Order Code RL33809
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Updated February 1, 2008
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Specialist in Immigration Policy
Domestic Social Policy Division
July 24, 2009
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
RL33809
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Noncitizen Eligibility for Major Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Summary
The extent to which residents of the United States who are not U.S. citizens
should be eligible for
federally funded public aid has been a contentious issue for
more than a decade. This issue meets
at the intersection of two major policy areas:
immigration policy and welfare policy. The
eligibility of noncitizens for public
assistance programs is based on a complex set of rules that are
determined largely by
the type of noncitizen in question and the nature of services being offered.
Over the
past ten years, Congress has enacted significant changes in U.S. immigration policy
and and
welfare policy. Congress has exercised oversight of revisions made by the 1996
welfare reform
law (the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity
Reconciliation Act, P.L. 104-193) — —
including the rules governing noncitizen
eligibility for public assistance that it established — and —and
legislation covering
programs with major restrictions on noncitizens’ eligibility (e.g., food
stamps,
Medicaid).
This report deals with the four major federal means-tested benefit programs: the
Food Stamp
program, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, Temporary
Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF) block grant programs, and Medicaid. Laws
in place for the past decade restrict
the eligibility of legal permanent residents
(LPRs), refugees, asylees, and other noncitizens for
most means-tested public aid.
Noncitizens’ eligibility for major federal means-tested benefits
largely depends on
their immigration status, whether they arrived (or were on a program’s rolls) before
before August 22, 1996, the enactment date of P.L. 104-193, and how long they have lived
and and
worked in the United States.
LPRs with a substantial work history or military connection are eligible for the
full range of
programs, as are asylees, refugees, and other humanitarian cases (for at
least five to seven years
after entry). Other LPRs must meet additional eligibility
requirements. For food stamps, they
generally must have been legally resident for
five years or be children. For SSI benefits, they
must have been recipients as of
August 22, 1996, or resident as of that date and disabled. Under
TANF and
Medicaid SSI, they generally are ineligible for five years after entry and then eligible at
state option state
option. States have the option of providing Medicaid to pregnant LPRs and children within the
five-year bar. Unauthorized aliens (often referred to as illegal aliens) are not eligible
for most
federal benefits, regardless of whether they are means tested, with notable
exceptions for
emergency services.
TANF, SSI, food stamp, and Medicaid recipiency among noncitizens has
decreased over the past decade. While this decrease was 19952005 period, but shows signs of inching upwards in 2007. While this 10-year decrease was
affected by the statutory
changes, the poverty rate of noncitizens has also diminished over the
past decade.
The poverty rate for noncitizens residing in the United States fell from 27.8% in 1995
to 20.4% in 2005. Despite this shrinking percentage of noncitizens in poverty,
noncitizens are still disproportionately
1995 to 20.4% in 2005. It has risen slightly to 21.3% in 2007. Noncitizens are disproportionately
poorer than native-born residents of the
United States.
This report does not track legislation and is updated as policy changes warrant.
Contents
Latest Policy Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overview of Alien Eligibility Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Pre-1996 Program Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
The 1996 Welfare Reform Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Post-1996 Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Current Eligibility Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Related Immigrant Policies Affecting Eligibility: Sponsorship and Deeming . . 5
“Public Charge” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1996 Immigration Law Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
“Deeming” of Income and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Pre-1996 Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Post-1996 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Trends in Noncitizen Poverty and Benefit Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Noncitizen Poverty Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
General Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Comparative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Noncitizen Benefit Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Formative Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Latest Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Program Participation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Food Stamps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cash Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Federal and State Benefit Eligibility Standards for Unauthorized Aliens . . . . . . 16
Federal Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
State Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
List of Figures
Figure 1. Noncitizen Residents in Poverty, 1994-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Figure 2. Comparative Poverty Levels by Citizenship, 1995 and 2005 . . . . . . . . 11
Figure 3. Percentage of Noncitizens Receiving Selected Assistance or Benefits:
1995 and 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Figure 4. Percentage Distribution of Recipients by Citizenship Status:
1995 and 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Figure 5. Noncitizens as a Percentage of all Food Stamp, SSI, and TANF/AFDC
Cash Assistance, 1989-2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
List of Tables
Table 1. Poverty by Citizenship Status, 1995 and 2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Appendix A. Noncitizen Eligibility for Selected Major Federal Programs . . . . 20
Appendix B: “Qualified Aliens” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Latest Policy Updates
Most recently, §525 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2008 (P.L.
110-161) makes Iraqi and Afghan aliens granted special immigrant status under
§101(a)(27) of the INA eligible for resettlement assistance, entitlement programs, and
other benefits available to refugees admitted under §207 of INA for a period not to
exceed 6 months. Also, §409 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act prohibits funds
being used to provide homeowners assistance to foreign nationals who are neither an
alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence, nor authorized to be employed in
the United States.
