the origins or comparability of these “data.”286
284
See, for example, Ronald O’Rourke, “Maintaining the Edge in US ASW,” Navy
International, July/August 1988, pp. 348-354.
285
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 55-56.
286
Andrew S. Erickson and Lyle J. Goldstein, “China’s Future Submarine Force: Insights
From Chinese Writings,” Naval War College Review, Winter 2007: 67.
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Kilo-class SS. China ordered four Kilo-class SSs from Russia in 1993; the
ships entered service in 1995-1999. The first two were of the less capable (but still
fairly capable) Project 877 variant, which Russia has exported to several countries;
the other two were of the more capable Project 636 variant that Russia had previously
reserved for its own use.
China in 2002 ordered eight additional Kilos from Russia, reportedly all of the
Project 636 design. The eight boats were delivered in 2004-2006. The eight Kilos
are believed to be armed with wire-guided and wake-homing torpedoes, and with the
Russian-made SS-N-27 Sizzler ASCM, also known as the Novator Alfa Klub 3M54E — a highly capable ASCM that might as difficult to shoot down, or perhaps
even more difficult to shoot down, than the SS-N-22 Sunburn ASCM on China’s
Russian-made Sovremenny-class destroyers (see discussion below on surface
combatants). The four Kilos commissioned in 1995-1999 are expected to be refitted
in Russia; upgrades could include installation of the SS-N-27 ASCM. One observer
stated in 2007 that the boats might also be fitted at some point with the Russian-made
Shkval supercavitating, high-speed (200-knot) torpedo.287
Yuan-class (Type 041; aka Type 039A) SS. China is building a new class
of SS called the Yuan (or Type 041) class. The first Yuan-class boat, whose
appearance reportedly came as a surprise to western observers,288 was launched (i.e.,
put into the water for the final stage of construction) in 2004 and entered service in
2006. One observer stated in 2008 that:
Production of the second of class was delayed by trials [i.e., at-sea tests] of
the first of class. Series production is expected to proceed and the third boat is
expected to be launched [i.e., put into the water for final construction] in 2008....
The boat appears to be a Chinese indigenous design. Shorter and broader
than the Song class, it exhibits some of the features of the Russian Kilo class
design including a teardrop-shaped hull with a distinctive ‘hump’ and large fin.
The teardrop shape suggests a pressurised double hull construction. The stern
of the boat resembles the Song class; the single shaft has a seven-bladed
propeller. The submarine is covered with anechoic tiles. The submarine is
believed to incporate air-independent propulsion [AIP] using Stirling engine
technology.289
287
In discussing the weapons to be carried by China’s Kilos, this observer stated in 2007 that
“China in late-2005 also firmed contracts” for Shkval torpedoes, and that “The Russians
viewed it as a ‘last ditch’ weapon for use against either ships or submarines.” (Keith Jacobs,
“PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 21.)
288
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2005-2006, for example, stated: “It is fair to say that the
intelligence community was caught completely unawares by the emergence of the Yuan
class....” Jane’s Fighting Ships 2005-2006, p. 30 (Executive Overview). See also Bill
Gertz, “Chinese Produce New Type Of Sub,” Washington Times, July 16, 2004: 1.
289
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 122. This observer also stated in 2008 that
construction of the Yuan-class design “has re-started at Wuhan; the second of the class was
launched in August 2007.” Ibid, p. 30 (executive Overview).
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Another observer stated in 2007 that in addition to the fist two units in the
class, “two further units are currently building at Wuhan [Shipbuilding Industry Co.].
By 2010, boats No. 9 & 10 will likely commission. Twenty of [the] class are
expected to be built and [the] Jiangnan Shipyard (Shanghai) is expected to be
integrated into [the] programme during 2006 with completion of [the] last ‘Song-II’
class.”290
Some observers believe the Yuan class is a variant of the Song (Type 039) class
design and consequently refer to the Yuan class as the Type 039A.
Song-class (Type 039/039G) SS. China in recent years also built a
relatively new SS design called the Song (or Type 039/039G) class. The first Songclass boat entered service in 1999, and a total of 13 were in service by 2006. Further
ships in the class are not expected. The first boat reportedly experienced problems,
resulting in design changes that were incorporated into subsequent (Type 039G)
boats. Some observers believe the Song-class design may have benefitted from PLA
Navy experience with the Kilo class. One set of observers stated in 2005:
The design and production rates of China’s new Song-class diesel
submarine represent a significant advance over its predecessor, the Ming-class
submarine. The Song class has a hydrodynamically sleek (teardrop) profile,
possesses new cylindrical environmental sensors, and relies on German engines
for propulsion. Most significantly, the Song is much quieter because it is fitted
with an asymmetrical seven-blade skew propeller, and the Song uses anechoic
rubber dampening tiles on the hull and shock absorbency for the engine to reduce
its acoustic signature. The Song may also be able to launch cruise missiles when
submerged, another design advance for China’s conventional submarines.291
Older Ming-class (Type 035) and Romeo-class (Type 033) SSs.
China in 2008 also had about 19 older Ming (Type 035) class SSs and about 8 evenolder remaining Romeo (Type 033) class SSs. The Romeos are expected to be
decommissioned soon.
The first Ming-class boat entered service in 1971 and the 20th was launched in
2002. Production may have ended in favor of Song- and Yuan-class production. In
April 2003, a malfunction aboard one of the boats (hull number 361) killed its 70man crew. Observers believe they were killed by carbon monoxide or chlorine
poisoning. The ship was repaired and returned to service in 2004.
China’s Romeo-class boats entered service between the early 1960s and the late
1980s. A total of 84 were built. Of the eight still in service as of 2007, one is a
modified boat that has been used as a cruise missile test ship. With the possible
exception of this missile test ship, the remaining Romeos are expected to be
decommissioned soon.
290
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 20.
291
2005 RAND report, p. 148.
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If China decides that Ming-class boats have continued value as minelayers or
as bait or decoy submarines that can be used to draw out enemy submarines (such as
U.S. SSNs), it may elect to keep some of these older submarines in service even as
new submarines enter service.
Aircraft Carriers. Regarding China’s activities for developing an aircraft
carrier, one observer stated in 2007 that:
For over a year, the PLAN has been more or less open about China’s
eventual deployment of an aircraft carrier battle group. Except for the carrier,
China has all the elements of a carrier battle group in place, according to
Lieutenant General Wang Zhiyuan of the PLA General Armaments Department.
China will finish constructing its first aircraft carrier by 2010, according to an
unnamed lieutenant general (probably General Wang again), but its first
operational carrier will likely be the Varyag, the former Soviet carrier bought
from Ukraine.
China’s once-secret naval aviation program appears to be underway at full
steam. At its center is the massive 67,000-ton former Ukrainian aircraft carrier,
which the Chinese government extracted from the Black Sea in 2001 after
considerable costs in both treasure and political capital with Turkey. In March
2002, the Varyag finally completed its 15,200-mile journey to its new home port
of Dalian, where it was immediately placed under heavy security at the PLAN
dry docks.
China has reportedly negotiated a contract for 48 Sukhoi-33 jet fighters, the
carrier-based version of the Su-27, and is now preparing the Varyag’s flight deck
for flight operations. Reports in the PRC media indicate that China will also
configure its new Jian-10 fighter for carrier operations.
The PLAN Air Force (PLANAF) schedule apparently envisions developing
a carrier air wing by the time China launches its own aircraft carrier, despite
official Beijing’s continuing protestations that while “China already is capable
of building an aircraft carrier, a final decision on construction has not yet been
made.”292
Another observer stated in 2006:
The year 2005 marked a turning point in China’s willingness to continue
to deny or obfuscate its ambitions to build aircraft carriers. Last May it moved
the old Russian uncompleted aircraft carrier hulk the Varyag, that it purchased
and moved to Dalian harbor in 2002, from dockside into a drydock. It then
emerged in early August painted in PLA Navy grey, and the most recent
Internet-source photos show that the carrier deck is receiving new multiple
coatings. China’s ruse was that the Varyag would be turned into a casino and
Chinese officials have repeatedly denied they were developing carriers. But on
March 10, Hong Kong’s Wen Wei Po quoted General Wang Zhiyuan, a Deputy
Director of the Science and Technology Committee of the General Armaments
Department, that in “three to five years,” “The Chinese army will conduct
292
John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, pp. 12-13.
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research and build an aircraft carrier and develop our own aircraft carrier fleet.”
He went on to add that the escort and support ships for this carrier group are
either being built or have already been built. These would likely include the new
Luyang 1, Luyang 2 and Luzhou class air defense destroyers launched from 2003
to 2005, new Type 093 nuclear powered attack submarines, and new Fuchi class
underway replenishment ships.
If General Wang is to be believed, then the carrier Varyag, now undergoing
what appears to be substantial refurbishment, will be used for some kind of
military mission. These could include the refinement of China’s anti-aircraft
carrier doctrine and tactics, training and development of a new carrier air wing,
and future aerial and amphibious support combat missions. In August 2005
Russian sources interviewed at the Moscow Airshow offered confirmation of
China’s carrier plans in that two Russian companies offered that China was
interested in two types of future carrier combat aircraft, the Sukhoi Su-33 and the
Chengdu J-10 modified with a new Russian engine thrust vector to enable slower
carrier landing speeds. The Russians also used the Moscow Airshow to market
the twin-seat Su-33UB, but modified with thrust vector engines. It is quite likely
that all three will be upgraded with new more powerful Russian Al-31 engines,
have new active-phased array radar, and carry a range of active guided and
helmet display sighted air-to-air missiles and precision ground attack missiles.
As such both could offer some performance parameters that equal or even exceed
that of the U.S. Boeing F/A-18E/F, the main U.S. carrier combat aircraft.
Internet sources also indicate that China is developing a carrier-sized AWACS
aircraft that could also be developed into antisubmarine and cargo support
variants. While the U.S. Navy benefits from its over 70 years of constant
practice and employment of effective carrier aviation, it is nonetheless a major
shock that China’s carrier fleet could commence with combat capabilities that
could neutralize those of the U.S. Navy in some scenarios.293
Another set of observers stated in 2005 that China’s increased shipbuilding
capacity:
has direct implications for China’s ability to build an aircraft carrier.... China
now has eight yards capable of VLCC and ULCC294 construction, and it will add
more such yards in the coming years. Many of these yards would be suitable for
the construction of a large carrier. Another option for China would be to build
a medium-sized carrier (30,-50,000 tons) for launching and retrieving helicopters
or vertical short take-off/landing (VSTOL) fixed-wing aircraft. Such a ship
could be built from a relatively basic design based on LHD-type platforms (i.e.,
multipurpose amphibious assault ships) similar to the ones used by the United
Kingdom, Japan, and Thailand. Such a vessel could also be completed at a
number of modern yards in China, even ones without VLCC capacity —
although with substantial naval shipbuilding experience.
293
Prepared statement of Richard D. Fisher, Jr., for a March 16, 2006, hearing before the
U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission hearing, pp. 5-6. See also David
Lague, “An Aircraft Carrier For China?” International Herald-Tribune, January 31, 2006;
Norman Friedman, “Varyag Redux?” U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings, December 2005: 91.
294
VLCCs (very large crude carriers) and ULCCs (ultra-large crude carriers) are the two
largest kinds of commercial crude oil tankers.
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Although Chinese shipbuilders are quite capable of building the hull, other
parts of China’s defense industry would have to develop the equipment necessary
to outfit an aircraft carrier with the necessary propulsion systems, navigational
electronics, or weapon suites for self-defense or long-range operations. In
addition, China lacks the capability to build either large-capacity aircraft-lift
elevators or steam catapults for the movement and launching of aircraft; so a
Chinese carrier would have to rely on a ski-jump design. Thus, a Chinese carrier
would not resemble in any way, shape, or form a U.S. “big-deck” carrier, which
serves as the operational hub for an entire carrier battle group. If China chooses
to build an aircraft carrier, the need for more ships will become especially
pressing in order to regularly protect and replenish the carrier. The PLAN
currently lacks enough modern, multipurpose warships to adequately meet the
needs of defending and replenishing a carrier. It is to this end that an expanding
and improving shipbuilding infrastructure is a necessary condition for the
development of modern, long-range naval capabilities.295
Surface Combatants.
Luhai (Type 051B) Destroyer. One set of observers stated in 2005 that:
The Luhai-class destroyer, which was launched in October 1997 and
commissioned into the PLAN in late 1998, represented a significant design
advance over China’s second-generation Luhu-class destroyer. In terms of
overall size, the Luhai is 20 percent larger. It has a widened hull beam to
enhance stability, armament-carrying capacity, and crew living space. In
particular, the Luhai’s larger size permits four quad launchers for C801/C802
anti-ship missiles, which is double the number, deployed on the Luhu. The
Luhai also uses a gas turbine engine, which is more powerful than the Luhu’s
diesel gas turbine system. In addition, the design of the Luhai’s bridge and
superstructure exhibits a number of stealthy characteristics (particularly in
comparison to the Luhu’s structure). These design features include a streamlined
superstructure with inclined angles and two solid masts with fewer protruding
electronic sensor arrays. The stepped superstructure may have been designed
with the intention to equip the Luhai with vertical launch systems, possibly for
SAMs for an enhanced area-defense capability. The absence of such a system
on the Luhai suggests that that option was deferred for a time.296
Luyang I (Type 052 B) and II (Type 052C) Destroyers. One set of
observers stated in 2005 that the Luyang I and II classes
represent important advances in the shipbuilding industry’s overall design and
production techniques.... The latter have a similar design as the former, but they
appear to be optimized for air-defense missions....
