Order Code RS21168
Updated November 14, 2008
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
When the 111th Congress convenes in 2009, it is expected to finalize the FY2009
appropriations level and consider the FY2010 level of funding for the Peace Corps.
Congress may also address a Peace Corps re-authorization and related issues. This report
will be updated as events warrant.
Generally viewed positively by the public and widely supported in Congress, the
Peace Corps, the U.S. agency that provides volunteer skills internationally, drew
congressional attention in recent years largely due to a 2002 Presidential initiative to
double the size of the volunteer force. While this effort produced re-authorization bills
in the 108th, 109th, and 110th Congresses, some of which were approved by House or
Senate, none made it into law. In 2009, the 111th Congress will consider the new
President’s annual funding request for the Peace Corps. In addition, a new reauthorization effort is expected by many observers.
Background
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps has sought to meet its legislative mandate of
promoting world peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to serve at the
grassroots level in villages and towns in all corners of the globe. Living and working with
ordinary people, volunteers have contributed in a variety of capacities — such as teachers,
environmental specialists, health promoters, and small business advisers — to improving
the lives of those they serve and helping others understand American culture. They also
seek to share their understanding of other countries with Americans back home through
efforts like the Paul D. Coverdell World Wise School program, which links serving
volunteers with U.S. elementary school classrooms. To date, more than 187,000 Peace
Corps volunteers have served in 139 countries. About 7,876 volunteers currently serve in
76 nations. Ronald A. Tschetter, a former volunteer, is the current Peace Corps Director.
In addition to its basic two-year tour of duty, the Peace Corps introduced in 1996 an
initiative called Peace Corps Response (formerly Crisis Corps), drawing on former
volunteers to provide short-term (up to six months) emergency and humanitarian
assistance at the community level with NGOs, relief, and other development
organizations. Hundreds of Peace Corps Response volunteers have served in 40
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countries, including post-tsunami Thailand and Sri Lanka. In September 2005, Peace
Corps Response volunteers were deployed to assist Hurricane Katrina relief, the first time
in Peace Corps history that volunteers were used domestically.
Congressional Actions
Appropriations. On February 4, 2008, the Administration requested $343.5
million for the Peace Corps in its FY2009 budget, a $12.7 million increase and about 4%
higher than the FY2008 level. Although, on July 16, 2008, the House State/Foreign
Operations Subcommittee approved its version of the FY2009 appropriations, the bill was
never reported by the full Appropriations Committee and no Peace Corps figure was
publically released. On July 17, 2008, the Senate Appropriations Committee reported S.
3288, the FY2009 State/Foreign Operations appropriations (S.Rept. 110-425), providing
$337 million to the Peace Corps, an increase of $6.2 million from the previous year and
$6.5 million less than the Administration request.
FY2009 funding for the Peace Corps is currently provided under the terms of a
continuing resolution (H.R. 2638/P.L. 110-329) that allows foreign aid spending as
provided in the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 110-161). The resolution
expires on March 6, 2009. The Peace Corps received $330.8 million in the FY2008
Consolidated Appropriations Act.
Authorization. Despite repeated efforts during the past six years, Congress has not
enacted a new Peace Corps authorization. The last Peace Corps authorization (P.L. 10630), approved in 1999, covered the years FY2000 to FY2003. Annual Foreign Operations
appropriations bills, however, routinely waive the requirement of authorization of foreign
aid programs, as the FY2009 continuing resolution measure did in the case of currently
unauthorized foreign aid programs, including the Peace Corps.
Comprehensive bills approved by the Senate in 2002 (both S. 2667 and S. 12) and
by the House in 2003 (H.R. 1950) would have authorized appropriations that would
double the size of the Peace Corps as well as institute a wide range of reforms and new
programs. The Peace Corps Empowerment Act, S. 732 (Dodd), introduced on March 1,
2007, and the subject of hearings held by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on July
25, 2007, would have authorized appropriations for the Peace Corps and make substantive
changes to the program. It contained provisions that sought to strengthen the
effectiveness of volunteers in the field, provide a larger role for volunteers in the
administration of Peace Corps, and address volunteer personnel and benefit concerns.
H.R. 5535, the Peace Corps Reauthorization Act of 2008 (Farr), introduced in March
2008, contained two provisions — a funding authorization and an increase in the
readjustment allowance provided to Peace Corps volunteers for use on their return home
(from $125 per month of service to $225).
Because these previous legislative efforts represent concerns that are likely to
resurface in some form in the 111th Congress, many of the provisions of S. 732 are
discussed below.
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Issues
Peace Corps Funding. Despite its apparent popularity in Congress and a 2002
expansion initiative by President Bush to double its size within five years, the Peace
Corps has seen only a 19% increase in end of fiscal year volunteer numbers since 2002.
Meant to raise the number of volunteers from below 7,000 in 2002 to 14,000 in 2007, the
initiative would have required an appropriation of about $485 million by FY2007 — more
than $200 million greater than FY2002. In the end, however, Congress had to weigh
whether sufficient funds were available vis-a-vis other foreign aid priorities (e.g.,
HIV/AIDS, terrorism, and Afghanistan) to warrant appropriating the amounts sought by
the Administration, and annual expansion funding requests were rejected. Significant
funding increases were also proposed in both S. 732 and H.R. 5535 authorizing bills in
order to achieve a greatly expanded volunteer force. The volunteer level is currently at
7,876, a slight decline from the previous year.
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2009
Fiscal Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
Request ($ mil)
275.0
317.0
359.0
401.0
345.0
336.7
333.5
343.5
Appropriation ($ mil)
278.7
295.1
309.3
317.4
319.9
319.6
330.8
—a
Total Volunteers
6,636
7,533
7,733
7,810
7,749
8,079
7,876
—
Source: Peace Corps and CRS.