Introduction
The extent to which residents of the United States who are not U.S. citizens
should be eligible for federally funded public aid has been a contentious issue for
more than a decade. This issue meets at the intersection of two major policy areas:
immigration policy and welfare policy.1 Over the past ten years, Congress has
enacted significant changes in U.S. immigration policy and welfare policy. Congress
has exercised oversight of revisions made by the 1996 welfare reform law (the
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, P.L. 104-193) —
including the rules governing noncitizen eligibility for public assistance that it
established — and legislation covering programs with major restrictions on
noncitizens’ eligibility (e.g., food stamps, Medicaid).
This report deals with the four major federal means-tested benefit programs: the
Food Stamp program, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant programs, and Medicaid. It is
organized into four main parts: an overview of existing eligibility law for the four
programs and the policies that preceded the 1996 act; an overview of related
immigrant policies affecting eligibility (specifically, the treatment of sponsored
aliens); an analysis of trends in noncitizen poverty and benefit use; and a summary
of the eligibility rules for aliens residing in the United States illegally. Appendices
at the conclusion elaborate on the specifics of current eligibility rules for the four
major programs.
1
For further background, see CRS Report RL34204, Immigration Legislation and Issues in
the 110th Congress, coordinated by Andorra Bruno; CRS Report RL34206, Temporary
Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): Issues for the 110th Congress, by Gene Falk; and
CRS Report RS22629, Medicaid Citizenship Documentation, by April Grady.
CRS-2
Overview of Alien Eligibility Law
Pre-1996 Program Policies
Prior to the major amendments made in 1996, there was no uniform rule
governing which categories of noncitizens were eligible for which governmentprovided benefits and services, and no single statute where the rules were described.
Alien eligibility requirements, if any, were set forth in the laws and regulations
governing the individual federal assistance programs.
Summarizing briefly, lawful permanent residents (i.e., immigrants) and other
noncitizens who were legally present (e.g., refugees) were generally eligible for
federal benefits on the same basis as citizens in programs where rules were
established by law or regulation. These included major public assistance programs
like Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC, the predecessor of TANF), the
SSI program, food stamps, and Medicaid. With the single exception of emergency
Medicaid, unauthorized (illegally present) aliens were barred from participation in
all the major federal assistance programs that had statutory provisions for
noncitizens, as were aliens here legally in a temporary status (i.e., nonimmigrants
such as persons admitted for tourism, education, or employment).
However, many health, education, nutrition, income support, and social service
programs did not include specific provisions regarding alien eligibility, and
unauthorized aliens were potential participants.2 These programs included, for
example, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and
Children (the WIC program), child nutrition programs, initiatives funded through the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC),
community and migrant health centers, and the Social Services Block Grant (SSBG)
program.
The 1996 Welfare Reform Law
Title IV of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation
Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-193) established comprehensive new restrictions on the
eligibility of noncitizens for means-tested public assistance — with significant
exceptions for those with a substantial U.S. work history or military connection. For
legal permanent residents (LPRs) who were resident as of enactment of the law
(August 22, 1996), the act generally barred eligibility (food stamps and SSI) or
allowed it at state option (Medicaid and TANF). For food stamps and SSI benefits,
LPRs entering after August 22, 1996, (new entrants) also were denied eligibility, with
no time constraint. On the other hand, new entrants applying for Medicaid and the
newly established Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program were
barred for five years after their entry, and then allowed eligibility at state option.
Refugees and asylees were allowed eligibility for five years after entry/grant of status,
2
Changes made by the 1996 welfare reform law potentially affecting eligibility for these
programs are not covered in this report.
CRS-3
then made ineligible (unless they became citizens or qualified under another status).
Nonimmigrants (i.e., aliens on temporary visas) and unauthorized aliens were barred.
Post-1996 Revisions
The 1996 changes made in the alien eligibility rules proved controversial,
particularly the termination of benefits for recipients who were receiving benefits or
for legal residents of the United States as of the date the new welfare law was
enacted, August 22, 1996.
The SSI termination date for these recipients was extended from August 22,
1996, to September 30, 1997, by P.L. 105-18, signed into law on June 12, 1997.
More extensive modifications to the new alienage rules were then included in P.L.
105-33, the 1997 Balanced Budget Act, signed into law on August 5, 1997. It
amended the welfare reform law to provide that legal immigrants who were receiving
SSI as of August 22, 1996, continue to be eligible, regardless of whether their claim
was based on disability or age. Additionally, those who were here by August 22,
1996, and subsequently become disabled were made eligible for SSI.