These four new destroyers represent an important evolution in shipbuilding
design capabilities, production techniques, and management practices. The hulls
are larger than the Luhai’s, which increases their weapons capacity, versatility,
and stability on the high seas. The designs of these vessels are even stealthier,
with sloped sides and a superstructure with a reduced profile — attributes that,
295
2005 RAND report, pp. 149-150.
296
2005 RAND report, pp. 144-145.
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collectively, reduce the vessel’s radar signature. Also, these hulls were built
using modular shipbuilding, a technique increasingly widespread in China’s most
modern shipyards. Modular construction (as opposed to keel-up) allows for
work to be done on different sections at the same time, increasing the efficiency
and speed of the production process. One of the most significant aspects of the
new destroyers is the fact that China constructed these four new destroyers at the
same time and quite quickly as well, at least compared with past experiences.
This serial production of an indigenously designed vessel is a first in the PRC’s
naval history and a testament to improved project management. The four new
052B- and 052C-class vessels have been built or have been under construction
within the past four years. By comparison, in the entire decade of the 1990s
China only built a second Luhu (1993) and one Luhai (1997) destroyer.
The 052C-class destroyer, in particular, possesses several important
attributes. First, according to Goldstein and Murray, it uses a phased array or
planar radar on the four corners of the bridges’ vertical superstructure, which
would be used with a SAM vertical launch system (VLS) for air-defense missiles
— a second important innovation. Both of these attributes are a first for a
Chinese combatant and help the PLAN resolve its long-standing weakness with
air defense. In the past, Chinese combatants relied on short-range SAMs for air
defense. A medium-range VLS SAM system would provide the Chinese navy
with its first, real area-defense vessel, and a collection of such ships could allow
the PLA Navy to operate surface action groups. If China is able to successfully
reverse engineer Russian-purchased SAMs, then it may deploy them on the 052C
destroyer. Some reports indicate that China may deploy its HQ-9 system (a
Chinese version of a Russian SAM with a range of about 120 km) on the new
destroyers. Such a system on the front of the new platform, combined with older
Chinese SAMs in the stern, would give the Chinese their first fleet air-defense
vessels.297
Regarding the radar to be carried by the Luyang II class, a January 2006 press
article stated, “The two Chinese Project 052C destroyers have fixed array radars that
are often described as active arrays, though that cannot be certain.”298 Active radar
arrays use a technology that is more modern and more capable in certain respects
than the technology used in the SPY-1 radars on the U.S. Navy’s Aegis ships.
Jiangkai I (Type 054) Frigates. One set of observers stated in 2005 that the
Jiangkai I-class design
is larger and more modern than that of China’s Jiangwei II — class frigates. Like
China’s new destroyers, the new frigate has a more streamlined design and has
a larger displacement. These changes augment the new vessel’s warfighting
capabilities and its seaworthiness. Some sources note that the 054 frigate
resembles the French Layfayette-class guided-missile frigate because of the
minimalist design of the Type 054’s superstructure. The design of the new
frigate also offers greater options for outfitting the vessel with various weapon
suites. Some estimates indicate that the new frigate will have a significantly
297
298
2005 RAND report, pp. 146-147.
Norman Friedman, “A New Role For Active Radar Arrays?” U.S. Naval Institute
Proceedings, January 2006: 91.
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enhanced set of weapon capabilities over the Jiangwei-class frigates, possibly
including VLS capabilities.299
Jiangkai II (Type 054A) Frigates. One observer stated in 2007 that:
This [[ast] year [i.e., 2007], we have seen that all 4 initial [Type] 054A
[frigates] have been launched and commissioned. Sadly, we did not see a second
batch of 054A. Although it’s not as talked about, [the] Huangpu [HP] shipyard
also had a huge expansion this past year. While the dock was being used for
[building Type 022 fast attack craft] and the ocean tugging ship, [the] 054A
[program] was put on the back burners. I guess that showed the important
[importance] of these auxiliary ships, but also that PLAN wanted to test these
new ships out before building the second batch. With the Huangpu expansion,
we might see more 054 series [frigates] coming out in the future in [the] HP
[shipyard rather] than [the] HD [shipyard]. I would imagine that [the] 054A
[design] will begin construction again at both HD and HP next year. We might
see another 4 built next year. 300
Another observer stated:
A French source confirmed reports that as part of its license production
agreement, China has recently declared that it produced 24 SEMT Pielstick
diesel engines to support the production of six 3,500 ton Type 054A frigates;
each ship uses four of the diesels. This same French source was quite sure that
there would be a second production batch of 24 to support a second production
run for a total of 12 Type 054A frigates. So far three Type 054A frigates have
been launched since late 2006 from two shipyards, Hudong in Shanghai and
Huangpu in Guangzhou, with the fourth just launched by Hudong on May 23[,
2007]. At this rate it is possible that all 12 Type 054As will be built by the end
of 2009. The Type 054A marks a significant upgrade over the two Type 054
frigates launched in 2003, in that the former is outfitted with 32 new
vertical-launched versions of the 45km range Russian Altair Shtil-1.301
This observer also stated:
According the French and German sources interviewed at IMDEX, the
PLAN is developing a new class of frigate to accompany the Type 054A air
defense frigate now in series production. There was apparently a competition
between the engines of the French firm SEMT Pielstick and Germany’s MTU,
to provide the new diesel engine which will be paired with a gas turbine. MTU
won. The new frigate will use two diesels and two turbines, a conventional
configuration that could support a range of mission requirements. But the sources
299
2005 RAND report, p. 147.
300
“PLAN looking forward to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval
and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html]
301
Richard Fisher, Jr., “Chinese Aspects of Singapore’s IMDEX Naval Technology Show,”
online article available at [http://www.strategycenter.net/
printVersion/print_pub.asp?pubID=163] IMDEX refers to a naval technology show held in
Singapore.
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interviewed had no insights regarding the size, mission and configuration for this
new ship.302
Amphibious Ships.
Yuzhao (Type 071) Amphibious Ship. Regarding the Yuzhao (Type 071)
amphibious ship, one observer stated in 2008:
After several years’ speculation, the existence of the [Type 071]
programme was confirmed when construction of a ship was initiated in
mid-2006. The programme constitutes a key component of the PLA(N)’s plan to
improve its sealift and power projection capabilities. Further ships are expected
once evaluation trials [of the first ship] have been completed....
The principal features of the ship include a large well deck area to
accommodate four Air Cushion Vehicles (ACV) in the aft two-thirds of the ship.
The ACVs are likely to access the ship through a stern gate. The ship may have
to ballast down for operation. There is a large stern helicopter flight deck and a
hangar. An internal garage deck for vehicles may be accessed via side ramps
(port and starboard). There is space for the HQ7 [SAM] launcher which may be
fitted at a later date....
This ship represents a major enhancement of amphibious capability.303
This same observer stated in 2007:
The surface fleet highlight of the last year was the launch on 21 December
2006 of a 17,000 ton Type 071 [amphibious] assault ship (LPD) at HudongZhongua Shipyard, Shanghai. The construction of such a vessel had been
anticipated for several years as the logical next-step in the modernisation of
amphibious forces. The new ship, and expected follow-on units, is intended to
overcome shortcomings in command and control and rapid cross-beach
movement that have constrained amphibious capability. This despite the
introduction into service of three new classes of landing craft, comprising 30
ships, since 2003. The principal methods of landing troops from the LPD are to
be by heavy helicopters and by air-cushion vehicles, four of which can be
accommodated.304
Another observer stated in 2007:
On December 20, 2006, China launched the PLAN’s largest combat
amphibious assault ship, an indigenously designed amphibious landing dock
(LPD) identified as the Type 071, which is similar to but a little bigger than the
302
Richard Fisher, Jr., “Chinese Aspects of Singapore’s IMDEX Naval Technology Show,”
online article available at [http://www.strategycenter.net/
printVersion/print_pub.asp?pubID=163]
303
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 144.
304
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2007-2008, p. 31 (Executive Overview).
CRS-137
U.S. Whidbey Island-class LPD.305 Designed in the 10th five-year plan (20012005), the ship was built in about six months in the second half of 2006 and
appears to be the first of four LPDs. The Type 071 appears to be designed to land
500-800 troops and 25-50 armored vehicles and supplies using 15 landing craft
or several large hovercraft. It will carry at least two Changhe Z-8 helicopters,
each capable of transporting 30 soldiers inland beyond the beachhead.306
Potential Type 081 Amphibious Ship. Regarding the potential Type 081
amphibious ship, one observer stated in 2007:
At the May 2007 IMDEX naval technology show in Singapore, a Chinese
industry source confirmed to Jane’s that China has a programme for a LHD [i.e.,
a large amphibious assault ship], but did not disclose details other than to note:
“We can now build that ship.”
However, late 2006 reports in India’s Force magazine noted that China
would build up to three Type 081 LHD ships and six Type 071 LPD vessels, the
first of which was launched in late December 2006. One Asian military source
has told Jane’s that the flat-deck Type 081 will displace about 20,000 tonnes, and
as such, would be similar in size to the French Mistral LHD.307
There have been no reports so far that China has starting building LHDs.
China’s interest in LHDs has been noted since the late 1990s and would form a
logical compliment to its Type 071 LPDs. Asian military sources put the Type
071 also at about 20,000 tonnes displacement with a capacity to carry up to 800
troops plus scores of armoured vehicles. One Asian military source tells Jane’s
that China could build two to eight Type 071s.308
Another observer stated in 2007:
The most visible new class [of amphibious ships] is obviously the 071 LPD.
We’ve seen the first one joining service in SSF [the South Sea Fleet] as [hull
number] 998. We’ve yet to see work on a second unit. We know that [the] Dalian
[shipyard] and [the] HD shipyard both competed for the first 071 contract with
HD winning. It kind of made sense, because HD generally builds ships faster. I
believe we will see another unit of 071 being built next year [i.e., in 2008] and
that will be done at Dalian. At the same time, HD will probably start construction
of China’s first LHD. We’ve talked about the challenges surrounding a Chinese
LHD in the past, but there does seem to be enough political and military will at
this point for a unit of this class.309
305
This is a reference to the U.S. Navy’s Whidbey Island (LSD-41) class amphibious ships,
which have a full load displacement of about 15,800 tons.
306
John J. Tkacik, Jr., China’s Quest for a Superpower Military, Heritage Foundation
Backgrounder No. 2036, May 17, 2007, p. 131.
307
A 20,000-ton LHD would also be about half the size of U.S. Navy LHDs.
308
Richard D. Fisher Jr., “Naval Gazing, Emerging Expeditionary Capabilities in the
Western Pacific,” Jane’s Intelligence Review, August 2007: 55.
309
“PLAN looking forward to 2008,” a December 23, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval
and air power maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at
[http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/12/plan-looking-forward-to-2008.html].
CRS-138
Other Amphibious Ships and Craft. In addition to Type 071 and Type
081 class amphibious ships, the three other new classes of smaller amphibious ships
and craft that entered service between 2003 and 2005 are as follows:
!
Yuting II-class helicopter-capable tank landing ships (LSTs).
Three of these 4,800-ton ships entered service in 2003, another six
in 2004, and a 10th in 2005. Each ship can transport 10 tanks and
250 soldiers, and has a helicopter landing platform for two mediumsized helicopters. The ships were built at three shipyards, and
observers believe additional units might be built.
!
Yunshu-class landing ships (LSMs). Ten of these 1,850-ton ships
entered service in 2004. Each ship can transport 6 tanks or 12 trucks
or 250 tons of supplies. The ships were built at four shipyards, and
observers believe additional units might be built.
!
Yubei-class utility landing craft (LCUs). Eight of these landing
craft entered service in 2004 and another two in 2005. Each craft
can transport 10 tanks and 150 soldiers. The ships were built at four
shipyards, and observers expect additional units.
China also has numerous older landing ships and craft of various designs,
including 10 Yuting I (Type 072 IV) class helicopter-capable tank landing ships
displacing 4,800 tons each that entered service between 1992 and 2002.