Note: FY2002-FY2008 figures reflect across-the-board rescissions and transfers from other accounts. Total
volunteers are number at end of the fiscal year. c11173008
a. Under PL110-329, the FY2009 Continuing Resolution, Peace Corps is funded at the FY2008 level. The
CR expires on March 6, 2009.
Recruitment, Programming, and Support. A continual concern for Congress
over the years has been how the Peace Corps addresses recruitment, programming, and
support of volunteers.
The recruitment of volunteers with appropriate skills and willingness to live in
unfamiliar and sometimes uncomfortable conditions is essential to the overall mission of
the Peace Corps. A substantial spike in applicants and those expressing interest in
applying since September 11, 2001, has made it easier for the Peace Corps to meet its
recruitment goals. In FY2006, 12,242 applied to be volunteers (8,897 in FY2001), 5,148
were invited to join, and 4,095 became trainees (3,191 in FY2001).
The agency, however, while adept at recruiting generalists and providing them with
sufficient training to carry out useful assignments, has not emphasized the provision of
highly skilled professionals, such as doctors, agronomists, or engineers, which, many
argue, more accurately reflects the current needs of developing countries. Weighed
against this view is the belief that the Peace Corps is an agency of public diplomacy as
much as it is a development organization, and personal interaction and demonstration of
U.S. values is as important as providing technical expertise. To accommodate more
highly skilled personnel, some say the Peace Corps might have to change many existing
practices, including methods of recruitment, training, programming, and perhaps even
terms of service. However, in its Mexico program, launched in 2004, the Peace Corps has
CRS-4
been able to provide more specialized technical volunteers offering skills in water and
environmental engineering.
S. 732 addressed one aspect of this issue by requiring the doubling by end of 2009
of the number of volunteers with at least five years relevant work experience. It also
would have required the creation of at least 20 sector-specific programs in at least 20
different countries for which volunteers with five years relevant work experience would
be mandatory. In response, the Peace Corps argued that relevant work experience is a
subjective term, and it would be burdensome both financially and administratively to set
up such a “demonstration” program without causing problems for the regular Peace Corps
program. Director Tschetter has made an objective of increasing the number of
volunteers aged 50 and older, which, some would argue, might lead to more relevant
work-experienced volunteers. Currently, less than 6% of volunteers are 50 or older. To
encourage applications by older people, S. 732 would have required the Peace Corps to
try to get active retiree health plans suspended while volunteers are serving.
The Peace Corps has been criticized in the past for providing inadequate
programming and support of volunteers. This view was reflected in a 1990 Government
Accountability Office (GAO) investigation (Peace Corps: Meeting the Challenges of the
1990s, May 1990, NSIAD-90-122). It noted that some volunteers had little or nothing to
do or had spent six or more months developing their own assignments, without benefit
of site visits by Peace Corps staff. The GAO attributed the programming problem to a
failure of planning, evaluation, and monitoring systems. Since then, the Peace Corps
maintains that it has addressed these weaknesses with systematic approaches to project
development, annual project reviews, and increased opportunities for site visits and
volunteer feedback.
However, volunteer anecdotal accounts suggesting poor
programming and staff support still occur, although their frequency and depth are not
known. The 2006 volunteer survey found that between 16% and 28% of volunteers were
dissatisfied with regard to site selection, job assignment, and administrative support.1
One sign of volunteer dissatisfaction — the resignation rate — has improved in recent
years, however, with 8.8% resigning in FY2006 versus 9.8% in FY2001.
Small Projects Funding. Peace Corps volunteers generally are employed under
the auspices of a developing country government agency, such as the Ministry of
Education or Agriculture, or a non-governmental organization. In many cases, volunteers
initiate their own small projects to address specific concerns they have identified in their
villages or schools. Some of these projects have been supported through ad hoc efforts
of the volunteer, but over time, more formal spigots of funding have been developed.
Currently, there are two key sources of small-scale funding for Peace Corps
volunteer projects — funds raised for the Peace Corps Partnership Program by the Peace
Corps Office of Private Sector Initiatives (OPSI) and funds provided through an
agreement with the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Volunteers do
not have the authority to accept funds on behalf of the agency but can solicit funds from
family and friends accepted through OPSI. In the last seven years, Peace Corps volunteers
received, on average, 1,114 grants each year, worth a total of $2.0 million in USAID
1
Peace Corps Congressional Budget Justification FY2008, p. 218.
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funds annually (roughly $1,795 per grant). In FY2006, OPSI raised $1.4 million and
supported projects that individually averaged $2,952 in value.
Projects take a variety of forms. According to the Peace Corps, a $619 grant for a
village fish farm in Bolivia funded construction of a chain link fence, the cleaning of
excessive algae from the pool, and introduction of 250 fish. A $4,241 grant at a Thailand
health clinic provided a ground-floor addition to ease access for senior citizens and the
disabled.
S. 732 sought to enhance volunteer effectiveness in the field by providing volunteers
with increased access to funding for these project activities. It would have authorized 1%
of the agency’s own appropriations in each fiscal year to be allocated for such purposes.
Each award of seed funds would be limited to $1,000. In opposition, the Peace Corps
argued that its introduction as a source of project income would possibly change the local
perception of the volunteer as someone working with the community to learn how to
obtain its own funding sources to one that sees the volunteer as a source of cash.2
Volunteer Administration. In another effort to improve the quality of the Peace
Corps program, S. 732 would have enhanced the role volunteers play in program design
and implementation, including site selection, training curriculum, and hiring of senior
Peace Corps country personnel. To achieve this, it would establish a mechanism at the
country level for soliciting the views of volunteers on these issues. Further, a Volunteer
Advisory Committee would be established in each country to make recommendations to
senior personnel.