Food stamp eligibility was expanded by provisions of P.L. 105-185, the
Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998. Eligibility
was extended to several groups of LPRs who were here as of August 22, 1996:
elderly (65+) persons (not including those who become 65 after August 22, 1996);
individuals receiving government disability benefits (including those who become
disabled after August 22, 1996); and children (persons who were under 18 as of
August 22, 1996, until they become adults). Amendments in P.L. 105-33 and P.L.
105-185 extended the period of food stamp/SSI/Medicaid (but not TANF) eligibility
for refugees and asylees from five to seven years.
During the 107th Congress, P.L. 107-171, the “farm bill,” contained substantial
changes to food stamp eligibility rules for noncitizens, expanding food stamp
eligibility to include the following groups:
!
!
!
3
all LPR children, regardless of date of entry (it also ends
requirements to deem sponsors’ income and resources to these
children);
LPRs receiving government disability payments, so long as they pass
any noncitizen eligibility test established by the disability program
(e.g., SSI recipients would have to meet SSI noncitizen requirements
in order to get food stamps); and
all individuals who have resided in the United States for five or
more years as “qualified aliens” — i.e., LPRs, refugees/asylees, and
other non-temporary legal residents (such as Cuban/Haitian
entrants).3
Although the conference agreement does not explicitly adopt the Senate proposal to lift the
current seven-year limit on eligibility for refugees and asylees, adoption of a five-year legal
residence rule would effectively eliminate it. Also see Appendix B: “Qualified Aliens.”
CRS-4
The changes to rules for the disabled became effective October 1, 2002; new rules
for children were effective October 1, 2003; and the five-year residence rule went
into effect April 1, 2003.
Most recently, §525 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2008 (P.L.
110-161) makes Iraqi and Afghan aliens granted special immigrant status under
§101(a)(27) of the INA eligible for resettlement assistance, entitlement programs, and
other benefits available to refugees admitted under §207 of INA for a period not to
exceed 6 months. Also, §409 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act prohibits funds
being used to provide homeowners assistance to foreign nationals who are neither an
alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence, nor authorized to be employed in
the United States.
Current Eligibility Policy
Under current law, legally resident noncitizens’ eligibility for the major federal
means-tested benefit programs depends on their immigration status; whether they
arrived (or were on a program’s rolls) before August 22, 1996 (the enactment date
of P.L. 104-193); their work history and military connection; their length of legal
residence; and how states have exercised their options to allow program participation
by noncitizens.4 Following significant changes made by the 1997, 1998, and 2002
amendments noted above, the basic rules now are as follows: 5
!
!
!
!
4
Refugees and asylees are eligible for food stamps.
Refugees and asylees are eligible for SSI benefits and Medicaid for
seven years after arrival, and are eligible for TANF for five years.6
After this term, they generally are ineligible for SSI, but may be
eligible, at state option, for Medicaid and TANF.
LPRs with a substantial work history — generally 10 years (40
quarters) of work documented by Social Security or other
employment records — or a military connection (active duty military
personnel, veterans, and their families) are eligible for the full range
of programs.
LPRs receiving SSI as of August 22, 1996, continue to be eligible
for SSI.
In addition, “deeming” rules (discussed later in this report) may affect eligibility.
5
Appendix A lays out these rules in more detail, including special rules that apply to
several limited noncitizen categories: certain “cross-border” American Indians, Hmong/
Highland Laotians, parolees and conditional entrants, and cases of abuse. Appendix B
presents the basic eligibility rules from a different perspective, using a new term/category
— “qualified alien” — established by the 1996 welfare reform law but not otherwise used
in immigration or welfare law.
6
Refugee/asylee treatment is accorded to Cuban/Haitian entrants, certain aliens whose
deportation/removal is withheld for humanitarian purposes, Vietnam-born Amerasians
fathered by U.S. citizens, and victims of human trafficking. For those aliens who arrive in
the United States without one of these forms of humanitarian relief, the seven- or five-year
period begins after the date the aliens receive the status.
CRS-5
!
!
!
!
!
!
Medicaid coverage is required for all otherwise qualified SSI
recipients (they must meet SSI noncitizen eligibility tests).
Disabled LPRs who were legal residents as of August 22, 1996, are
eligible for SSI.
Disabled LPRs are eligible for food stamps.7
LPRs who were elderly (65+) and legal residents as of August 22,
1996, are eligible for food stamps.
LPRs who have been legal residents for five years or are children
(under 18) are eligible for food stamps.
LPRs entering after August 22, 1996, are barred from TANF and
Medicaid for five years, after which their coverage becomes a state
option.8 For SSI, the five-year bar for new entrants is irrelevant
because they generally are denied eligibility (without a time limit).