DOD stated in 2006 that:
The PLA has increased amphibious ship production to address its lift
deficiencies; however, the Intelligence Community believes these increases alone
will be inadequate to meet requirements. The PLA is also organizing its civilian
merchant fleet and militia, which, given adequate notification, could augment
organic lift in amphibious operations. Transport increases were accompanied by
an increase of 25,000 troops, 200 tanks and 2,300 artillery pieces in the military
regions opposite Taiwan, according to the latest figures from DIA. The
increased troops and equipment in these military regions all appear capable of
participating in expeditionary operations.310
Another observer stated in 2007 that:
The surface fleet highlight of the last year was the launch on 21 December
2006 of a 17,000 ton Type 071 [amphibious] assault ship (LPD) at HudongZhongua Shipyard, Shanghai. The construction of such a vessel had been
anticipated for several years as the logical next-step in the modernisation of
amphibious forces. The new ship, and expected follow-on units, is intended to
overcome shortcomings in command and control and rapid cross-beach
movement that have constrained amphibious capability. This despite the
introduction into service of three new classes of landing craft, comprising 30
ships, since 2003. The principal methods of landing troops from the LPD are to
310
2006 DOD CMP, p. 30.
CRS-139
be by heavy helicopters and by air-cushion vehicles, four of which can be
accommodated.311
311
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2007-2008, p. 31 (Executive Overview).
Ronald O’Rourke
Specialist in Naval Affairs
April 24, 2009
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL33153
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
China Naval Modernization
Summary
In the debate over future U.S. defense spending, including deliberations taking place in the
current Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), a key issue is how much emphasis to place on
programs for countering improved Chinese military forces in coming years. Observers disagree
on the issue, with some arguing that such programs should receive significant emphasis, others
arguing that they should receive relatively little, and still others taking an intermediate position.
The question of how much emphasis to place in U.S. defense planning on programs for
countering improved Chinese military forces is of particular importance to the U.S. Navy,
because many programs associated with countering improved Chinese military forces would fall
within the Navy’s budget.
China’s naval modernization effort encompasses a broad array of weapon acquisition programs,
including programs for anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs),
land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs), surface-to-air missiles, mines, aircraft, submarines,
destroyers and frigates, patrol craft, and amphibious ships. In addition, observers believe that
China may soon begin an aircraft carrier construction program. China’s naval modernization
effort also includes reforms and improvements in maintenance and logistics, naval doctrine,
personnel quality, education, and training, and exercises. Although China’s naval modernization
effort has substantially improved China’s naval capabilities in recent years, observers believe
China’s navy continues to exhibit limitations or weaknesses in several areas.
DOD and other observers believe that the near-term focus of China’s military modernization
effort, including its naval modernization effort, has been to develop military options for
addressing the situation with Taiwan. Consistent with this goal, observers believe that China
wants its military to be capable of acting as a so-called anti-access force — a force that can deter
U.S. intervention in a conflict involving Taiwan, or failing that, delay the arrival or reduce the
effectiveness of intervening U.S. naval and air forces. DOD and other observers believe that, in
addition to the near-term focus on developing military options relating to Taiwan, additional goals
of China’s naval modernization effort include improving China’s ability to do the following:
assert or defend China’s claims in maritime territorial disputes and China’s interpretation of
international laws relating freedom of navigation in exclusive economic zones (an interpretation
at odds with the U.S. interpretation); protect China’s sea lines of communications to the Persian
Gulf, on which China relies for some of its energy imports; and assert China’s status as a major
world power, encourage other states in the region to align their policies with China, and displace
U.S. regional military influence.
A decision to place a relatively strong defense-planning emphasis on countering improved
Chinese military forces in coming years could lead to one more of the following: increasing
activities for monitoring and understanding developments in China’s navy, as well as activities for
measuring and better understanding operating conditions in the Western Pacific; assigning a
larger percentage of the Navy to the Pacific Fleet; homeporting more of the Pacific Fleet’s ships
at forward locations such as Hawaii, Guam, and Japan; increasing training and exercises in
operations relating to countering Chinese maritime anti-access forces, such as antisubmarine
warfare (ASW) operations; and placing a relatively strong emphasis on programs for developing
and procuring highly capable ships, aircraft, and weapons. This report will be updated as events
warrant.
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China Naval Modernization
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
Issue for Congress.................................................................................................................1
Scope, Sources, and Terminology..........................................................................................1
Background ................................................................................................................................2
Overview of China’s Naval Modernization............................................................................2
Date of Inception ............................................................................................................2
Elements of Modernization Effort ...................................................................................2
Limitations and Weaknesses............................................................................................2
Reasons for Modernization Effort....................................................................................3
Selected Elements of China’s Naval Modernization...............................................................4
Anti-Ship Ballistic Missiles (ASBMs) .............................................................................4
Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles (ASCMs)................................................................................4
Submarines .....................................................................................................................5
Aircraft Carriers..............................................................................................................8
Surface Combatants ...................................................................................................... 10
Amphibious Ships......................................................................................................... 13
Maritime Surveillance and Targeting Systems ............................................................... 14
Operations Away From Home Waters ............................................................................ 14
Comparing U.S. and Chinese Naval Capabilities ................................................................. 17
Potential Oversight Issues for Congress..................................................................................... 18
China as a Defense-Planning Priority .................................................................................. 18
Potential Navy-Related Program Implications ..................................................................... 22
Potential Implications in General................................................................................... 22
Actions Already Taken .................................................................................................. 22
Highly Capable Ships and Aircraft ................................................................................ 23
Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy................................................................................... 24
Homeporting Pacific Fleet Ships in Forward Locations ................................................. 24
Fleet Architecture—Larger vs. Smaller Ships ................................................................ 25
Legislative Activity................................................................................................................... 26
FY2009............................................................................................................................... 26
FY2009 Defense Authorization Bill (H.R. 5658/S. 3001) .............................................. 26
FY2008............................................................................................................................... 27
FY2008 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1585/S. 1547/H.R. 4986/P.L. 110-181) ......... 27
Tables
Table 1. PLA Navy Submarine Commissionings..........................................................................7
Table 2. New PLA Navy Destroyer Classes ............................................................................... 11
Table 3. New PLA Navy Frigate Classes ................................................................................... 12
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 28
Congressional Research Service
China Naval Modernization
Introduction
Issue for Congress
In the debate over future U.S. defense spending, including deliberations taking place in the
current Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), a key issue is how much emphasis to place on
programs for countering improved Chinese military forces in coming years. Observers disagree
on the issue, with some arguing that such programs should receive significant emphasis, others
arguing that they should receive relatively little, and still others taking an intermediate position.
The question of how much emphasis to place in U.S. defense planning on programs for
countering improved Chinese military forces is of particular importance to the U.S. Navy,
because many programs associated with countering improved Chinese military forces would fall
within the Navy’s budget. In terms of potential impact on programs and spending, the Navy might
have more at stake on this issue than the Army and Marine Corps, and perhaps at least as much, if
not more, than the Air Force. Decisions that policymakers make on the issue of how much
emphasis to place on programs for countering improved Chinese military forces could
significantly affect the future size, composition, and capabilities of the Navy; Navy funding
requirements; and the shipbuilding industrial base.
Scope, Sources, and Terminology
This report focuses on the potential implications China’s naval modernization for future required
U.S. Navy capabilities. Other CRS reports address separate issues relating to China.
This report is based on unclassified open-source information, such as the annual Department of
Defense (DOD) report to Congress on China’s military power,1 and published reference sources
such as Jane’s Fighting Ships.
For convenience, this report uses the term China’s naval modernization to refer to the
modernization not only of China’s navy, but also of Chinese military forces outside China’s navy
that can be used to counter U.S. naval forces operating in the Western Pacific, such as land-based
anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), land-based surface-to-air missiles (SAMs), land-based air
force aircraft armed with anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs), and land-based long-range radars for
detecting and tracking ships at sea.
China’s military is formally called the People’s Liberation Army, or PLA. Its navy is called the
PLA Navy, or PLAN, and its air force is called the PLA Air Force, or PLAAF. The PLA Navy
includes an air component that is called the PLA Naval Air Force, or PLANAF. China refers to its
ballistic missile force as the Second Artillery Force.
1
U.S. Department of Defense, Annual Report to Congress [on] Military Power of the People’s Republic of China
2009. Washington, 2009. (Hereafter 2009 DOD CMP. Editions for earlier years cited similarly.)
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China Naval Modernization
Background
Overview of China’s Naval Modernization2
Date of Inception
Observers date the beginning of China’s naval modernization effort to various points in the
1990s.3 Design work on some of China’s newer ship classes appears to have begun in the later
1980s.4 Some observers believe that China’s naval modernization effort may have been reinforced
or accelerated by a 1996 incident in which the United States deployed two aircraft carrier strike
groups to waters near Taiwan in response to Chinese missile tests and naval exercises near
Taiwan.
Elements of Modernization Effort
China’s naval modernization effort encompasses a broad array of weapon acquisition programs,
including programs for anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs),
land-attack cruise missiles (LACMs), surface-to-air missiles, mines, manned aircraft, unmanned
aircraft, submarines, destroyers and frigates, patrol craft, amphibious ships and craft, mine
countermeasures (MCM) ships, and supporting C4ISR5 systems. In addition, observers believe
that China may soon begin an aircraft carrier construction program. Some of these acquisition
programs have attracted particular interest and are discussed in further detail below. China’s naval
modernization effort also includes reforms and improvements in maintenance and logistics, naval
doctrine, personnel quality, education, and training, and exercises.
Limitations and Weaknesses
Although China’s naval modernization effort has substantially improved China’s naval
capabilities in recent years, observers believe China’s navy continues to exhibit limitations or
weaknesses in several areas, including capabilities for sustained operations by larger formations
in distant waters, joint operations with other parts of China’s military, C4ISR systems, anti-air
warfare (AAW), antisubmarine warfare (ASW), MCM, and a dependence on foreign suppliers for
certain key ship components. DOD states that
2
Unless otherwise indicated, shipbuilding program information in this section is taken from Jane’s Fighting Ships
2008-2009, and previous editions Other sources of information on these shipbuilding programs may disagree regarding
projected ship commissioning dates or other details, but sources present similar overall pictures regarding PLA Navy
shipbuilding.
3
China ordered its first four Russian-made Kilo-class submarines in 1993, and its four Russian-made Sovremennyclass destroyers in 1996. China laid the keel on its first Song (Type 039) class submarine in 1991, its first Luhu (Type
052) class destroyer in 1990, its Luhai (Type 051B) class destroyer in 1996, and its first Jiangwei I (Type 053 H2G)
class frigate in 1990.
4
First-in-class ships whose keels were laid down in 1990 or 1991 (see previous footnote) likely reflect design work
done in the latter 1980s.
5
C4ISR stands for command and control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance.
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China Naval Modernization
As China’s capabilities for local and regional operations have increased in certain areas since
2000, a number of limitations appear to have persisted. The PLA has developed new doctrine
for joint warfighting and implemented organizational changes, such as including service
commanders on the Central Military Commission, to facilitate the transition to a more “joint”
force. However, joint integration still lags. Similarly, PLA air and amphibious lift capacity
has not improved appreciably since 2000 when the Department of Defense assessed the PLA
as capable of sealift of one infantry division. Likewise, China’s current ability to deliver
about 5,000 parachutists in a single lift (less if equipment is carried at the same time) is
similar to previous assessments. China’s at-sea replenishment has improved with experience
since 2000, but the PLA Navy today remains limited by a small number of support vessels –
much as it did then. In 2000, the Department of Defense projected aerial refueling as an
operational capability by 2005. Today, while China has a few aerial refueling aircraft, it does
not have the number of tankers, properly equipped combat aircraft, or sufficient training to
employ this capability for power projection.6
Reasons for Modernization Effort
DOD and other observers believe that the near-term focus of China’s military modernization
effort, including its naval modernization effort, has been to develop military options for
addressing the situation with Taiwan. Consistent with this goal, observers believe that China
wants its military to be capable of acting as a so-called anti-access force — a force that can deter
U.S. intervention in a conflict involving Taiwan, or failing that, delay the arrival or reduce the
effectiveness of intervening U.S. naval and air forces. ASBMs, attack submarines, and supporting
C4ISR systems are viewed as key elements of China’s emerging anti-access force, though other
force elements – such as ASCMs, LACMs (for attacking U.S. air bases and other facilities in the
Western Pacific), and mines – are also of significance.
DOD and other observers believe that, in addition to the near-term focus on developing military
options relating to Taiwan, additional goals of China’s naval modernization effort include
improving China’s ability to do the following:
•
assert or defend China’s claims in maritime territorial disputes7 and China’s
interpretation of international laws relating freedom of navigation in exclusive
economic zones (an interpretation at odds with the U.S. interpretation);
•
protect China’s sea lines of communications to the Persian Gulf, on which China
relies for some of its energy imports; and
•
assert China’s status as a major world power, encourage other states in the region
to align their policies with China, and displace U.S. regional military influence.
The three additional goals above are potentially significant for at least three reasons. First, they
imply that if the situation with Taiwan were somehow resolved, China could find continuing
reasons to pursue its naval modernization effort.
Second, they would imply that if China completes its planned buildup of Taiwan-related naval
force elements, or if the situation with Taiwan were somehow resolved, the composition of
6
2009 DOD CMP, p. viii.
For more on this topic, see CRS Report RL31183, China’s Maritime Territorial Claims: Implications for U.S.