Currently, according to the Peace Corps, volunteers play a role in site selection by
providing feedback on site safety, project success, and counterpart effectiveness.
Volunteers are encouraged through interaction with senior staff to share their views. In
addition, all posts have a Volunteer Advisory Committee. The Peace Corps argues that
to legislatively require such committees would trigger the Federal Advisory Committee
Act (FACA) and associated burdensome administrative requirements.
Third Goal. S. 732 also would have provided support to returned volunteer efforts
to meet the so-called “Third Goal” of the Peace Corps Act — promoting understanding
of other peoples on the part of the American people — by authorizing the Peace Corps to
award grants to returned volunteers for educational and other programs meeting that goal.
The bill would have authorized $10 million each year for this purpose.
Currently, Peace Corps sponsors several Third Goal activities, funded in total at
about $1.8 million in FY2008. These include the Coverdell World Wide Schools
Program noted above; the Peace Corps Fellows Program, through which more than 4,000
returned volunteers have served as interns in high-need urban or rural U.S. communities;
and the annual Peace Corps Week, in which thousands of returned volunteers visit schools
and libraries around the country to present their Peace Corps experience.
2
Testimony of Ronald Tschetter to Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Subcommittee on
Western Hemisphere, Peace Corps, and Narcotics Affairs, July 25, 2007.
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Security Issues. Because they live and work at the grassroots level in developing
countries, Peace Corps volunteers appear to many Americans to be especially vulnerable
to crime. Even before September 11, 2001, their safety and security had been a prime
concern of the Peace Corps. The threat of anti-American terrorism has increased those
concerns.
These fears were further raised in 2003 when the Dayton (Ohio) Daily News ran a
series of reports highlighting — many former volunteers say exaggerating — the dangers
potentially faced by volunteers, and suggested that the agency was failing in its obligation
to provide adequate security. As a result, congressional hearings were held and legislation
was approved by the House (H.R. 4060, June 2004) that sought to address some security
concerns.
Safety statistics kept by the Peace Corps, both in absolute terms and when viewed
in the context of incidents per 1,000 volunteer years to account for the rise in number of
volunteers in this period, vary from year to year. Aggravated assaults went from 57 in
1993 (9 per 1,000 volunteer years) to 102 in 1999 (16 per 1,000 volunteer years) and then
leveled-off to 87 cases (14 per 1,000 volunteer years) in 2002. There were 87 events in
2005 (12 per 1,000). Reports of rape rose from 10 incidents in 1993 (3.1 per 1,000
female volunteer years) to a peak of 20 (5.3 per 1,000 female volunteer years) in 1997,
and decreased to 12 in 2002 (3.2 per 1,000 female volunteer years). There were 16
reported rapes in 2005 (3.9 per 1,000). However the numbers are viewed, since the
number of events is small, there may be some question as to whether apparent trends are
significant. These statistics also reflect volunteer reporting rates, which likely produce
undercounting, and they do not demonstrate whether volunteers are any more or less
susceptible to assault than Americans living in New York or Des Moines. When surveyed
in 2006, 88% of volunteers reported that they felt usually or very safe where they lived.3
In general, the Peace Corps says that it gives the safety and security of its volunteers
the highest priority. It has been particularly concerned in recent years with threats of
terrorism, crime, and civil strife, and has responded by upgrading communications, testing
emergency action plans, and other security measures. Evacuations and closure of
missions to insure the well-being of volunteers in cases of political instability and civil
unrest have constrained the growth of the Peace Corps. In the past ten years, volunteers
have been evacuated from at least 27 countries for these reasons, including three
attributed to the events of September 11 — Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz
Republic (they have since returned to the latter two countries). Despite the appeal of
using Peace Corps volunteers to convey U.S. culture and values directly to the grassroots
of Islamic countries, many of these countries of U.S. foreign policy interest might be
considered unsafe for Americans over the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, it should be
noted that about 20% of all volunteers, at this time, are serving in 15 countries with
Muslim populations of over 40%. In general, the Peace Corps has argued that the close
interpersonal relationship between volunteers and members of their host country
community helps to make them safe.
3
Peace Corps, The Safety of the Volunteer 2005; and Peace Corps FY2008 Congressional Budget
Justification, p. 214.The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
July 21, 2010
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RS21168
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Summary
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps has sought to meet its legislative mandate of promoting world
peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to serve at the grassroots level in villages
and towns in all corners of the globe. About 7,671 volunteers currently serve in 77 nations.
In 2010, the 111th Congress is considering the President’s annual funding request for the Peace
Corps, efforts to reauthorize the Peace Corps, and related issues. On February 1, the Obama
Administration issued its FY2011 budget request, proposing $446.2 million for the Peace Corps,
a 12% increase over the FY2010-appropriated level of $400 million (H.R. 3288, P.L. 111-117).
On June 30, 2010, the House State, Foreign Operations Subcommittee marked up a draft FY2011
State, Foreign Operations Appropriations bill, providing $446.2 million for the Peace Corps,
matching the Administration request and $46.2 million above the previous year’s level.
The last Peace Corps authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999, covered the years FY2000 to
FY2003. On June 10, 2009, the House approved H.R. 2410, the Foreign Relations Authorization
Act for 2010 and 2011 (H.Rept. 111-136). Title VI of the act contains several Peace Corps
provisions, including authorization of an appropriation level of in FY2011. The Senate has not
addressed this legislation. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported S. 1382, which
would authorize funding for the Peace Corps at “such sums as may be necessary.”
A comprehensive assessment of Peace Corps operations was published in June 2010. It makes 64
recommendations supporting a six-point strategy to be implemented in the coming years.
Current issues include the extent to which there is available funding for Peace Corps expansion,
whether the Peace Corps has the institutional capacity to expand, and whether volunteers are able
to function in a safe and secure environment.