Related Immigrant Policies Affecting Eligibility:
Sponsorship and Deeming
“Public Charge”
Historical Development. Opposition to the entry of foreign paupers and
aliens “likely at any time to become a public charge” — language found in the
Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) today — dates from colonial times. A bar
against the admission of “any person unable to take care of himself or herself without
becoming a public charge” was included in the act of August 3, 1882, the first
general federal immigration law. Over time, a policy developed in which applicants
for immigrant status can overcome the public charge ground for exclusion based on
their own funds, prearranged or prospective employment, or an affidavit of support
from someone in the United States.
An affidavit of support on behalf of a prospective immigrant had to be
submitted as necessary by one or more residents of the United States in order to
provide assurance that the applicant for entry would be supported in this country.
Starting in the 1930s and continuing until the 1980s, affidavits of support were
administratively required by what was then the Immigration and Naturalization
Service (INS) but had no specific basis in statute or regulation. Court decisions
beginning in the 1950s generally held that affidavits of support were not legally
7
For SSI eligibility, disabled LPRs must meet SSI permanent and total disability standards.
For food stamp eligibility, disabled LPRs must be receiving governmental benefits for
disability (e.g., SSI, Social Security disability payments, certain veterans disability benefits).
8
This five-year ban on eligibility for new entrants also applies to a program closely related
to the Medicaid program — the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP). It is
the only categorical noncitizen eligibility rule affecting SCHIP. The U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services (HHS), however, promulgated regulations in 2002 allowing
states to provide SCHIP coverage to fetuses. Since fetuses do not have an immigration
status, states arguably can use this option to provide prenatal care services to pregnant
women, regardless of their immigration status. Fed. Reg. v. 67, pp. 61955–74, October 2,
2002.
CRS-6
binding on the U.S. resident sponsors.9 The unenforceability of affidavits of support
led to the adoption of legislation in the late 1970s and early 1980s intended to make
them more effective (see the discussion of “deeming” of income and financial
resources below).
1996 Immigration Law Reforms. The Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA, Division C of P.L. 104-208), coupled
with the 1996 welfare reform law altered the obligations of persons who sponsor
immigrants arriving or adjusting to LPR status in the United States. The IIRIRA
standards, which are part of the INA, cover requirements for sponsors, mandatory
affidavits for family immigrants, and sponsorship liability, as follows:
!
!
!
!
The person petitioning for the immigrant’s admission must be the
sponsor signing the affidavit of support.
Sponsors must demonstrate the ability to maintain an annual income
of at least 125% of the federal poverty line (100% for sponsors who
are on active duty in U.S. Armed Forces), or share liability with one
or more joint sponsors, each of whom must independently meet the
income requirement.
All family-based immigrants as well as employment-based
immigrants who are coming to work for relatives must have
affidavits of support filed for them.
Sponsors who fail to support sponsored aliens are legally liable to
the sponsored aliens and to any government agency that provides
sponsored aliens needs-based assistance. As modified by the 1996
immigration law, a sponsor’s liability ends when the sponsored alien
is no longer subject to deeming, either through naturalization or
meeting a work test.10
Since passage of IIRIRA, the affidavit of support is a legally binding contract
enforceable against the affiant (i.e., sponsors) if the immigrant collects any meanstested benefit.11 Upon notification that a sponsored alien has received designated
means-tested benefits, the federal, state, or local entity which provided the benefit
must request the sponsor’s reimbursement for an amount equal to the cost of the
benefit.12 If the sponsor fails to respond to the request within 45 days, the agency
9
Department of Mental Hygiene v. Renal, 6 N.Y. 2d 791 (1959); State v. Binder, 356 Mich.
73 (1959).
10
This work test is similar to the one applied in determining noncitizens’ eligibility for
public assistance — attaining a substantial work history of 10 years (40 quarters of
documented work).
11
8 C.F.R. § 213a.1 defines “means-tested public benefit.” This includes food stamps,
Medicaid, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and Temporary Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF).
12
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2). Despite the mandatory nature of the statutory language, Congress
may lack constitutional authority to compel states to request reimbursement of state funds
from sponsors, and the statute itself recognizes that the states have discretion on whether to
follow up requests with further legal action.
CRS-7
may commence an action in federal or state court.13 There is a 10-year limit on
actions to obtain reimbursement.14 To the best of CRS’s knowledge, no federal,
state, or local entity has taken legal action thus far against a sponsor for benefit
reimbursement.
“Deeming” of Income and Resources
Pre-1996 Policy. In response to concerns about the unenforceability of
affidavits of support and the perceived abuse of the welfare system by some newly
arrived immigrants, legislation was enacted in the late 1970s and early 1980s limiting
the availability of SSI, food stamps, and Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC) to sponsored immigrants. The enabling legislation for these programs was
amended to provide that — for the purpose of determining financial eligibility —
immigrants who had used an affidavit of support to meet the public charge
requirement would be deemed to have a portion of their immigration sponsors’
income and resources available to them.