Interests, by Kerry Dumbaugh et al.
7
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China’s naval modernization effort could shift to include a greater emphasis on naval force
elements that would be appropriate for supporting these additional goals, such as aircraft carriers,
a larger number of nuclear-powered attack submarines, serial production of destroyers, underway
replenishment ships, and overseas bases or support facilities.
Third, these additional goals suggest that even if China’s military were never to engage in combat
with an opposing military, China’s military forces, including in particular its naval forces, would
still be used on a day-to-day basis to promote China’s political position in the Pacific. This would
create an essentially political (as opposed to combat-related) reason for the United States or other
countries to maintain a competitive presence in the region with naval and other forces that are
viewed by observers in the Pacific as capable of effectively countering China’s forces.
Selected Elements of China’s Naval Modernization
Anti-Ship Ballistic Missiles (ASBMs)
China is deploying large numbers of theater-range ballistic missiles8 capable of attacking targets
in Taiwan or other regional locations. Although ballistic missiles in the past have traditionally
been used to attack fixed targets on land, DOD and other observers believe China is developing
anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), which are ballistic missiles equipped with maneuverable
reentry vehicles (MaRVs) capable of hitting moving ships at sea. Observers have expressed
strong concern about this development, because such missiles, in combination with broad-area
maritime surveillance and targeting systems, would permit China to attack aircraft carriers and
other U.S. Navy ships operating in the Western Pacific. The U.S. Navy has not previously faced a
threat from highly accurate ballistic missiles capable of hitting moving ships at sea. Due to their
ability to change course, MaRVs would be more difficult to intercept than non-maneuvering
ballistic missile reentry vehicles. DOD states that:
China is developing an ASBM based on a variant of the CSS-5 MRBM [medium-range
ballistic missile] as a part of its anti-access strategy. The missile has a range in excess of
1,500 km, is armed with a maneuverable warhead, and when incorporated into a
sophisticated command and control system, is intended to provide the PLA the capability to
attack ships at sea, including aircraft carriers in the western Pacific Ocean.9
Anti-Ship Cruise Missiles (ASCMs)
Among the most capable of the new ASCMs that have been acquired by the PLA Navy are the
Russian-made SS-N-22 Sunburn (carried by China’s four Russian-made Sovremenny-class
destroyers) and the SS-N-27 Sizzler (carried by 8 of China’s 12 Russian-made Kilo-class
submarines). China’s large inventory of ASCMs also includes several indigenous designs.
8
Depending on their ranges, these theater-range ballistic missiles can be divided into short-, medium-, and
intermediate-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs, MRBMs, and IRBMs, respectively).
9
2009 DOD CMP, p. 48. See also p. 21.
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Submarines
Types Acquired in Recent Years
China’s submarine modernization effort, which is producing a significantly more modern and
capable submarine force, has attracted substantial attention and concern. China by the end of
2006 completed taking delivery on eight Russian-made Kilo-class non-nuclear-powered attack
submarines (SSs) that are in addition to four Kilos that China purchased from Russia in the
1990s. China also has recently built or is building four other classes of submarines, including the
following:
•
a new nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) design called the Jin
class or Type 094;
•
a new nuclear powered attack submarine (SSN) design called the Shang class or
Type 093;10
•
a new SS design called the Yuan class or Type 041 (or Type 039A);11 and
•
another (and also fairly new) SS design called the Song class or Type 039/039G.
Along with the Kilo-class boats, these four classes of indigenous submarines are regarded as
much more modern and capable than China’s aging older-generation submarines. At least some of
these new submarine designs are believed to have benefitted from Russian submarine technology
and design know-how.
China’s submarines are armed with one or more of the following: ASCMs, wire-guided and
wake-homing torpedoes, and mines. China’s eight recently delivered Kilos are reportedly armed
with the highly capable SS-N-27 Sizzler ASCM. In addition to other weapons, Shang-class SSNs
may carry LACMs. Although ASCMs are often highlighted as sources of concern, wake-homing
torpedoes can also be very difficult for surface ships to counter.
Although China’s aging Ming-class (Type 035) submarines are based on old technology and are
much less capable than China’s newer-design submarines, China may decide that these older
boats have continued value as minelayers or as bait or decoy submarines that can be used to draw
out enemy submarines (such as U.S. SSNs) that can then be attacked by more modern PLA Navy
submarines.
Submarine Acquisition Rate and Potential Submarine Force Size
Table 1 shows actual and projected commissionings of Chinese submarines by class since 1995,
when China took delivery of its first two Kilo-class boats. The table includes the final nine boats
in the Ming class, which is an older and less capable submarine design. As shown in Table 1,
China was projected to have a total of 28 relatively modern attack submarines – meaning Shang,
10
Some sources state that a successor to the Shang class SSN design, called the Type 095 SSN design, is in
development.
11
Some observers believe the Yuan class to be a variant of the Song class and refer to the Yuan class as the
Type 039A.
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Kilo, Yuan, and Song class boats – in commission by the end of 2007. As shown in the table,
much of the growth in this figure occurred in 2004-2006.
The figures in Table 1 show that between 1995 and 2007, China placed into service a total of 38
submarines of all kinds, or an average of about 2.9 submarines per year. This average
commissioning rate, if sustained indefinitely, would eventually result in a steady-state submarine
force of 58 to 88 boats of all kinds, assuming an average submarine life of 20 to 30 years.
Excluding the 12 Kilos purchased from Russia, total number of domestically produced
submarines placed into service between 1995 and 2007 is 26, or an average of 2.0 per year. This
average rate of domestic production, if sustained indefinitely, would eventually result in a steadystate force of domestically produced submarines of 40 to 60 boats of all kinds, again assuming an
average submarine life of 20 to 30 years.
As shown in Table 1, only three of the submarines placed into service between 1995 and 2007 are
nuclear powered. If the mix of China’s submarine-production effort shifts at some point to
include a greater proportion of nuclear-powered boats, it is possible that the greater resources
required to produce nuclear-powered boats might result in a reduction in the overall submarine
production rate. If so, and if such a reduced overall rate were sustained indefinitely, it would
eventually result in a smaller steady-state submarine force of all kinds than the figures calculated
in the preceding two paragraphs.
Photos published on the Internet have suggested to some observers that China has launched and
perhaps completed (if perhaps not officially placed into service) higher numbers of Jin-, Shang-,
and Yuan-class submarines than shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. PLA Navy Submarine Commissionings
Actual (1995-2006) and Projected (2007-2010)
Jin
(Type
094)
SSBN
Shang
(Type
093)
SSN
Kilo SS
(Russian
-made)
1995
Yuan
(Type
041)
SSa
Cumulative
total for
all types
shown
Cumulative
total for
modern
attack
boatsc
3
3
2
1
1
4
2
2
2
6
2
2
3
9
3
2
11
5
1
1
12
5
1
3
15
7
1
1
16
7
2
2
18
9
Song
(Type
039)
SS
Ming
(Type
035)
SSb
Annual
total
1
2d
1996
1997
1998
1d
1999
1d
1
2000
2001
2
2002
2003
2004
1
3
4
22
13
2005
4
3
7
29
20
3
2e
7
36
27
1
2
38
28
n/af
n/a
n/a
n/a
2006
2007
1
1
2008
2009
1g
2010
2011
1g
2012
2013
2014
1g
1
n/af
1
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/af
1
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/af
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/af
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/af
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/af
n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, and previous editions.
Note: n/a = data not available.
a.
Some observers believe the Yuan class to be a variant of the Song class and refer to the Yuan class as the
Type 039A.
b.
Figures for Ming-class boats are when the boats were launched (i.e., put into the water for final
construction). Actual commissioning dates for these boats may have been later.
c.
This total excludes the Jin-class SSBNs and the Ming-class SSs.
d.
First four boats, commissioned in the 1990s, are to be refitted in Russia; upgrades are likely to include
installation of SS-N-27 ASCM.
e.
No further units expected after the 12th and 13th shown for 2006.
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f.
A total of five Type 093 boats has been expected, but Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009 states that production
of the two Type 093 boats shown in the table may be followed by production of a modified evolutionary
SSN design possibly known as the Type 095 class.
g.
A total of five or six boats is expected, with boats entering service at two-year intervals. (DOD stated in
2008 that up to five might be built. [2008 DOD CMP, p. 25])
JL-2 SLBM on Jin-Class SSBN
Each Jin-class SSBN is expected to be armed with 12 JL-2 nuclear-armed submarine-launched
ballistic missiles (SLBMs).12 DOD estimates that these missiles will enter service in 2009 or
2010,13 and that they will have a range of 7,200 kilometers (about 3,888 nautical miles).14 Such a
range could permit Jin-class SSBNs to attack
•
targets in Alaska (except the Alaskan panhandle) from protected bastions close to
China;15
•
targets in Hawaii (as well as targets in Alaska, except the Alaskan panhandle)
from locations south of Japan;
•
targets in the western half of the 48 contiguous states (as well as Hawaii and
Alaska) from mid-ocean locations west of Hawaii; and
•
targets in all 50 states from mid-ocean locations west of Hawaii.
Aircraft Carriers
After years of debate and speculation on the issue, observers now believe that China may soon
begin an aircraft carrier construction program. Observers believe that China may complete the
unfinished ex-Russian carrier Varyag, which China purchased in 1998, and place it into service in
the near future, possibly as an aviation training ship. Observers also believe that China may build
one to six new carriers in coming years. Chinese officials have begun to talk openly about the
possibility of China operating aircraft carriers in the future. China reportedly has begun training
its first 50 fixed-wing carrier aviators, has been in negotiations with Russia to purchase up to 50
Russian-made carrier-capable Su-33 fighter aircraft, and may be developing indigenous carriercapable fighters. DOD states that:
China has an active aircraft carrier R&D [research and development] program. The PRC
shipbuilding industry could start construction of an indigenous platform by the end of this
12
2009 DOD CMP, p. 24.
2009 DOD CMP, pp. 24 and 48.
14
2009 DOD CMP, p. 25 (Figure 6), 48, and 66 (Figure 22).
13
15
A map published by DOD (2009 DOD CMP, p. 25 [Figure 6]) shows a range ellipse for the JL-2 which, upon
inspection, appears to show the missile as having a range of no more than about 6,600 kilometers, rather than the 7,200
kilometers indicated in the legend to the map and elsewhere in the DOD report. In addition, the JL-2 range ellipse
appears centered on a launching point that is more or less west of Shanghai and perhaps 200 statute miles inland from
the sea. This combination of apparent range and launching point appears to be why the map shows the JL-2 as having
sufficient range to attack only the western half of the Aleutian island chain and perhaps the western coast of mainland
Alaska (the section of Alaska’s coast that is directly opposite the Russian coast). A similar map appeared in the 2008
DOD CMP. A missile with a range of 7,200 kilometers that is launched from an ocean location close to China’s eastern
coast would have sufficient range to attack all of Alaska except the Alaskan panhandle.
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decade. China may be interested in building multiple operational aircraft carriers with
support ships in the next decade.
The PLA Navy has reportedly decided to initiate a program to train 50 pilots to operate
fixed-wing aircraft from an aircraft carrier. The initial program, presumably land-based,
would be followed in about four years by ship-borne training involving the ex-VARYAG,
which was purchased by a Chinese company from Ukraine in 1998.16
Observers have speculated on the potential size and capabilities of new-construction Chinese
aircraft carriers. Given the technical challenges involved in building and operating carriers, China
might elect to begin by building conventionally powered carriers of perhaps 40,000 to 70,000
tons displacement, and then progress to construction of larger and possibly nuclear-powered
ships. Some observers have speculated that China’s first aircraft carriers might displace between
60,000 and 70,000 tons. The Varyag has an estimated full load displacement of about 58,500 tons.
A carrier with a displacement closer to 40,000 tons would be capable of operating a modest
number of VSTOL (vertical/short takeoff and landing) aircraft, but would not likely be able to
operate CTOL (conventional takeoff and landing) airplanes. A carrier with a displacement closer
to 70,000 tons could support a larger air wing, and would more likely be able to operate CTOL
airplanes. For comparison, the U.S. Navy’s LHA/LHD-type amphibious assault ships, which
resemble medium-sized aircraft carriers, displace roughly 40,000 tons and are limited to VSTOL
aircraft operations. The Navy’s Midway (CV-41), Forrestal (CV-59), and Kitty Hawk (CV-63)
class conventionally powered carriers, none of which is still in service, had displacements of
69,000 to 85,000 tons, and could operate large numbers of CTOL airplanes. The Navy’s current
16
2009 DOD CMP, pp. 48-49. In another part of the report (page 40), DOD states:
China has an aircraft carrier research and design program, which includes continued renovations to
the former Soviet Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier VARYAG. Beginning in early 2006 with the
release of China’s Eleventh Five Year Plan, PRC-owned media reported high-level government and
military official statements on China’s intent to build aircraft carriers. In December 2008, China’s
Ministry of National Defense spokesman Senior Colonel Huang Xueping said “China has vast
oceans and it is the sovereign responsibility of China’s armed forces to ensure the country’s
maritime security and uphold the sovereignty of its coastal waters as well as its maritime rights and
interests,” and added that China is “seriously considering” adding an aircraft carrier to its fleet,
because “the aircraft carrier is a symbol of a country’s overall national strength, as well as the
competitiveness of the country’s naval force.” This was preceded by a November 2008 statement
by the Director of the Ministry of National Defense, Foreign Affairs Office, Major General Qian
Lihua, that “having an aircraft carrier is the dream of any great military power,” and “the question
is not whether you have an aircraft carrier, but what you do with your aircraft carrier.”