This report will be updated as events warrant.
Congressional Research Service
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Contents
Recent Developments..................................................................................................................1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
Background ................................................................................................................................1
Congressional Actions.................................................................................................................2
FY2011 Appropriations .........................................................................................................2
FY2010 Appropriations.........................................................................................................2
Authorization........................................................................................................................3
Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment ....................................................................................5
Issues..........................................................................................................................................7
Peace Corps Funding and Expansion.....................................................................................7
Volunteers, Programming, and Support .................................................................................8
The Volunteer Force........................................................................................................8
Programming and Support...............................................................................................9
Security Issues .................................................................................................................... 10
Tables
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2011...........................................................................7
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 11
Congressional Research Service
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
Recent Developments
On June 30, 2010, the House State, Foreign Operations Subcommittee marked up a draft FY2011
State, Foreign Operations Appropriations bill, providing $446.2 million for the Peace Corps,
matching the Administration request and $46.2 million above the previous year’s level.
In June 2010, the Peace Corps issued an assessment report mandated by Congress in the FY2010
State, Foreign Operations Appropriations legislation (P.L. 111-117). It puts forth a strategic vision
for the agency and addresses a wide range of operational issues.
On May 11, 2010, the Peace Corps entered into an agreement to establish a Peace Corps program
in Colombia. The first group of 20 volunteers is expected to be deployed in the fall of 2010.
On April 27, 2010, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported S. 2971, the Foreign
Relations Authorization Act for FY2010-2011. It incorporates most of the language of the Peace
Corps Improvement and Expansion Act of 2009, itself reported out of the committee on April 13,
2010 (S.Rept. 111-219). The bill authorizes appropriations for the Peace Corps and requires
submission of an agency assessment and strategic plan.
On February 1, 2010, the Obama Administration issued its FY2011 budget request, proposing
$446.2 million for the Peace Corps, a 12% increase over the FY2010-appropriated level.
In December 2009, Congress approved the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 3288,
P.L. 111-117), providing $400 million for the Peace Corps, $26.4 million more than the
Administration request and an 18% increase over the previous year’s appropriation.
Introduction
Generally viewed positively by the public and widely supported in Congress, the Peace Corps, the
U.S. agency that provides volunteer skills internationally, drew congressional attention in recent
years largely due to a 2002 presidential initiative to double the size of the volunteer force and to a
series of reauthorization measures in the 108th, 109th, and 110th Congresses, some of which were
approved by the House or Senate, but none of which made it into law. In 2009, Congress
addressed the size of the volunteer force by providing a significant increase from the previous
year in its FY2010 budget. In 2010, the 111th Congress is considering the President’s annual
funding request for the Peace Corps, efforts to reauthorize the Peace Corps, and related issues.
This report will be updated as events warrant.
Background
Founded in 1961, the Peace Corps has sought to meet its legislative mandate of promoting world
peace and friendship by sending American volunteers to serve at the grassroots level in villages
and towns in all corners of the globe. Living and working with ordinary people, volunteers have
contributed in a variety of capacities—such as teachers, environmental specialists, health
promoters, and small business advisers—to improving the lives of those they serve and helping
others understand American culture. They also seek to share their understanding of other
countries with Americans back home through efforts like the Paul D. Coverdell World Wise
Congressional Research Service
1
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
School program, which links serving volunteers with U.S. elementary school classrooms. To date,
nearly 200,000 Peace Corps volunteers have served in 139 countries. About 7,671 volunteers
currently serve in 77 nations. The Peace Corps director is Aaron S. Williams, a former volunteer.1
In addition to its basic two-year tour of duty, the Peace Corps introduced in 1996 an initiative
called Peace Corps Response (formerly Crisis Corps), drawing on former volunteers to provide
short-term (usually three to six months) emergency, humanitarian, and reconstruction assistance
at the community level with NGOs and relief and development organizations. More than 1,000
Peace Corps Response volunteers have served in 45 countries, including post-tsunami Thailand
and Sri Lanka. In September 2005, Peace Corps Response volunteers were deployed to assist
Hurricane Katrina relief, the first time in Peace Corps history that volunteers were used
domestically. More recently, they are serving in Haiti.
Congressional Actions
FY2011 Appropriations
On February 1, 2010, the Obama Administration issued its FY2011 budget request, proposing
$446.2 million for the Peace Corps, a 12% increase over the FY2010-appropriated level.
On June 30, 2010, the House State, Foreign Operations Subcommittee marked up a draft FY2011
State, Foreign Operations Appropriations bill, providing $446.2 million for the Peace Corps,
matching the Administration request and $46.2 million above the previous year’s level.
FY2010 Appropriations
On May 7, 2009, the Obama Administration issued its FY2010 State, Foreign Operations budget
request, including $373.4 million for the Peace Corps, a nearly 10% increase and $33.4 million
above the FY2009 level.
On June 26, 2009, the House Appropriations Committee reported H.R. 3081, the FY2010 State,
Foreign Operations Appropriations, providing $450 million for the Peace Corps, a more than 20%
increase and $76.6 million higher than the request. In its report on the bill (H.Rept. 111-187), the
committee raised several issues:
•
In view of congressional support for Peace Corps expansion—and the
committee’s FY2010 recommendation is a strong statement of such support—the
agency was urged to review management procedures allowing for increased
numbers. The committee directed GAO to assess recruitment, field placement,
and the whole range of management practices needed to expand the agency while
maintaining quality.
•
The committee urged the Peace Corps to increase recruitment efforts to
accommodate a volunteer increase and ensure quality in the volunteer force.
1
Supporting Peace Corps operations are 853 U.S. direct hire staff, 190 of whom are overseas, and about 2,000 locally
hired employees at overseas locations.