Post-1996 Requirements. The 1996 welfare reform law and the Illegal
Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 significantly
expanded the use of sponsor-to-alien deeming as a means of restricting the
participation of new immigrants in federal means-tested programs.15 Both deeming
and the affidavits of support upon which deeming is based are intended to implement
the provision of the INA that excludes aliens who appear “likely at any time to
become a public charge.”
The new deeming rules (primarily set out in the 1996 welfare reform act) are
designed to make it more difficult for sponsored aliens to meet financial tests for
benefits — even if they pass the “categorical” eligibility test by being in an eligible
class of noncitizen. They apply to aliens who enter after December 19, 1997 (the
effective date of the new affidavit of support) and who apply for TANF, Medicaid,
SSI, or food stamps. Under these rules, all of the income and resources of a sponsor
(and a sponsor’s spouse) may be deemed available to the sponsored applicant for
assistance until the noncitizen becomes naturalized or meets a work test.16 Previous
law contained specific deeming requirements only for SSI, food stamps, and AFDC
(TANF’s predecessor); only a portion of a sponsor’s income and resources was
deemed to the sponsored applicant; and deeming lasted for three years after entry
(with a brief five-year rule for SSI).17 Since it is §213A of the INA that makes the
13
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2)(A).
14
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2)(C).
15
Enacted as Division C of the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act for 1997 (P.L.
104-208), signed into law on September 30, 1996.
16
See footnote This work test is similar to the one applied in determining noncitizens’
eligibility for public assistance — attaining a substantial work history of 10 years (40
quarters of documented work)..
17
The deeming period under SSI was five years from January 1994 through September
1996.
CRS-8
affidavits of support legally binding, some policy makers use “213A” as shorthand
to identify who is covered by the deeming rules.
When IIRIRA made an affidavits of support a legally binding contract as
discussed above, it also directed the Attorney General to include “appropriate
information” regarding affidavits of support in the Systematic Alien Verification for
Entitlements (SAVE) system. While Congress did not specify exactly what
information was to be included in the SAVE system, it did require the Attorney
General to establish an automated record of the sponsors’ social security numbers.18
The SAVE system enables federal, state, and local governmental agencies to obtain
immigration status information to determine eligibility for public benefits. The goal
of the system is to aid eligibility workers in determining an applicant’s immigration
status to ensure that only entitled applicants receive public benefits.19
Trends in Noncitizen Poverty and Benefit Use
The eligibility rules for “means-tested” benefits are, by design, linked to income
and poverty among other criteria (e.g., citizenship status and family structure). This
portion of the report analyzes poverty among the foreign born and follows with a
comparative analysis of benefit use for the four major federal means-tested benefit
programs: food stamps, Supplemental Security Income (SSI), Temporary Assistance
for Needy Families (TANF) cash assistance, and Medicaid
Noncitizen Poverty Levels
One of the most comprehensive source of information on the foreign born is the
U.S. Census Bureau’s March Current Population Survey (CPS). The Census Bureau
conducts the CPS each month to collect labor force data about the civilian
noninstitutionalized population. The March Supplement of the CPS gathers
additional data about income, education, household characteristics, and geographic
mobility. Because the CPS is a sample of the U.S. population, the results are
estimates. Additionally, while the data distinguish between the foreign born who
have naturalized and those who have not, they do not distinguish between types of
noncitizens (e.g., permanent, temporary, illegal).20
18
“The Attorney General shall ensure that appropriate information regarding the application
of [affidavits of support] is provided to the system for alien verification of eligibility
(SAVE)” P.L. 104-208, §551(a); See also §213A(i)(2) of INA.
19
SAVE’s statutory authority dates back to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of
1986 (IRCA). IRCA mandated immigrant status verification of applicants for AFDC,
Medicaid, unemployment compensation, and food stamps, and required an individual who
is not a citizen or national of the United States to present documentation of alien status,
which shall be used to verify the alien’s immigration status with the INS through an
automated or other system. IRCA specified that the federal government would reimburse
the states and any other entity charged with immigrant status verification 100% of the cost
incurred by implementing and operating the status verification system.
20
The CPS began collecting immigration data on the foreign born in 1994, and the first
years were plagued by problems of weighting, particularly with the Asian population in the
(continued...)