China continues to show interest in procuring Su-33 carrier-borne fighters from Russia even though
the ex-VARYAG aircraft carrier has yet to complete refurbishment at Dalian shipyard. In October
2006, a Russian press report suggested early-stage negotiations were underway for China to
purchase up to 50 such aircraft at a cost of $2.5 billion. However, there has been no announcement
of a contract for the aircraft.
The PLA Navy has reportedly decided to initiate a program to train 50 navy pilots to operate fixedwing aircraft from an aircraft carrier. The program was reported to be four years long and would be
followed by ship-borne training involving the ex-VARYAG. Analysts in and out of government
project that China will not have an operational, domestically-produced carrier and associated ships
before 2015. However, changes in China’s shipbuilding capability and degree of foreign assistance
to the program could alter those projections. The PLA Navy is considering building multiple
carriers by 2020.
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Nimitz (CVN-68) class nuclear-powered aircraft carriers displace about 100,000 tons and can
operate large numbers of CTOL airplanes.17
Although aircraft carriers might have some value for China in Taiwan-related conflict scenarios,
they are not considered critical for Chinese operations in such scenarios, because Taiwan is within
range of land-based Chinese aircraft. Consequently, most observers believe that China would
build and operate carriers primarily because of their value in other kinds of operations that are
more distant from China’s shores. Chinese aircraft carriers could be used for power-projection
operations, particularly in scenarios that do not involve opposing U.S. forces. Chinese aircraft
carriers could also be used for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HA/DR) operations,
maritime security operations (such as anti-piracy operations), and non-combatant evacuation
operations (NEOs). Politically, aircraft carriers could be particularly valuable to China for
projecting an image of China as a major world power, because aircraft carriers are viewed by
many as symbols of major world power status. In a combat situation involving opposing U.S.
naval and air forces, Chinese aircraft carriers would be highly vulnerable to attack by U.S. ships
and aircraft, but conducting such attacks could divert U.S. ships and aircraft from performing
other missions in a conflict situation with China.
Surface Combatants
China since the early 1990s has purchased four Sovremenny-class destroyers from Russia and
deployed nine new classes of indigenously built destroyers and frigates (some of which are
variations of one another) that demonstrate a significant modernization of PLA Navy surface
combatant technology. China has also deployed a new kind of missile-armed fast attack craft that
uses a stealthy catamaran hull design.
Sovremenny-Class Destroyers
China in 1996 ordered two Sovremenny-class destroyers from Russia; the ships entered service in
1999 and 2001. China in 2002 ordered two additional Sovremenny-class destroyers from Russia;
the ships entered service in 2005 and 2006. Sovremenny-class destroyers are equipped with the
SS-N-22 Sunburn ASCM, a highly capable ASCM. DOD stated in 2007 that the two ships
delivered in 2005-2006 “are fitted with anti-ship cruise missiles (ASCMs) and wide-area air
defense systems that feature qualitative improvements over the [two] earlier SOVREMENNYYclass DDGs China purchased from Russia.”18 In light of these improvements, DOD refers to these
two ships as Sovremenny II class destroyers.19
17
Additional points of comparison include the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle (commissioned in 2001), which
has a displacement of about 42,000 tons, and aircraft carriers that the United Kingdom and France plan to commission
into service between 2014 and 2016, which are to have displacements of 65,000 to 70,000 tons. The Charles de Gaulle
can operate an air wing of about 36 aircraft, the future UK and French carriers are to operate air wings of about 40 to
45 aircraft, and the U.S. Navy’s Nimitz-class carriers can operate air wings of 70 or more aircraft.
18
2007 DOD CMP, p. 3. The DOD report spells Sovremenny with two “y”s at the end.
19
2008 DOD CMP, p. 2.
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Five New Indigenously Built Destroyer Classes
China since the early 1990s has built five new classes of destroyers, one of which is a variation of
another. Compared to China’s 14 remaining older Luda (Type 051) class destroyers, which
entered service between 1971 and 1991, these five new destroyer classes are substantially more
modern in terms of their hull designs, propulsion systems, sensors, weapons, and electronics. A
key area of improvement in the new destroyer designs is their anti-air warfare (AAW) technology,
which has been a significant PLA Navy shortcoming. Like the older Luda-class destroyers, these
new destroyer classes are armed with ASCMs. Table 2 summarizes the five new classes.
Table 2. New PLA Navy Destroyer Classes
Class name
Type
Number built
Hull number(s)
In service
(actual or projected)
Luhu
052
2
112, 113
1994, 1996
Luhai
051B
1
167
1999
Luyang I
052B
2
168, 169
2004
Luyang II
052C
2
170, 171
2004, 2005
Luzhou
051C
2
115, 116
2006, 2007
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009.
As shown in Table 2, China to date has commissioned only 1 or 2 ships in each of these five
classes, suggesting that at least some of these classes might have been intended to serve as
stepping stones in a plan to modernize the PLA Navy’s surface combatant technology
incrementally before committing to larger-scale series production of destroyers.20
The Luhu-class ships reportedly were ordered in 1985 but had their construction delayed by a
decision to give priority to the construction of six frigates that were ordered by Thailand. The
Luhai-class ship is believed to have served as the basis for the Luyang-class designs. Compared
to the Luhai, the Luyang I-class ships appear stealthier. DOD stated in 2008 that the Luyang I
design is equipped with the Russian-made SA-N-7B Grizzly SAM and the Chinese-made YJ-83
ASCM.21
The Luyang II-class ships appear to feature an even more capable AAW system that includes a
Chinese-made SAM system called the HHQ-9 that has an even longer range, a vertical launch
system (VLS), and a phased-array radar that is outwardly somewhat similar to the SPY-1 radar
used in the U.S.-made Aegis combat system.
20
One observer says the limited production runs of these four designs to date “might be financially related, or may
relate to debate over what ships should follow the Type 051C air defence and Type 052C multi-role classes, or that
once the Type 054A [frigate design] is accepted as the future missile frigate design, three or four of the major warship
shipyards will all be assigned to construction of this design, delaying a future CG/DDG class.” (Keith Jacobs, “PLANavy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 24.) Another observer stated I 2007 that “It looks like [the] 052C [class]
was stopped for a few years due to [the] JiangNan relocation [and the] sorting out [of] all the issues on [the] 052B/C
[designs]. (“2018—deadline for Taiwan invasion?” a September 22, 2007, entry in a blog on China naval and air power
maintained by an author called “Feng,” available online at http://china-pla.blogspot.com/2007/09/2018-deadline-fortaiwan-invasion.html.)
21
2007 DOD CMP, pp. 3-4
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DOD stated in 2007 the Luzhou-class design “is designed for anti-air warfare. It will be
equipped with the Russian SA-N-20 SAM system controlled by the TOMBSTONE phased-array
radar. The SA-N-20 more than doubles the range of current PLA Navy air defense systems
marking a significant improvement in China’s ship-borne air defense capability.”22
If one or more of these destroyer designs (or a successor design) are put into larger-scale
production, it would accelerate the modernization of China’s surface combatant force.
Four New Indigenously Built Frigate Classes
China since the early 1990s has built four new classes of frigates, two of which are variations of
two others, that are more modern than China’s 29 remaining older Jianghu (Type 053) class
frigates, which entered service between the mid-1970s and 1989. The four new frigate classes,
like the new destroyer classes, feature improved AAW capabilities. Unlike the new destroyer
designs, some of the new frigate designs have been put into larger-scale series production. Table
3 summarizes the four new classes.
Table 3. New PLA Navy Frigate Classes
Class name
Type
Number built
or building
Hull number(s)
In service
(actual or projected)
Jiangwei I
053 H2G
4
539-542
1991-1994
Jiangwei II
053H3
10
between 521 and 567
1998-2005
Jiangkai I
054
2
525, 526
2005
Jiangkai II
054A
4
530 (lead ship), 529, n/a
2007-2008
Source: Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009
Construction of Jiangwei I-class ships appears to have ceased. It is unclear whether construction
of Jiangwei II-class ships will continue after the 10th ship.
The Jiangkai I-class ships feature a stealthy design that somewhat resembles France’s La
Fayette-class frigate, which first entered service in 1996.23 The Jiangkai II-class ships are a
modified version of the Jiangkai I-class design that features a VLS system for its SAMs. One
observer stated in 2008 that “construction of the Jiangkai II-class frigates, armed with vertically
launched HQ-7 missiles, continues and these [ships] look to be the mainstay of the fleet as the
1970s-vintage Jianghu class are phased out or adapted for Coast Guard use.”24 Another observer
similarly stated in 2007 that a total of 28 to 30 Type 054A frigates “are believed scheduled” for
production to replace China’s older-generation frigates. 25
22
2007 DOD CMP, p. 3.
France sold a modified version of the La Fayette-class design to Taiwan; the six ships that Taiwan built to the design
entered service in 1996-1998.
24
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 30 (Executive Overview). This source similarly states on page 133: “Under
construction at two shipyards, it is likely that this design will be built in sufficient numbers to replace the ageing
Jianghu class frigates.”
25
Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 26.
23
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Fast Attack Craft
As an apparent replacement for at least some of its 190 older fast attack craft, or FACs (including
37 armed with ASCMs), China in 2004 introduced a new type of ASCM-armed fast attack craft,
called the Houbei (Type 022) class, that uses a stealthy, wave-piercing, catamaran hull. The
Houbei class is being built in at least six shipyards. Forty were in service as of 2008, and a total
of as many as 100 might be built.26
Amphibious Ships
Yuzhao (Type 071) Amphibious Ship
China has built the lead ship of a new class of amphibious ships called the Yuzhao or Type 071
class. The design has an estimated displacement of 17,600 tons, compared with about 15,900 tons
to 16,700 tons for the U.S. Navy’s Whidbey Island/Harpers Ferry (LSD-41/49) class amphibious
ships, which were commissioned into service between 1985 and 1998, and about 25,900 tons for
the U.S. Navy’s new San Antonio (LPD-17) class amphibious ships, the first of which was
commissioned into service in 2006. The first Type 071 ship entered service in 2008. The Type
071 design features a hull with clean, sloped sides—a design that resembles the hulls of modern
western amphibious ships and appears intended to reduce the ship’s visibility to radar. Some
observers believe that China might build a total of four to six Type 071 ships.
Reported Potential Type 081 Amphibious Ship
China reportedly might also begin building a larger amphibious ship, called the Type 081 LHD,
that might displace about 20,000 tons. Such a ship might have, among other things, a greater
aviation capability than the Type 071 design. Some observers believe China may build a total of
three or more Type 081s.
Potential Roles for Type 071 and Type 081 Ships
Although larger amphibious ships such as the Type 071 and the Type 081 might have some value
for conducting amphibious landings in Taiwan-related conflict scenarios, some observers believe
that China would build and operate such ships more for their value in conducting other kinds of
operations that are more distant from China’s shores. Larger amphibious ships can be used for
conducting not only amphibious landings, but for humanitarian assistance and disaster relief
(HA/DR) operations, maritime security operations (such as anti-piracy operations), and noncombatant evacuation operations (NEOs). (Some countries are acquiring larger amphibious ships
as much, or more, for these kinds of operations as for conducting amphibious landings.)
Politically, larger amphibious ships can also be used for naval diplomacy (i.e., port calls and
engagement activities).
26
Jane’s Fighting Ships 2008-2009, p. 30 (Executive Overview) and p. 141. One observer stated in 2007 that: “In
addition to the Houbei class, one observer stated in 2007 that China in 2005 ordered 24 to 30 Molniya-class ASCMarmed fast attack craft from Russia. The Molniya class is an upgraded version of the Russian Tarantul-class design that
might be armed with four SS-N-22 ASCMs. The first four, according to this observer, were to have been delivered by
late-2007 or early-2008.” (Keith Jacobs, “PLA-Navy Update,” Naval Forces, No. 1, 2007: 27.)
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Other New Amphibious Ships and Landing Craft
Aside from the Type 071 and Type 081 projects, China between 2003 and 2005 commissioned
into service three new classes of smaller amphibious ships and landing craft. Each type was built
at three or four shipyards. Between these three other classes, China commissioned into service a
total of 20 amphibious ships and 10 amphibious landing craft in 2003-2005. Additional units in
some of these classes are possible. China also has numerous older amphibious ships and landing
craft of various designs.