Congressional Research Service
2
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
•
In view of a pending expansion in volunteers, the committee recommended
reopening domestic recruitment offices in Denver and Minneapolis-St. Paul.
•
The committee urged the agency to integrate renewable energy assistance into its
program.
•
The committee directed that the Peace Corps report on its criteria for assigning
volunteers geographically and encouraged it to consider expansion into Indonesia
and Liberia in FY2010.2
The House approved H.R. 3081 on July 9, 2009. During floor debate, by a vote of 172-259, the
House rejected an amendment offered by Representative Stearns that would have reduced
appropriations for the Peace Corps to the level of the Administration request.
On July 9, 2009, the Senate Appropriations Committee reported S. 1434, its version of the
FY2010 State, Foreign Operations Appropriations (S.Rept. 111-44), providing $373.44 million
for the Peace Corps, matching the Administration request. In its report, the committee expressed
strong support for the Peace Corps, but with an equally strong caveat—that the agency reform
itself to “adapt to the 21st century.” The committee noted that it would recommend additional
increases in support of the goal of doubling the Peace Corps once it is clear that the agency is
reforming.
In December 2009, Congress approved the FY2010 Consolidated Appropriations Act (H.R. 3288,
P.L. 111-117), providing $400 million for the Peace Corps, $26.4 million more than the
Administration request and an 18% increase over the previous year’s appropriation. The
appropriation also contains language that requires the Peace Corps to submit a report within six
months including a comprehensive assessment of the agency’s program model and a strategy for
reforming and improving its operations (see below for more details).
Authorization
Despite repeated efforts during the past six years, Congress has not enacted a new Peace Corps
authorization.3 The last Peace Corps authorization (P.L. 106-30), approved in 1999, covered the
years FY2000 to FY2003. Annual State, Foreign Operations appropriations bills, however,
routinely waive the requirement of authorization of foreign aid programs, as the FY2010
Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117, Division F, sec. 7023) did in the case of currently
unauthorized foreign aid programs, including the Peace Corps.
2
The Peace Corps returned to Liberia in FY2009 and has entered Indonesia in FY2010.
3
Comprehensive bills approved by the Senate in 2002 (both S. 2667 and S. 12) and by the House in 2003 (H.R. 1950)
would have authorized appropriations that would double the size of the Peace Corps as well as institute a wide range of
reforms and new programs. The Peace Corps Empowerment Act, S. 732 (Dodd), introduced on March 1, 2007, and the
subject of hearings held by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on July 25, 2007, would have authorized
appropriations for the Peace Corps and make substantive changes to the program. It contained provisions that sought to
strengthen the effectiveness of volunteers in the field, provide a larger role for volunteers in the administration of Peace
Corps, and address volunteer personnel and benefit concerns. H.R. 5535, the Peace Corps Reauthorization Act of 2008
(Farr), introduced in March 2008, contained two provisions—a funding authorization and an increase in the
readjustment allowance provided to Peace Corps volunteers for use on their return home (from $125 per month of
service to $225).
Congressional Research Service
3
The Peace Corps: Current Issues
On June 10, 2009, the House approved H.R. 2410, the Foreign Relations Authorization Act for
2010 and 2011 (H.Rept. 111-136). Title VI of the Act contains several Peace Corps provisions:
•
The bill states that it is the policy of the United States to double the size of the
Peace Corps, improve the coordination of agency programs with those of other
development agencies, and to promote volunteerism by Americans in developing
countries.
•
The bill amends the Peace Corps Act to authorize the Peace Corps Response
Program (discussed above).
•
The bill requires that Peace Corps work with other government agencies to
“identify synergies” and coordinate programs. In its report on the bill (H.Rept.
111-136), the House Foreign Affairs Committee asserted that USAID and others
could benefit from the community-based programs that individual innovative
volunteers have created.
•
The bill increases the readjustment allowance provided to volunteers completing
their term of service from “at least $125 per month” of service to “at least $225.”
Until recently, volunteers were provided $225 per month of service on their
return to the United States, a level, the committee report notes, that is less than
AmeriCorps volunteers. The committee suggests that, minimally, parity with
AmeriCorps should be established and an even higher stipend should be
considered, given that volunteers must resettle after living abroad.4
•
The bill authorizes an appropriation level of $450 million in FY2010 and “such
sums as may be necessary” in FY2011.
•
The bill requires two reports. One, within a year, on the accomplishments,
challenges, and plans for the Peace Corps Response Program and another,
annually, on progress made carrying out the legislation, including efforts to
increase cooperation with other federal aid agencies.
The Senate Foreign Relations Committee has not yet addressed H.R. 2410 and the Peace Corps
provisions it contains.
On April 27, 2010, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee reported S. 2971, the Foreign
Relations Authorization Act for FY2010-2011. It incorporates most of the language of the Peace
Corps Improvement and Expansion Act of 2009, introduced as S. 1382 on June 25, 2009, and
reported out of the committee on April 13, 2010 (S.Rept. 111-219). Apart from authorizing
appropriations indefinitely (“such sums as may be necessary”), the bill requires that the Peace
Corps undertake an extensive assessment on how to strengthen management capabilities and
program effectiveness, to expand opportunities for volunteers, and to increase the size of the
Peace Corps. Based on that assessment, the Peace Corps is required to develop a strategic plan
with one-year and five-year goals and benchmarks for these objectives as well as a strategy for
country distribution of volunteers. The bill requires a report to Congress on the assessment and
strategic plan.
4
Effective April 1, 2010, the readjustment allowance was increased to $275 per month of service.
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Peace Corps Comprehensive Assessment
In June 2010, the Peace Corps submitted to Congress a “comprehensive agency assessment” in
response to a directive included in the FY2010 State, Foreign Operations appropriations (P.L.