CRS-9
General Trends. The number of noncitizens who are poor has remained
rather steady despite a substantial increase in the number of foreign born over the
past decade, as Figure 1 illustrates. The total number of foreign born residents of the
United States went from an estimated 24.5 million in 1995 to 35.6 million in 2005,
and the number of those who were not citizens went from an estimated 16.6 million
in 1995 to 21.7 million in 2005. During this same decade, the estimated number of
noncitizens in poverty, defined as below 100% of the poverty level, dropped slightly
from 4.6 million in 1995 to 4.4 million in 2005.21 More significant to the eligibility
for federal assistance programs, the estimated number of naturalized citizens in
poverty rose from 0.8 million in 1995 to 1.4 million in 2005. This shift among the
foreign-born citizens and noncitizens may be due to a variety of factors, including the
aging of the naturalized population (and resulting diminished earnings), increased
naturalization rates, and the earning potential of newer, higher-skilled immigrants.22
Figure 1. Noncitizen Residents in Poverty, 1994-2005
25
Millions
20
15
All Noncitizen Residents
10
5
Noncitizen Residents in Poverty
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplements, 1995-2006.
20
(...continued)
sample, and by over-reporting of naturalization by the foreign born. Most of these problems
appear to have been resolved by 1996.
21
For an explanation of how poverty levels are calculated, see CRS Report 95-1024, Trends
in Poverty in the United States, by Thomas Gabe.
22
For more background and analysis of legal permanent immigration, see CRS Report
RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
CRS-10
Table 1. Poverty by Citizenship Status, 1995 and 2005
(estimated in millions)
1995
263.733
36.425
13.8%
2005
293.135
36.950
12.6%
Naturalized citizens
Estimated poor
Poverty rate
7.904
0.833
10.5%
13.881
1.441
10.4%
Noncitizens
Estimated poor
Poverty rate
16.623
4.619
27.8%
21.740
4.429
20.4%
Total population
Estimated poor
Poverty rate
Source: CRS analysis of CPS by Thomas Gabe.
Comparative Analysis. Noncitizens appeared to be disproportionately
poorer than native-born residents of the United States, as Table 1 shows.
Noncitizens had an estimated poverty rate of 20.4%, in contrast to a poverty rate of
12.6% for the total population in 2005. Naturalized citizens have the lowest poverty
rate of the three groups (10.4%). Notably, the poverty rate for noncitizens residing
in the United States has fallen from 27.8% in 1995.23
Figure 2 further reveals that noncitizens appear to be narrowing the poverty
gap. Figure 2 provides a more detailed comparison of the change over the past
decade in poverty by citizenship status by grouping the CPS data into three poverty
levels in comparison to the total population: below 100% of poverty, from 100% to
199% of poverty, and at or above 200% of poverty. Despite being an increasing
share of the total population, noncitizens have diminished as a portion of those below
100% of poverty from 1995 to 2005. Yet, noncitizens remain poorer in comparison
to their share of the total population. There are a variety of factors that contribute to
this variation over time, not the least of which are education and skill levels,
naturalization rates, and length of residency in the United States.
23
For general statistics on poverty, see CRS Report 95-1024, Trends in Poverty in the
United States, by Thomas Gabe.
CRS-11
Figure 2. Comparative Poverty Levels by Citizenship, 1995 and 2005
Native
Less than
100%
1995
100% to
199%
1995
Naturalized
Noncitizens
2005
2005
200% and 1995
greater
2005
1995
Total
population 2005
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplements, 1996 and 2006.
Noncitizen Benefit Use
Formative Research. In 1995, the Congressional Research Service (CRS)
analyzed data from the March 1994 CPS (the first CPS to ask participants about their
citizenship status) that indicated that the foreign born were significantly more likely
to use SSI, but were not significantly more likely to use AFDC or food stamps. In
AFDC, food stamps, and Medicaid, noncitizens had higher participation rates than
the native born, but naturalized citizens had lower participation rates than the native
born. However, in the SSI program both noncitizens and naturalized citizens had
higher participation rates than native-born citizens. This finding was especially true
among the aged population.24
In addition to the elderly, the other major subgroup of the foreign born using
welfare appeared to be noncitizens from refugee-sending countries. While the 1995
CRS study did not disaggregate refugees, Urban Institute analysts did try to do so in
Senate testimony. Based also on the March 1994 CPS, they found that 13.1% of
foreign born from the major refugee sending countries used AFDC, SSI, or general
assistance, compared to 5.8% of foreign born from other countries.25
24
CRS (archived) Report 95-276, Native and Naturalized Citizens and Noncitizens: An
Analysis of Poverty Status, Welfare Benefits, and Other Factors, by Michael O’Grady.
25
Fix, M., Passel, J.S., & Zimmermann, W. (1996). The use of SSI and other welfare
programs by immigrants. Testimony before the U.S. Senate [Judiciary] Subcommittee on
(continued...)
CRS-12
The Urban Institute continued to analyze the CPS for noncitizen use of welfare
and found changes in usage from 1994 to 1997. Noteworthy among the principal
findings of the later Urban Institute study were the following:
!
!
!
!
!
Use of public benefits among noncitizen households fell more
sharply than among citizen households between 1994 and 1997, 34%
and 14% respectively.