Change in Amphibious Lift Capability Since 2000
Although China in recent years has deployed new amphibious ships and craft, DOD states that
“PLA air and amphibious lift capacity has not improved appreciably since 2000 when the
Department of Defense assessed the PLA as capable of sealift of one infantry division.”27
Maritime Surveillance and Targeting Systems
China reportedly is developing or deploying maritime surveillance and targeting systems that can
detect U.S. ships and submarines and provide targeting information for Chinese ASBMs and
other Chinese military units. These systems reportedly include land-based over-the-horizon
backscatter (OTH-B) radars, land-based over-the-horizon surface wave (OTH-SW) radars,
electro-optical satellites, radar satellites, and seabed sonar networks.
Operations Away From Home Waters
Chinese navy ships in recent years have begun to conduct operations away from China’s home
waters. Although many of these operations have been for making diplomatic port calls, some of
them appear to have been for other purposes. In November 2004, for example, a Han-class SSN
was detected in Japanese territorial waters near Okinawa.28 DIA states that, as part of the same
deployment, this submarine traveled “far into the western Pacific Ocean....”29 Press reports state
that the submarine operated in the vicinity of Guam before moving toward Okinawa.30 As another
example, on September 9, 2005,
China deployed a fleet of five warships ... near a gas field in the East China Sea, a potentially
resource-rich area that is disputed by China and Japan. The ships, including a guided-missile
27
2009 DOD CMP, p. viii.
Mark Magnier, “China Regrets Sub Incident, Japan Says,” Los Angeles Times, November 17, 2004; Martin Fackler,
“Japanese Pursuit Of Chinese Sub Raises Tensions,” Wall Street Journal, November 15, 2004: 20; Kenji Hall, “Japan:
Unidentified sub is Chinese,” NavyTimes.com (Associated Press), November 12, 2004. See also 2006 DOD CMP, pp.
11-12.
29
Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, Vice Admiral Lowell E. Jacoby, U.S. Navy,
Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement for the Record [before the] Senate Select Committee on Intelligence,
16 February 2005, p. 16-17. See also Current and Projected National Security Threats to the United States, Vice
Admiral Lowell E. Jacoby, U.S. Navy, Director, Defense Intelligence Agency, Statement For the Record [before the]
Senate Armed Services Committee, 17 March 2005, p. 17.
30
Timothy Hu, “Ready, steady, go...,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, April 13, 2005: 27; “China Sub Tracked By U.S. Off
Guam Before Japan Intrusion,” Japan Times, November 17, 2004.
28
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destroyer, were spotted by a Japanese military patrol plane near the Chunxiao gas field,
according to the [Japan] Maritime Self-Defense Forces. 31
Another press report stated:
China said on Sept. 29 [of 2005 that] it has sent warships to the disputed East China Sea, a
day ahead of talks with Japan over competing territorial claims in the gas-rich waters.
“I can now confirm that in the East China Sea, a Chinese reserve vessel squadron has been
established,” foreign ministry spokesman Qin Gang told a regular briefing....
No details were given on the size of the squadron or the area it will patrol. The establishment
of the squadron follows China’s creation of two naval groups in the Bohai Sea and Yellow
Sea off the northern China coast, the agency said.32
On October 26, 2006, a Song-class SS reportedly surfaced five miles away from the Japanhomeported U.S. Navy aircraft carrier Kitty Hawk (CV-63), which reportedly was operating at
the time with its strike group in international waters in the East China Sea, near Okinawa.
According to press reports, the carrier strike group at the time was not actively searching for
submarines, and the Song-class boat remained undetected by the strike group until it surfaced and
was observed by one of the strike group’s aircraft.33 The Chinese government denied that the
submarine was following the strike group.34
In December 2008, China deployed two destroyers and a support ship to waters off Somalia to
conduct anti-piracy operations. According to one source, this was only the third deployment of
Chinese naval ships into the Indian Ocean in more than six centuries.35 U.S. officials stated that
they welcomed a Chinese contribution to the current multi-nation effort to combat piracy off
Somalia.
China is also building port facilities that may support Chinese naval operations in the Indian
Ocean, along the sea line of communication linking China to Persian Gulf oil sources. One press
report in 2005 stated:
31
Norimitsu Onishi and Howard W. French, “Japan’s Rivalry With China Is Stirring A Crowded Sea,” New York
Times, September 11, 2005. See also “Japan Upset Over Chinese Warships Near Disputed Area,” DefenseNews.com,
October 3, 2005.
32
“China Sends Warships to East China Sea,” DefenseNews.com, September 29, 2005. 2006 DOD CMP, p. 2, states
that in the Fall of 2005, “PLA Navy vessels trained their weapons on Japanese Self Defense Forces aircraft monitoring
Chinese drilling and survey activity in the disputed area.”
33
Bill Gertz, “China Sub Secretly Stalked U.S. Fleet,” Washington Times, November 13, 2006: 13; Philip Creed,
“Navy Confirms Chinese Sub Spotted Near Carrier,” NavyTimes.com, November 13, 2006; Bill Gertz, “Defenses On
[sic] Subs To Be Reviewed,” Washington Times, November 14, 2006; En-Lai Yeoh, “Fallon Confirms Chinese Stalked
Carrier,” NavyTimes.com, November 14, 2006; Bill Gertz, “Admiral Says Sub Risked A Shootout,” Washington Times,
November 15, 2006; Jeff Schogol, “Admiral Disputes Report That Kitty Hawk, Chinese Sub Could Have Clashed,”
Mideast Starts and Stripes, November 17, 2006.
34
Associated Press, “China Denies Reports That Sub Followed Kitty Hawk,” NavyTimes.com, November 16, 2006. A
shorter version of the same story was published as Associated Press, “China Denies Sub Followed A Group Of U.S.
Warships,” Asian Wall Street Journal, November 17, 2006: 11.
35
Andrew S. Erickson and Juston D. Mikolay, “Welcome China to the Fight Against Pirates,” U.S. Naval Institute
Proceedings, March 2009: 36.
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China is building up military forces and setting up bases along sea lanes from the Middle
East to project its power overseas and protect its oil shipments, according to a previously
undisclosed internal report prepared for Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld.
“China is building strategic relationships along the sea lanes from the Middle East to the
South China Sea in ways that suggest defensive and offensive positioning to protect China’s
energy interests, but also to serve broad security objectives,” said the report sponsored by the
director, Net Assessment, who heads Mr. Rumsfeld’s office on future-oriented strategies.
The Washington Times obtained a copy of the report, titled “Energy Futures in Asia,” which
was produced by defense contractor Booz Allen Hamilton.
The internal report stated that China is adopting a “string of pearls” strategy of bases and
diplomatic ties stretching from the Middle East to southern China....36
An August 2008 press report stated:
Is China marking space for itself in Myanmar’s Coco Islands again? India is suddenly up and
alert after senior Chinese naval officers recently visited the islands to “upgrade” facilities
there.
36
Bill Gertz, “China Builds Up Strategic Sea Lanes,” Washington Times, January 18, 2005, p.1. The report stated that
China is:
•
operating an eavesdropping post and building a naval base at Gwadar, Pakistan, near the
Persian Gulf;
•
building a container port facility at Chittagong, Bangladesh, and seeking “much more
extensive naval and commercial access” in Bangladesh;
•
building naval bases in Burma, which is near the Strait of Malacca;
•
operating electronic intelligence-gathering facilities on islands in the Bay of Bengal and near
the Strait of Malacca;
•
building a railway line from China through Cambodia to the sea;
•
improving its ability to project air and sea power into the South China Sea from mainland
China and Hainan Island;
•
considering funding a $20-billion canal that would cross the Kra Isthmus of Thailand, which would
allow ships to bypass the Strait of Malacca and permit China to establish port facilities there.
According to the article,
The Pentagon report said China, by militarily controlling oil shipping sea lanes, could threaten
ships, “thereby creating a climate of uncertainty about the safety of all ships on the high seas.”
The report noted that the vast amount of oil shipments through the sea lanes, along with growing
piracy and maritime terrorism, prompted China, as well as India, to build up naval power at
“chokepoints” along the sea routes from the Persian Gulf to the South China Sea.”
China ... is looking not only to build a blue-water navy to control the sea lanes, but also to develop
undersea mines and missile capabilities to deter the potential disruption of its energy supplies from
potential threats, including the U.S. Navy, especially in the case of a conflict with Taiwan,” the
report said....”The Iraq war, in particular, revived concerns over the impact of a disturbance in
Middle Eastern supplies or a U.S. naval blockade,” the report said, noting that Chinese military
leaders want an ocean-going navy and “undersea retaliatory capability to protect the sea lanes.”
China believes the U.S. military will disrupt China’s energy imports in any conflict over Taiwan,
and sees the United States as an unpredictable country that violates others’ sovereignty and wants
to “encircle” China, the report said.
See also Edward Cody, “China Builds A Smaller, Stronger Military,” Washington Post, April 12, 2005, p. 1.
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On June 25, according to reports reaching India, in an unpublicised visit, a Chinese naval
delegation led by Col Chi Ziong Feng, accompanied a Myanmarese delegation headed by
Brig Gen Win Shein, into the Coco Islands.
According to sources, Brig Gen Shein is commander of Ayeyarwaddy (Irrawaddy) naval
headquarters, which controls the island.
According to sources monitoring developments, China decided to help Myanmar upgrade
systems in the island.
Myanmar would increase its naval troop strength on the island, while China would help in
building two more helipads and storage systems for arms. What was of greater interest to
India was that China reportedly agreed to “upgrade” communication facilities on the island.37
Comparing U.S. and Chinese Naval Capabilities
U.S. and Chinese naval capabilities are sometimes compared by showing comparative numbers of
U.S. and Chinese ships. Although numbers of ships can be relatively easy to compile from
published reference sources, this CRS report does not present comparisons of such figures,
because they are highly problematic as a means of assessing relative U.S. and Chinese naval
capabilities, for the following reasons:
•
A fleet’s total number of ships (or its aggregate tonnage) is only a partial metric
of its capability. Other important factors contributing to a navy’s capability
include types of ships; types and numbers of aircraft; the sophistication of
sensors, weapons, C4ISR systems, and networking capabilities; supporting
maintenance and logistics capabilities; doctrine and tactics; the quality,
education, and training of personnel; and the realism and complexity of
exercises. Given these other significant contributors to naval capability, navies
with similar numbers of ships or similar aggregate tonnages can have
significantly different capabilities, and navy-to-navy comparisons of numbers of
ships or aggregate tonnages can provide a highly inaccurate sense of their relative
capabilities.
•
Total numbers of ships of a given type (such as submarines, destroyers, or
frigates) can obscure potentially significant differences in the capabilities of
those ships, both between navies and within one country’s navy. Differences in
capabilities of ships of a given type can arise from differences in factors such as
sensors, weapons, C4ISR systems, networking capabilities, stealth features,
damage-control features, cruising range, maximum speed, and reliability and
maintainability (which can affect the amount of time the ship is available for
operation). The potential for obscuring differences in the capabilities of ships of a
given type is particularly significant in assessing relative U.S. and Chinese
capabilities, in part because China’s navy includes significant numbers of older,
obsolescent ships. Figures on total numbers of Chinese submarines, destroyers,
and frigates lump older, obsolescent ships together with more modern and more
capable designs.
37
Indrani Bagchi, “China Eyeing Base in Bay of Bengal?” Times of India, August 9, 2008, posted online at
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/China_eyeing_base_in_Bay_of_Bengal/articleshow/3343799.cms
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•
A focus on total ship numbers reinforces the notion increases in total numbers
necessarily translate into increases in aggregate capability, and that decreases in
total numbers necessarily translate into decreases in aggregate capability. For a
Navy like China’s, which is modernizing in some ship categories by replacing
larger numbers of older, obsolescent ships with smaller numbers of more modern
and more capable ships, this is not necessarily the case. China’s submarine force,
for example, has decreased in total numbers, but has increased in aggregate
capability, because larger numbers of older, obsolescent boats have been replaced
by smaller numbers of more modern and more capable boats. For assessing
navies like China’s, it can be more useful to track the growth in numbers of more
modern and more capable units. This CRS report shows numbers of more modern
and more capable submarines, destroyers, and frigates in Table 1, Table 2, and
Table 3, respectively.
•
Comparisons of numbers of ships (or aggregate tonnages) do not take into
account maritime-relevant capabilities that countries might have outside their
navies, such as landland-based anti-ship ballistic missiles (ASBMs), -based antiship cruise missiles (ASCMs), and land-based air force aircraft armed with
ASCMs. This is a particularly important consideration in comparing U.S. and
Chinese military capabilities for influencing events in the Western Pacific.
•
The missions to be performed by one country’s navy can differ greatly from the
missions to be performed by another country’s navy. Consequently, navies are
better measured against their respective missions than against one another. This is
another significant consideration in assessing U.S. and Chinese naval
capabilities, because the missions of the two navies are quite different.
Potential Oversight Issues for Congress
China as a Defense-Planning Priority
In U.S. defense planning and programming, including the Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR),
how much emphasis should be placed on programs for countering improved Chinese military
forces in coming years?