111-117, Division F).5 As requested by the conferees (H.Rept. 111-366), the 204-page document
specifically addresses the improvement of a range of Peace Corps operations and procedures,
including those involving recruitment of a diverse and skilled volunteer force; training and
medical care for volunteers and staff; placement of volunteers based on U.S. interests, country
needs, and volunteer skills; coordination with international and host country organizations; early
termination rates; management practices and independent evaluation; and other steps that might
ensure an effective use of volunteers and resources. The other step that the assessment team chose
to include is a discussion of third goal activities.
While the report is thorough in its treatment of these issues, it should be noted that some points
that would be required for study in the above-mentioned proposed authorization bills are not
substantively addressed here. These include deferment of student loans, utilization of information
technology, mechanisms for soliciting volunteer views, the adequacy and impact of post-service
benefits, and the accomplishments and plans for the Peace Corps Response Program.
The assessment report doesn’t just discuss a wide range of issues—it is a blueprint for change in
the agency. The assessment team’s 64 recommendations have been approved in principle by the
Peace Corps director. All recommendations have been placed in an implementation matrix with
lead offices and proposed timing for implementation identified. Only a few of the
recommendations would require legislative action and, therefore, most can be launched
immediately.
As a result of the assessment team’s findings, the Peace Corps is adopting a six-point strategy to
guide its operations in the coming years. First, it will move to rationalize its selection of host
countries by establishing clear criteria for entry. In part, this move seeks to address congressional
concerns that the selection of Peace Corps host countries may not sufficiently reflect U.S.
interests. Since 2002, the Peace Corps has received letters of request or inquiry from 27 countries
where there is no current program. How the agency determines whether to establish a program
has not been a transparent and well-documented process, leading some to conclude that it was not
a rational process. The assessment team found that certain essential conditions have always been
applied to the question of country entry—the extent of host country commitment, the safety and
security of volunteers, and the level of resources available to the Peace Corps. Other key
considerations have included compatibility of country objectives with those of Peace Corps,
presence of potential projects, cost effectiveness, and congruence with U.S. national interests.
The assessment team has recommended that the Peace Corps conduct a formal annual portfolio
review that will look not just at applicant countries but at all existing programs and apply specific
criteria to judge where the agency should operate. In addition to existing criteria, the team has
recommended that two new criteria be introduced into deliberations on country entry and
termination—a measure of the level of development, such as the U.N. Development Program’s
Human Development Index, and a measure of potential volunteer impact.
5
The report can be found at http://multimedia.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/opengov/
PC_Comprehensive_Agency_Assessment.pdf.
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The second point in the new Peace Corp strategy is to recognize and make the best use of one of
its most notable characteristics—a volunteer force composed largely of generalists. Today, as has
largely been the case throughout its history, 85% of volunteers are recent college graduates and
84% are under the age of 30. While some have argued that the Peace Corps should alter its
composition to meet the increasing needs of developing countries for educated specialists, the
assessment team appears to have determined, with some exceptions noted below under point four,
to accept demographic reality and the constraints of career paths in the United States that would
likely limit the number of older specialists available to it. Instead, the team recommends steps be
taken to strengthen the quality of the volunteer force available by improving its technical,
language, and cultural training. It calls for hiring full-time training staff at country posts and
providing more training time to volunteers.
The third point in the new strategy suggests that, in order to maximize the effectiveness of the
large pool of generalists recruited by the Peace Corps, it would be best to focus on a more limited
range of project areas. Currently, volunteers are assigned to one of six broad technical sectors—
education, health, agriculture, environment, youth development, and business/IT. Within those
sectors, volunteers work in 50 different technical programs, from which 211 different project
plans have been developed, perhaps meeting specific needs in a developing country, but for each
of which volunteers in that project must be trained. The assessment team argues that by focusing
more on what volunteers do best, what communities most want, and what volunteers can best be
trained to do, the agency can maximize the capacity of volunteers and the impact they may have.
The recommendation, therefore, is that Peace Corps management assess and determine a more
narrow framework of work assignments and strengthen technical training in those areas.
However, the assessment did not suggest which technical sectors or program areas should be
eliminated or maintained.
The assessment’s fourth key point addresses the exception to the rule of use of generalists. Both
to meet needs of countries that might require greater expertise and experience and to best attract
and utilize those volunteer applicants that possess a higher level of skills than the norm, the
assessment team recommends that some innovations be made in Peace Corps programs. In
particular, it suggests that the Peace Corps Response Program be expanded in size and be open to
highly qualified individuals without previous Peace Corps experience. The Response Program
should also maintain its current flexible time commitments (i.e., less than the usual 27 months for
regular volunteers) and be used in both regular Peace Corps countries as well as in countries
where there is no standard Peace Corps presence.
The fifth point in the strategy calls for efforts to more fully and effectively address the so-called
“third goal,” the legislative mandate that Peace Corps volunteers “help promote a better
understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans.” This objective has always received less
attention and funding ($1.9 million of its $400 million FY2010 budget) than the other two goals
of assisting development and promoting understanding of Americans to the people served, both
aspects which focus on the agency’s work abroad. The “third goal” was singled out recently as an
area of emphasis by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in its report on the Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act (S. 1382, and incorporated into S. 2971), the committee arguing
that the “third goal” had not received enough priority. “Third goal” activities include efforts by
volunteers and former volunteers, sometimes forming country member groups, to convey their
experiences through blogs, public talks, community service in the United States, and charitable
fundraising. Most prominent among Peace Corps-sponsored activities is the Coverdell Worldwise
Schools program, which connects volunteers with school classrooms throughout the United
States. The assessment report recommendations include increasing funding for these purposes;
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establishing an intern program that would place exceptional volunteers in international NGOs,
business, and U.S. agencies; and developing an agency-wide strategy to achieve “third goal”
objectives.