Those noncitizens imputed to be refugees experienced declines
(33%) that were at least as steep as other noncitizens despite the fact
that most refugees continued to be eligible for benefits in 1997.
Noncitizen households accounted for a disproportionately large
share of the overall decline in welfare caseloads that occurred
between 1994 and 1997.
Welfare usage among elderly immigrants and naturalized citizens
did not appear to change between 1994 and 1997.
Neither naturalization nor rising incomes accounted for a significant
share of noncitizens’ exits from public benefit use.
The Urban Institute analysis grouped use of SSI and general assistance in with
AFDC/TANF usage to measure overall welfare receipt.26
Latest Findings. More recently, CRS analysis of the March 2006 CPS
indicated public assistance usage was down generally from 1995 to 2005 for all four
programs (Figure 3). CPS data are self-reported and generally understate the actual
number of program beneficiaries. It is not possible to determine whether the
increased media debate on immigration’s costs and benefits may have suppressed
noncitizens’ reporting of public assistance. Nonetheless, the downward shifts in
usage are consistent with those observed previously and are comparable to the
general findings of the Urban Institute and others.
25
(...continued)
Immigration, February 6, 1996. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
26
Fix, M., & Passel, J.S., (1999).Trends in Noncitizens’ and Citizens’ Use of Public Benefits
Following Welfare Reform: 1994-97. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
CRS-13
Figure 3. Percentage of Noncitizens Receiving Selected Assistance
or Benefits: 1995 and 2005
25
Percent
20
15
13.7
12.8
9.5
10
6.4
5
4.0
3.2
1.2
1.5
0
1995 2005
1995 2005
1995 2005
1995 2005
Welfare
SSI
Medicaid
Food Stamps
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplement, 1996 and 2006.
Note: Food stamp data are by households; all other data are individuals.Welfare includes
AFDC, TANF and general cash assistance.
What is most intriguing from the latest analysis is that these general declines in
program beneficiaries are not evidenced consistently across the programs or among
the three citizenship groupings. As in the 1995 CRS study, this CRS analysis focused
on three categories of citizenship status: native-born citizens, naturalized citizens,
and noncitizens. The benefit use patterns for naturalized persons in the CPS samples
offer exceptions to the general trends, as Figure 4 presents. While benefit receipt
decreased in estimated total numbers for natives in all four selected programs, the
estimated participation of noncitizens rose in food stamps and Medicaid and the
estimated participation of naturalized citizens rose in SSI, food stamps, and
Medicaid. The substantial increase in immigration throughout the 1990s and into the
2000s is one of many factors that may be affecting these trends, as are general
economic and labor force factors and family structures.27
As Figure 4 illustrates, the estimated percentage of the welfare recipients
(defined here as individuals who reported receipt of AFDC, TANF, or general cash
assistance) who were noncitizens was virtually constant in 1995 (11.9%) and 2005
(11.3%), even though the total caseload fell. The estimated proportion of welfare
recipients who were naturalized citizens increased only slightly from 2.3% in 1995
to 3.1% in 2005.
27
For analysis of immigration trends, see CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy
on Permanent Admissions.
CRS-14
Figure 4. Percentage Distribution of Recipients by Citizenship
Status: 1995 and 2005
Native
Welfare
1995
2005
SSI
1995
2005
Medicaid
1995
2005
Food
Stamps
1995
2005
Naturalized
Noncitizens
1995
Total
Population 2005
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplement, 1996 and 2006.
Note: Food stamp data are by households; all other data are individuals.Welfare includes AFDC,
TANF and general cash assistance.
Estimates of SSI usage from the CPS suggest a different pattern, one in which
noncitizen usage decreased from 9.9% to 5.9%, but recipiency among the naturalized
increased from 1995 to 2005. Naturalized citizens as a percentage of SSI recipients
reported in the CPS grew markedly from 3.9% to 9.1% over the decade (Figure 4).
Both naturalized citizens and noncitizens as a percentage of Medicaid recipients
rose markedly from 1995 to 2005. Among natives, however, there was a decline over
the decade (Figure 4). It is important to note that reporting of Medicaid use in the
CPS is reportedly plagued with problems.28
CPS estimates of households receiving food stamps indicate a pattern from 1995
to 2005 that resembles SSI and Medicaid. Similar to SSI, the proportion of recipients
who are naturalized citizens notably increased. The percentage of reported food
stamp recipients who were noncitizens in 2005 is comparable to Medicaid, 10.0%
and 10.4% respectively.
Program Participation Data
Analysis of SSI, TANF, and food stamp program participation data offers
another perspective on changes in noncitizen receipt of public assistance over time.
28
For further discussion, see U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and
Means, 2004 Green Book: Background Material and Data on the Programs Within the
Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means, chapter 15, Medicaid, March 2004.