As stated at the outset, in the debate over future U.S. defense spending, including deliberations
taking place in the current Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), a key issue is how much
emphasis to place on programs for countering improved Chinese military forces in coming years.
Observers disagree on the issue, with some arguing that such programs should receive significant
emphasis, others arguing that they should receive relatively little, and still others taking an
intermediate position.
The question of how much emphasis to place in U.S. defense planning on programs for
countering improved Chinese military forces is of particular importance to the U.S. Navy,
because many programs associated with countering improved Chinese military forces would fall
within the Navy’s budget. In terms of potential impact on programs and spending, the Navy might
have more at stake on this issue than the Army and Marine Corps, and perhaps at least as much, if
not more, than the Air Force.
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Statements from Secretary of Defense Robert Gates and other DOD officials suggest that the
QDR may place a relatively strong emphasis on programs for supporting current combat
operations in Iraq and Afghanistan, as well as programs for conducting irregular warfare (e.g.,
counterinsurgency operations) in coming years, and relatively less emphasis on programs relating
to possible conventional conflicts between states. This has suggested to some supporters that the
QDR may place relatively less emphasis on, among other things, programs for countering
improved Chinese military forces in coming years. Secretary Gates addressed the issue,
particularly as it regards the Navy, in an April 17, 2009, speech at the Naval War College, stating:
some people may think I am too consumed by the current wars to give adequate
consideration to our long-term acquisition needs. In this respect, the lessons of the last few
years have implications for all Defense programs:
• Lessons about preparing for the kinds of war we are most likely to face and not just the
kinds we are best-suited to fight;
• Lessons about the limits of technology when faced with the fog, friction, and ugly realities
of an unpredictable battlefield; and
• Lessons about our internal processes, and where they may come undone when faced with
unexpected contingencies, evolving requirements, and the prolonged strains of persistent
conflict. Not to mention the ability of an agile adversary to get inside our ponderous decision
and acquisition cycle.
All of this goes far beyond Iraq and Afghanistan – it goes to the heart of maintaining a
defense posture rooted in real-world scenarios with real-world assessments of our
capabilities and, perhaps most important, our limits, both institutionally and operationally.
As I’ve said before in other settings, the responsibility of this Department first and foremost
is to fight and win wars – not just constantly prepare for them.
Now, even with this in mind – and perhaps especially with this in mind – we cannot ignore
the risks posed by the military forces of other state actors. This is a particularly salient issue
for this group, as the weight of America’s conventional and strategic strength has shifted to
our air and naval forces....
Where the trend of future conflict is clear, I have made specific recommendations. For
example, I hope to accelerate the buy of the Littoral Combat Ship, which, despite its
development problems, is a versatile ship that can be produced in quantity and go to places
that are either too shallow or too dangerous for the Navy’s big, blue-water surface
combatants. As we saw last week, you don’t necessarily need a billion-dollar ship to chase
down a bunch of teenage pirates. The size of the ship in such cases is less important than
having Navy SEALs onboard. To carry out the missions we may face in the future – whether
dealing with non-state actors at sea or near shore, or swarming speedboats – we will need
numbers, speed, and ability to operate in shallow waters.
We also must examine our blue-water fleet and the overall strategy behind the kinds of ships
we are buying. The need to show presence and project power from a piece of sovereign
territory called a United States Navy ship will never go away. But we cannot allow more
ships to go the way of the DDG-1000 – where since its inception the projected buy has
dwindled from 32 to three as costs per ship have more than doubled. One of the things that I
am recommending in this budget is to upgrade and build more Arleigh Burke destroyers, still
a best-in-class ship that has been the workhorse of the U.S. surface fleet for nearly two
decades. And a ship that has proven that it can be upgraded rapidly with new capabilities and
technologies.
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The United States must not take its current dominance for granted and needs to invest in
programs, platforms, and personnel that will ensure that we remain preeminent at sea. But
rather than go forward under the same assumptions that guided our shipbuilding during the
Cold War, I believe we need to develop a more rigorous analytical framework before moving
forward – the type of framework that will be provided by the Quadrennial Defense Review.
That is one reason I delayed a number of decisions on programs such as the follow on
manned bomber, the next generation cruiser, as well as overall maritime capabilities. The
purpose was to develop an analytical construct through which we can more precisely
determine what will be needed in coming years. To determine what kind of tactics and
strategies future adversaries, both state and non-state actors, are likely to pursue.
In this respect, it is important to keep some perspective. For example, as much as the U.S.
Navy has shrunk since the end of the Cold War, in terms of tonnage, its battle fleet, by one
estimate, is still larger than the next 13 navies combined – and 11 of those 13 navies are U.S.
allies or partners. In terms of capabilities, the over-match is even greater. No country in the
rest of the world has anything close to the reach and firepower to match a carrier strike
group. And the United States has and will maintain eleven until atleast 2040. I might also
note that we have a number of Expeditionary Strike Groups and will in the not-too-distant
future will be able to carry the F-35.
Potential adversaries are well-aware of this fact, which is why, despite significant naval
modernization programs underway in some countries, no one intends to bankrupt themselves
by challenging the U.S. to a shipbuilding competition akin to the Dreadnought arms race
prior to World War I. Instead, we’ve seen their investments in weapons geared to neutralize
our advantages – to deny the U.S. military freedom of movement and action while
potentially threatening our primary means of projecting power: our bases, sea and air assets,
and the networks that support them.
This is a particular concern with aircraft carriers and other large, multi-billion dollar bluewater surface combatants – where the loss of even one ship would be a national catastrophe.
We know other nations are working on ways to thwart the reach and striking power of the
U.S. battle fleet – whether by producing stealthy submarines in quantity or developing antiship missiles with increasing range and accuracy. We ignore these developments at our peril.
The Royal Navy’s greatest defeat in World War II – the sinking of the capital ships H.M.S.
Repulse and the brand new Prince of Wales by Japanese aircraft just days after Pearl Harbor
– was due in part to a command with little appreciation for air power, and in particular the
threat posed by a single, air-delivered torpedo.
I have also directed the QDR team to be realistic about the scenarios where direct U.S.
military action would be needed – so we can better gauge our requirements. One of those that
will be examined closely is the need for a new capability to get large numbers of troops from
ship to shore – in other words, the capability provided by the Marine Expeditionary Fighting
Vehicle. No doubt, it was a real strategic asset during the first Gulf War to have a flotilla of
Marines waiting off Kuwait City – forcing Saddam’s army to keep one eye on the Saudi
border, and one eye on the coast. But we have to take a hard look at where it would be
necessary or sensible to launch another major amphibious action again. In the 21st century,
how much amphibious capability do we need?
Overall, we have to consider the right mix of weapons and ships to deal with the span of
threats we will likely face. The goal of our procurement should be to develop a portfolio – a
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mixture of weapons and capabilities whose flexibility allows us to respond to a spectrum of
contingencies on and beyond the horizon.38
Those who argue that relatively less emphasis should be placed on programs for countering
improved Chinese military forces in coming years could argue one or more of the following:
•
Preparing for a potential conflict over Taiwan years from now might be
unnecessary, since the situation with Taiwan might well be resolved by then.
•
It is highly unlikely that China and the United States will come to blows in
coming years over some other issue, due to the deep economic and financial ties
between China and the United States and the tremendous damage such a conflict
could inflict.
•
Placing a strong emphasis on programs for countering improved Chinese military
forces could induce China to increase planned investments in its own naval
forces, leading to an expensive U.S.-China naval arms race.
•
Far from coming to blows, Chinese and U.S. naval forces in coming years can
and should cooperate in areas of common interest such as humanitarian
assistance and disaster response (HA/DR) operations, anti-piracy operations, and
other maritime-security operations.
Those who argue that relatively more emphasis should be placed on programs for countering
improved Chinese military forces in coming years could argue one or more of the following:
•
Not preparing for a potential conflict over Taiwan years from now could make
such a conflict more likely by emboldening China to use military force to attempt
to achieve its goals regarding Taiwan. It might also embolden China to use its
naval forces more aggressively in asserting its maritime territorial claims and its
interpretation of international laws relating freedom of navigation in exclusive
economic zones (an interpretation at odds with the U.S. interpretation).
•
China’s naval modernization effort may be driven more by internal Chinese
factors than by external factors such as U.S. decisions on defense spending. To
the extent that China’s naval modernization effort might be influenced by U.S.
decisions on defense spending, a decision to not emphasize programs for
countering improved Chinese military forces might encourage China to continue
or even increase its naval modernization effort out of a belief that the effort is
succeeding in terms of dissuading U.S. leaders from taking steps to prevent a
shift in China’s favor in the balance of military forces in the Western Pacific.
•
Even if China and the United States never come to blows with one another,
maintaining a day-to-day presence in the Pacific of U.S. naval forces capable of
successfully countering Chinese naval forces will be an important U.S. tool for
shaping the region — that is, for ensuring that other countries in the region do not
view China as the region’s emerging military leader (or the United States as a
fading military power in the region), and respond by either aligning their policies
more closely with China or taking steps to improve their own military
38
Source: Text of remarks as delivered by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates at the Naval War College, Newport, RI,
April 17, 2009.
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capabilities that the United State might prefer they not take, such as developing
nuclear weapons.
•
Placing a relatively strong emphasis on programs for countering improved
Chinese military forces does not preclude cooperating with China in areas such
as humanitarian assistance and disaster response (HA/DR) operations, anti-piracy
operations, and other maritime-security operations.
Potential Navy-Related Program Implications
What are the potential Navy-related program implications of placing a relatively strong emphasis
on countering improved Chinese military forces in coming years?
Potential Implications in General
A decision to place a relatively strong defense-planning emphasis on countering improved
Chinese military forces in coming years could lead to one more of the following:
•
increasing activities for monitoring and understanding developments in China’s
navy, as well as activities for measuring and better understanding operating
conditions in the Western Pacific;
•
assigning a larger percentage of the Navy to the Pacific Fleet (and, as a result, a
smaller percentage to the Atlantic Fleet);
•
homeporting more of the Pacific Fleet’s ships at forward locations such as
Hawaii, Guam, and Japan;
•
increasing training and exercises in operations relating to countering Chinese
maritime anti-access forces, such as antisubmarine warfare (ASW) operations;
•
placing a relatively strong emphasis on programs for developing and procuring
highly capable ships, aircraft, and weapons for defeating Chinese anti-access
systems.
Actions Already Taken
The U.S. Navy and (for sea-based ballistic missile defense programs) the Missile Defense Agency
(MDA) have taken a number of steps in recent years that appear intended, at least in part, at
improving the U.S. Navy’s ability to counter Chinese maritime anti-access capabilities, including
but not limited to the following:
•
increasing antisubmarine warfare (ASW) training for Pacific Fleet forces;
•
shifting three Pacific Fleet Los Angeles (SSN-688) class SSNs to Guam;
•
basing all three Seawolf (SSN-21) class submarines – the Navy’s largest and
most heavily armed SSNs – in the Pacific Fleet (at Kitsap-Bremerton, WA);
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•
basing two of the Navy’s four converted Trident cruise missile/special operations
forces submarines (SSGNs) in the Pacific (at Bangor, WA);39
•
assigning most of the Navy’s ballistic missile defense (BMD)-capable Aegis
cruisers and destroyers to the Pacific – and homeporting some of those ships at
Yokosuka, Japan, and Pearl Harbor, HI;
•
increasing the planned procurement quantity of SM-3 BMD interceptor missiles;
•
developing and procuring a sea-based terminal-defense BMD capability as a
complement to the Aegis BMD midcourse BMD capability; and
•
expanding the planned number of BMD-capable ships from three Aegis cruisers
and 15 Aegis destroyers to more than 3 Aegis cruisers and all Aegis destroyers.40
In addition, the Navy’s July 2008 proposal to stop procurement of Zumwalt (DDG-1000) class
destroyers and resume procurement of Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) class Aegis destroyers can be
viewed as having been prompted in large part by Navy concerns over its ability to counter
China’s maritime anti-access capabilities. The Navy stated that this proposal was driven by a
change over the last two years in the Navy’s assessment of threats that U.S. Navy forces will face
in coming years from ASCMs, ballistic missiles, and submarines operating in blue waters.
Although the Navy in making this proposal did not highlight China by name, the Navy’s
references to ballistic missiles and to submarines operating in blue waters can be viewed, at least
in part, as a reference to Chinese ballistic missiles (including ASBMs) and Chinese submarines.
(In discussing ASCMs, the Navy cited a general proliferation of ASCMs to various actors,
including the Hezbollah organization.)41
Highly Capable Ships and Aircraft
An emphasis on acquiring highly capable ships could involve maintaining or increasing funding
for procurement of aircraft carriers, attack submarines, and cruisers and destroyers. The Navy’s
plans for procuring cruisers and destroyers in coming years are not yet fully defined. Capabilities
to emphasize in procurement of cruisers and destroyers would include BMD, AAW, and ASW.
An emphasis on procuring highly capable aircraft could affect decisions regarding procurement of
carrier-based F/A-18E/F Super Hornets and F-35Cs (the Navy version of the Joint Strike Fighter).