The sixth point of the strategy is to strengthen Peace Corps management and operations. It
recommends an updating of the agency’s strategic plan to include the new strategies encompassed
in the assessment report, and a wide range of improvements to the planning and budgeting
process, staffing, evaluation and oversight, recruitment procedures, training, and provision of
health care to volunteers.
Issues
Peace Corps Funding and Expansion
Despite its apparent popularity in Congress and a 2002 expansion initiative by President Bush to
double its size within five years, the Peace Corps has seen only a 16% increase in end of fiscal
year volunteer numbers since 2002. Meant to raise the number of volunteers from below 7,000 in
2002 to 14,000 in 2007, the initiative would have required an appropriation of at least $485
million by FY2007—more than $200 million greater than FY2002. In the end, however, Congress
had to weigh whether sufficient funds were available vis-à-vis other foreign aid priorities (e.g.,
HIV/AIDS, terrorism, and Afghanistan) to warrant appropriating the amounts sought by the
Administration, and annual expansion funding requests were rejected. The end of FY2009
volunteer level is currently at 7,671, a slight decline from the previous year.
Table 1. Peace Corps Budget: FY2002-FY2011
Fiscal Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Request ($ mil)
275.0
317.0
359.0
401.0
345.0
336.7
333.5
343.5
373.4
446.2
Appropriation ($ mil)
278.7
295.1
309.3
317.4
319.9
319.6
330.8
340.0
400.0
Total Volunteers
6,636
7,533
7,733
7,810
7,749
8,079
7,876
7,671
—
Source: Peace Corps and CRS.
Note: FY2002-FY2008 figures reflect across-the-board rescissions and supplemental appropriations. Total
volunteers are number at end of the fiscal year.
The Obama Administration’s stated objective is a 9,400-volunteer force by 2012 and 11,000 by
2016.6 However, in 2009, the House approved an appropriations level for FY2010 (20% higher)
that would support expansion plans at a significantly higher level than the Administration, but the
Senate Appropriations Committee (S.Rept. 111-44) supported the Administration level and was
looking to the agency to reform before providing funding for a doubling of the Peace Corps. The
Senate committee was also sensitive to the demands of other priorities, comparing the $50,000
required for one volunteer a year to the few dollars needed for a dose of measles vaccine. In the
end, Congress approved an FY2010 appropriation of $400 million, an 18% increase over the
6
Department of State, Congressional Budget Justification Foreign Operations Fiscal Year 2011, p. 84.
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previous year’s budget. The House State, Foreign Operations Subcommittees’ mark for FY2011,
matching the request, if enacted, would be a 12% increase over the previous year’s appropriation.
Whether congressional efforts lead to consistent annual growth of the agency rather than a
repetition of the course of the previous expansion initiative will likely hinge on the same two
concerns that were repeatedly expressed by appropriators during past years—the overall
availability of foreign aid funding and the managerial capacity of the agency to implement an
expansion while maintaining an effective volunteer force.
Volunteers, Programming, and Support
A continual concern for Congress over the years has been how the Peace Corps addresses the
make-up of the volunteer force, programming of volunteer projects assignments, and support of
volunteers in implementing those projects. This concern is particularly acute in the context of the
current expansion initiative as it was used as an argument for not meeting the previous
Administration’s funding requests that would enable doubling the size of the agency. With this
concern in mind, the House Appropriations Committee report on the FY2010 State, Foreign
Operations appropriations (H.Rept. 111-187) asked the Peace Corps to review its management
practices in order to accommodate larger numbers of volunteers, and the Senate’s Peace Corps
Improvement and Expansion Act (S. 1382) similarly aims to ensure that the Peace Corps is
prepared to deal with the whole range of management issues. As noted above, the FY2010
Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 111-117, Division F) required the Peace Corps to submit a
report assessing its operational model and proposing a strategy for reform. How the report
submitted in June 2010 is received by Congress will likely influence further steps toward agency
expansion.
The Volunteer Force
The volunteer force is the Peace Corps. Aspects of its composition have been a focus of interest in
Congress over the years. Currently, 60% of volunteers are women, 17% are minorities, 93% are
single, and 84% are in their twenties.
In the past several years, Peace Corps made an objective of increasing the number of volunteers
aged 50 and older, which, some would argue, might lead to a more specialized work-experienced
volunteer force. However, the proportion of volunteers aged 50 or over appears to have changed
in a positive direction only slightly. In FY2009, only 6% of volunteers were 50 or older,
compared with 5% in FY2008 (on the other hand, the number of older applicants increased by
44% between FY2007 and FY2008 and represents 9.2% of applicants). 7
Volunteers work in a range of sectors—35% in education, 22% in health and HIV/AIDS, 15% in
business development, 14% in the environment, 5% in youth, 5% in agriculture, and 4% in other
activities. According to the assessment report, 85% of volunteers are recent college graduates
with little professional experience. The Peace Corps, while adept at recruiting generalists and
providing them with sufficient training to carry out useful assignments in these fields, has not
emphasized the provision of highly skilled professionals, such as doctors, agronomists, or
engineers, which, many argue, more accurately reflects the current needs of developing countries
7
Peace Corps 2010 Congressional. Budget Justification, p. 38 and 85.
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and which the agency may be under greater pressure to supply if it intends to expand volunteer
numbers.8 Weighed against this view is the belief that the Peace Corps is an agency of public
diplomacy as much as it is a development organization, and personal interaction and
demonstration of U.S. values is as important as providing specialized technical expertise.