In addition, the Navy is currently developing a stealthy, long-range, unmanned combat air system
(UCAS) for use in the Navy’s carrier air wings. The demonstration program for the system is
called UCAS-D. The subsequent production version of the aircraft is called N-UCAS, with the N
standing for Navy. Some observers, including analysts at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary
Assessments (CSBA), believe that N-UCAS would be highly useful, if not critical, for countering
improved Chinese maritime military forces. N-UCASs, they argue, could be launched from a
carrier shortly after the ship leaves port in Hawaii, be refueled in flight, and arrive in the Taiwan
Strait area in a matter of hours, permitting the carrier air wing to contribute to U.S. operations
39
For more on the SSGNs, see CRS Report RS21007, Navy Trident Submarine Conversion (SSGN) Program:
Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke.
40
For more on sea-based BMD programs, see CRS Report RL33745, Sea-Based Ballistic Missile Defense —
Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke
41
For further discussion, see CRS Report RL32109, Navy DDG-1000 and DDG-51 Destroyer Programs: Background,
Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke.
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there days before the carrier itself would arrive. They also argue that N-UCASs would permit
Navy carriers to operate effectively while remaining outside the reach of China’s anti-access
weapons, including ASBMs.42
Pacific Fleet’s Share of the Navy
The final report on the 2005 Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR) directed the Navy “to adjust its
force posture and basing to provide at least six operationally available and sustainable carriers
and 60% of its submarines in the Pacific to support engagement, presence and deterrence.”43
The Navy will meet the 2005 QDR directive of having six CVNs in the Pacific when the Carl
Vinson (CVN-70) – the CVN currently undergoing a mid-life refueling complex overhaul
(RCOH) at Newport News, VA – completes its RCOH and post-delivery work and is then shifted
to San Diego.
As of February 2009, 52% or 53% of the Navy’s submarines (depending on whether SSBNs are
included in the calculation) were homeported in the Pacific. The Navy can achieve the 2005 QDR
directive of having 60% of its submarines in the Pacific by assigning newly commissioned
submarines to the Pacific, by moving submarines from the Atlantic to the Pacific, by
decommissioning Atlantic Fleet submarines, or through some combination of these actions.
According to one 2008 press report, the Navy plans to have 60% of its SSNs in the Pacific Fleet
by 2010.44
As part of a “strategic laydown analysis” that the Navy performed in support of its January 2009
proposal to transfer a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier (CVN) to Mayport, FL,45 the Navy
projected that of its planned 313-ship fleet, 181 ships, or 58% (including six of 11 CVNs), would
be assigned to the Pacific Fleet.46
Homeporting Pacific Fleet Ships in Forward Locations
Navy ships homeported in Japan include an aircraft carrier strike group consisting of a CVN and
11 cruisers, destroyers, and frigates; an amphibious ready group consisting of three amphibious
ships; and additional mine countermeasures ships. Navy ships homeported at Guam include three
42
Thomas P. Ehrhard and Robert O. Work, The Unmanned Combat Air System Carrier Demonstration Program: A
New Dawn For Naval Aviation?, Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, Washington, 2007. 39 pp. (CSBA
Backgrounder, May 10, 2007). The authors briefed key points from this document on July 11, 2007, in room S-211 of
the Capitol. Another observer states that China’s deployment of ASBM’s and supporting surveillance and targeting
systems “argues for a stealth long-range attack aircraft as part of the [carrier] airwing to provide more flexibility on
how we employ our carriers.” (James Lyons, “China’s One World?” Washington Times, August 24, 2008: B1
43
U.S. Department of Defense, Quadrennial Defense Review Report. Washington, 2006. (February 6, 2006) p. 47.
44
Mike Barber, “Navy’s Fast-Attack Submarine Signals News Mission In Pacific,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, February
1, 2008.
45
For more on this proposal, see CRS Report R40248, Navy Nuclear Aircraft Carrier (CVN) Homeporting at Mayport:
Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke.
46
Source: Slide entitled “Strategic Laydown Summary,” in Navy briefing entitled “Final Environmental Impact
Statement (FEIS) for the Proposed Homeporting of Additional Surface Ships at Naval Station Mayport, FL, dated
November 18, 2008, and presented to CRS on December 5, 2008. For more on the Navy’s proposed 313-ship fleet, see
CRS Report RL32665, Navy Force Structure and Shipbuilding Plans: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ronald
O'Rourke.
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Los Angeles (SSN-688) class attack submarines and a submarine tender. Navy ships homeported
in Hawaii include 15 Virginia (SSN-774) and Los Angles class SSNs, and 11 cruisers, destroyers,
and frigates. A 2002 Congressional Budget Office (CBO) report discussed the option of
homeporting as many as 11 SSNs at Guam.47
Fleet Architecture—Larger vs. Smaller Ships
Should the Navy shift over time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture featuring a reduced
reliance on larger ships and an increased reliance on smaller ships?
Some observers, viewing the anti-access aspects of China’s naval modernization effort, including
ASBMs, ASCMs, and other anti-ship weapons, have raised the question of whether the U.S. Navy
should respond by shifting over time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture featuring a
reduced reliance on carriers and other large ships and an increased reliance on smaller ships.
The question of whether the U.S. Navy concentrates too much of its combat capability in a
relatively small number of high-value units, and whether it should shift over time to a more
highly distributed fleet architecture, has been debated at various times over the years, in various
contexts. Much of the discussion concerns whether the Navy should start procuring smaller
aircraft carriers as complements or replacements for its current large aircraft carriers.
Supporters of shifting to a more highly distributed fleet architecture argue that that the Navy’s
current architecture, including its force of 11 or 12 large aircraft carriers, in effect puts too many
of the Navy’s combat-capability eggs into a relatively small number of baskets on which an
adversary can concentrate its surveillance and targeting systems and its anti-ship weapons. They
argue that although a large Navy aircraft carrier can absorb hits from multiple conventional
weapons without sinking, a smaller number of enemy weapons might cause damage sufficient to
stop the carrier’s aviation operations, thus eliminating the ship’s primary combat capability and
providing the attacker with what is known as a “mission kill.” A more highly distributed fleet
architecture, they argue, would make it more difficult for China to target the Navy and reduce the
possibility of the Navy experiencing a significant reduction in combat capability due to the loss in
battle of a relatively small number of high-value units.
Opponents of shifting to a more highly distributed fleet architecture argue that large carriers and
other large ships are not only more capable, but proportionately more capable, than smaller ships,
that larger ships are capable of fielding highly capable systems for defending themselves, and that
they are much better able than smaller ships to withstand the effects of enemy weapons, due to
their larger size, extensive armoring and interior compartmentalization, and extensive damagecontrol systems. A more highly distributed fleet architecture, they argue, would be less capable or
more expensive than today’s fleet architecture. Opponents of shifting to a more highly distributed
fleet architecture argue could also argue that the Navy has already taken an important (but not
excessive) step toward fielding a more distributed fleet architecture through its plan to acquire 55
Littoral Combat Ships (LCSs), which are small, fast surface combatants with modular, “plug-andflight” mission payloads.48
47
U.S. Congressional Budget Office, Increasing the Mission Capability of the Attack Submarine Force, Washington,
CBO, 2002. (A CBO Study, March 2002), 41 pp.
48
For more on the LCS, see CRS Report RL33741, Navy Littoral Combat Ship (LCS) Program: Background,
Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
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The issue of Navy fleet architecture, including the question of whether the Navy should shift over
time to a more highly distributed fleet architecture, was examined in a report by DOD’s Office of
Force Transformation (OFT) that was submitted to Congress in 2005. OFT’s report, along with
two other reports on Navy fleet architecture that were submitted to Congress in 2005, are
discussed at length in another CRS report.49
Legislative Activity
FY2009
FY2009 Defense Authorization Bill (H.R. 5658/S. 3001)
House
The House Armed Services Committee, in its report (H.Rept. 110-652 of May 16, 2008) on H.R.
5658, stated the following regarding the development of an anti-air warfare target for simulating
Threat D, which some press reports suggest might be a term that refers to an ASCM with a flight
profile similar that of the SS-N-27 Sizzler:50
The committee is pleased to note the anticipated source selection for the development of a
Threat D missile target development program in the summer of 2008. The committee
remains concerned that the estimated initial operating capability of such a target in 2014
creates substantial risk during the interim period. The committee encourages the Secretary to
accelerate the target development program to the maximum extent practicable. In addition,
the committee directs the Secretary of the Navy to notify the congressional defense
committees in writing if the estimated initial operating capability of the Threat D target is
delayed more than 90 days or if the costs associated with such program exceeds 10 percent
of programmed funding. The committee further directs the Secretary to provide such
notification within 30 days, along with the reasons for such delay or cost overrun and a
mitigation plan consisting of actions that could restore the program to its original timeline.
(Page 204)
49
See CRS Report RL33955, Navy Force Structure: Alternative Force Structure Studies of 2005—Background for
Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke. The functions carried out by OFT have since been redistributed to other DOD offices.
50
See “United States: The Supersonic Anti-Ship Missile Threat,” Stratfor.com, April 18, available online at
http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/united_states_supersonic_anti_ship_missile_threat?ip_auth_redirect=1; Tony
Capaccio, “Navy Can’t Test Defense Against China’s Sizzler,” Until 2014,” Bloomberg.com, April 3, 2008; Chris
Johnson, “Navy Issues Draft Request For Threat-D Target Development,” Inside the Navy, July 30, 2007; Chris
Johnson, “Industry Day Planned To Develop Threat-D Target For Ship Tests,” Inside the Navy, July 9, 2007; and Chris
Johnson, “Pentagon: Lack Of Threat-D Target Hinders Testing For New Vessels,” Inside the Navy, January 22, 2007.
See also the transcript of the March 12, 2008, hearing before the House Armed Services Committee on the posture of
the Pacific Command.
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FY2008
FY2008 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1585/S. 1547/H.R. 4986/P.L. 110-181)
House
Section 1244 of the House-reported version of the FY2008 defense authorization bill (H.R. 1585)
stated:
SEC. 1244. SENSE OF CONGRESS CONCERNING THE STRATEGIC MILITARY
CAPABILITIES AND INTENTIONS OF THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA.
It is the sense of Congress that—
(1) United States military war-fighting capabilities are potentially threatened by the strategic
military capabilities and intentions of the People’s Republic of China, as demonstrated by—
(A) the October 2006 undetected broach of a Chinese SONG-class diesel-electric submarine
in close proximity of the USS Kitty Hawk in international waters; and
(B) the January 2007 test of a direct ascent anti-satellite (ASAT) weapon, posing a potential
threat to United States military assets in space;
(2) it is in the national security interests of the United States to make every effort to
understand China’s strategic military capabilities and intentions; and
(3) as part of such an effort, the Secretary of Defense should expand efforts to develop an
accurate assessment of China’s strategic military modernization, particularly with regard to
its sea- and space-based strategic capabilities.
Senate
The Senate-passed version of the FY2008 defense authorization bill (S. 1547; S.Rept. 110-77 of
June 5, 2007) did not contain a provision analogous to Section 1244 of the House-passed version
of H.R. 1585 (see above).
Conference
The conference report (H.Rept. 110-477 of December 6, 2007) on H.R. 1585 did not contain a
provision analogous to the Sec. 1244 of the House-passed version of H.R. 1585. The conference
report stated:
The conferees note China’s continued investment in strategic military capabilities that could
be used to support power projection and access denial operations beyond the Asia Pacific
region, and the lack of transparency surrounding the strategic military capabilities and
intentions relating to China’s military modernization. The Pentagon’s 2006 Quadrennial
Defense Review Report (QDR) found that China is at a strategic crossroads and that, “of the
major and emerging powers, China has the greatest potential to compete militarily with the
United States.” The conferees note that during the last year, China demonstrated such
potential, including the October 2006 broach of a Chinese SONG-class diesel-electric
submarine in close proximity to the USS Kitty Hawk aircraft carrier in international waters
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China Naval Modernization
and the January 2007 test of a direct ascent anti-satellite missile against a Chinese weather
satellite in low-earth orbit.
The conferees encourage the Secretary of Defense to expand efforts to develop an accurate
assessment and understanding of China’s strategic military modernization and strategic
intentions, particularly with regard to its sea- and space-based strategic capabilities.
(Page 1031)
H.R. 1585 was vetoed by the President on December 28, 2008. A new bill, H.R. 4986, was passed
with changes that took into account the President’s objection to certain parts of H.R. 1585. The
President’s objection to certain parts of H.R. 1585 did not relate to the passage quoted above.
H.R. 4986 was signed into law as P.L. 110-181 of January 28, 2008. Except for the changes made
by Congress to take into account the President’s objection to certain parts of H.R. 1585, H.Rept.
110-477 in effect serves as the conference report for H.R. 4986.
Author Contact Information
Ronald O’Rourke
Specialist in Naval Affairs
rorourke@crs.loc.gov, 7-7610
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