As noted earlier, the assessment team has recommended that the Peace Corps accept the
demographic features that have long characterized the volunteer force and, while embracing the
use of generalists, seek to strengthen their capabilities through better training and more focused
sector activities. At the same time, the team has recommended continued efforts to utilize
experienced and skilled volunteers through innovative approaches. In particular, it suggests that
the Peace Corps Response Program be used as a platform for new, more flexible, programs that
may accommodate different types of volunteers.
Whatever the skill sets and demographic characteristics sought by the agency, it is the recruitment
of volunteers with appropriate skills and willingness to live in unfamiliar and sometimes
uncomfortable conditions that is essential to the overall mission of the Peace Corps. A substantial
spike in applicants and those expressing interest in applying since September 11, 2001, has made
it easier for the Peace Corps to meet its recruitment goals. In FY2009, 15,386 applied to be
volunteers (compared to 8,897 in FY2001), an 18% increase from FY2008; 4,367 were invited to
join, and 3,694 became trainees (3,191 in FY2001).
Programming and Support
The Peace Corps has been criticized in the past for providing inadequate programming and
support of volunteers. This view was reflected in a 1990 Government Accountability Office
(GAO) investigation.9 It noted that some volunteers had little or nothing to do or had spent six or
more months developing their own assignments, without benefit of site visits by Peace Corps
staff. The GAO attributed the programming problem to a failure of planning, evaluation, and
monitoring systems. Since then, the Peace Corps maintains that it has addressed these weaknesses
with systematic approaches to project development, annual project reviews, and increased
opportunities for site visits and volunteer feedback. While most volunteers do rate their overall
experience highly, volunteer anecdotal accounts suggesting poor programming and staff support
still occur, and the 2008 volunteer survey found that between 19% and 24% of volunteers were
dissatisfied with regard to support received from Peace Corps staff in site selection and job
assignment. 10 One sign of volunteer dissatisfaction—the resignation rate—has improved in recent
years, with 7.3% resigning in FY2009 versus 9.8% in FY2001.11
The assessment report discusses but does not thoroughly explore causes of volunteer
dissatisfaction and resignation, noting that 97 recommendations to reduce it have been made in
previous studies since 1969, many of which have been adopted. It also does not address questions
regarding the quality of volunteer assignments. However, the report does offer possible avenues
that might help correct these concerns, such as improving volunteer and staff training, developing
8
In its Mexico program, launched in 2004, the Peace Corps has been able to provide more specialized technical
volunteers offering skills in water and environmental engineering.
9
Peace Corps: Meeting the Challenges of the 1990s, May 1990, NSIAD-90-122
10
Peace Corps 2008 Volunteer Survey Global Report, June 2009, p. 52.
11
“A resignation is a decision made by the volunteer and trainee who no longer wish to continue in the Peace Corps.”
Assessment Report, p. 171-172.
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initiatives to better utilize skilled and experienced volunteers, encouraging third-year extensions,
and strengthening program evaluation and oversight.
Security Issues
One issue the assessment report was not asked to and does not address is the safety and security
of volunteers, possibly because it has long been a prime concern of the Peace Corps, even before
September 11, 2001. Because they live and work at the grassroots level in developing countries,
Peace Corps volunteers appear to many Americans to be especially vulnerable to crime. The
threat of anti-American terrorism has increased that perception.
These fears were further raised in 2003 when the Dayton (Ohio) Daily News ran a series of
reports highlighting—many former volunteers say exaggerating—the dangers potentially faced
by volunteers, and suggested that the agency was failing in its obligation to provide adequate
security. As a result, congressional hearings were held and legislation was approved by the House
(H.R. 4060, June 2004) that sought to address some security concerns.
Safety statistics kept by the Peace Corps, both in absolute terms and when viewed in the context
of incidents per 1,000 volunteer years to account for the rise in number of volunteers in this
period, vary from year to year. Aggravated assaults went from 1.35 per 100 volunteer years in
1998 to .49 per 100 volunteer years in 2007 (36 incidents). Reports of rape rose from 10 incidents
in 1993 (.31 per 100 female volunteer years) to a peak of 20 (.53 per 100 female volunteer years)
in 1997, and decreased to 12 in 2002 (.32 per 100 female volunteer years). There were 17
reported rapes in 2007 (.39 per 100). However the numbers are viewed, since the number of
events is small, there may be some question as to whether apparent trends are significant. These
statistics also reflect volunteer reporting rates, which likely produce undercounting, and they do
not demonstrate whether volunteers are any more or less susceptible to assault than Americans
living in New York or Des Moines. When surveyed in 2008, 85% of volunteers reported that they
felt usually or very safe where they lived. 12
In general, the Peace Corps says that it gives the safety and security of its volunteers the highest
priority. It has been particularly concerned in recent years with threats of terrorism, crime, and
civil strife, and has responded by upgrading communications, testing emergency action plans, and
other security measures. Evacuations and closure of missions to insure the well-being of
volunteers in cases of political instability and civil unrest have constrained the growth of the
Peace Corps. In the past 10 years, volunteers have been evacuated from at least 27 countries for
these reasons, including three attributed to the events of September 11—Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan, and the Kyrgyz Republic (they have since returned to the latter two countries).
Despite the appeal of using Peace Corps volunteers to convey U.S. culture and values directly to
the grassroots of Islamic countries, many of these countries of U.S. foreign policy interest might
be considered unsafe for Americans over the foreseeable future. Nonetheless, it should be noted
that, according to the Peace Corps, about 25% of all volunteers, at this time, are serving in 16
countries with Muslim populations of over 40%. In FY2010, the Peace Corps launched a program
in Indonesia, the most populous Muslim country in the world. In general, the Peace Corps has
argued that the close interpersonal relationship between volunteers and members of their host
country community helps to make them safe.
12
Peace Corps, FY2010 Congressional Budget Justification, p. 87.
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Author Contact Information
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
ctarnoff@crs.loc.gov, 7-7656
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