CRS-15
(The administrative data for the Medicaid program does not provide time series
statistics on citizenship status.) These analyses also reveal the ebb and flow of
noncitizen program participation. We cannot assume, however, that the program
participation data always record a change in citizen status when a noncitizen
beneficiary naturalizes.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI). The percentage of the SSI caseload
that were noncitizens has dipped slightly in recent years, after inching upward in the
1980s and early 1990s, as Figure 5 depicts. It stood at 9.7% (or 676,979 participants)
in 2004 after peaking at 12.1% (or 785,410 participants) in 1995. In 2004,
noncitizens accounted for 28.3% of all aged SSI recipients, down from a high of
31.8% in 1995. Noncitizens accounted for 5.8% of disabled (or blind) recipients in
2004, down from 6.3% in 1995.
Figure 5. Noncitizens as a Percentage of all Food Stamp, SSI, and
TANF/AFDC Cash Assistance, 1989-2004
25
Percent
TANF
SSI
Food Stamps
20
15
10
9.7%
5.4%
5
3.9%
0
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2004
Source: CRS presentation of data published annually by the Social Security Administration,
the DHHS Adminstration for Children and Families, and the USDA Food Stamp Quality
Control Samples.
Food Stamps. As illustrated in Figure 5, the percentage of food stamp
participants that were noncitizens dipped sharply in 1997 and 1998, but has risen
slightly in recent years. The most recent available data from the USDA Food Stamp
Quality Control Samples estimated that noncitizens receiving food stamps stands at
947,000 in 2005. The USDA Food Stamp Quality Control Samples reported an
estimated 640,000 noncitizen participants in 2001; during this same period, total food
stamp participants increased from 17,297 in 2001 to 24,881 in 2005.
Cash Assistance. The actual number of families or persons who receive
TANF benefits is not known because there is no comprehensive reporting on families
receiving the range of TANF benefits and services. The Department of Health and
CRS-16
Human Services (HHS), however, does collect data on families receiving ongoing
assistance — most frequently cash welfare. The number of families receiving cash
welfare peaked in March 1994 at 5.1 million families and dropped to 1.9 million in
June 2006.29
The HHS data on characteristics of these TANF recipients indicate that, as a
percentage of total adult TANF cash assistance recipients, noncitizens legally in the
United States who receive TANF (formerly AFDC) increased from 7.0% in FY1989
to 12.3% in 1996, then dropped to 5.7% in 2004. Figure 5 illustrates this curvilinear
trend of noncitizen usage. These data exhibit the same trend as that of the TANF
recipients generally.
Thus far, most states have not exercised their option to bar LPRs from TANF.
According to the CRS State Noncitizen Eligibility Survey (SNES), 34 states and
Washington, DC, reported that they are exercising the option to provide TANF to
LPRs after the five-year bar ends. In terms of funding, 27 states and Washington, DC,
reported that they used their own funds as well as federal funds in 2000 and 2002 to
cover the costs of providing TANF to those LPRs who were in the United States
prior to the passage of the 1996 welfare reform act. Twenty-six states and the U.S.
Virgin Islands reported that they used their own funds as well as federal funds to
cover the costs of providing TANF to those LPRs who were excluded (e.g., barred
first five years) or whose eligibility had expired (e.g., refugees after five years).30
Preliminary data from the 2004/2006 SNES for the most part indicate a continuation
of these policies.
Federal and State Benefit Eligibility Standards for
Unauthorized Aliens
Federal Benefits
Unauthorized aliens (often referred to as illegal aliens) are not eligible for most
federal benefits, regardless of whether they are means tested. The class of benefits
denied is broad. The scope of the bar on unauthorized aliens hinges on how broadly
the clause "federal public benefit" is implemented. The law defines this clause to be:
(A) any grant, contract, loan, professional license, or commercial license
provided by an agency of the United States or by appropriated funds of the
United States; and (B) any retirement, welfare, health, disability, public or
assisted housing, postsecondary education, food assistance, unemployment
benefit, or any other similar benefit for which payments or assistance are
29
CRS Report RL32760, The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Block
Grant: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions, by Gene Falk.
30
CRS Report RL32363, State Policies on Immigrant Eligibility for Temporary Assistance
for Needy Families (TANF), by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
CRS-17
provided to an individual, household, or family eligibility unit by an agency of
the United States or by appropriated funds of the United States.31
So defined, this bar covers many programs whose enabling statutes do not
individually make citizenship or immigration status a criterion for participation.
Thus, unauthorized aliens are statutorily barred from receiving benefits that
previously were not individually restricted — Social Services Block Grants, and
migrant health centers, for example — unless they fall within the 1996 welfare act’s
limited exceptions. These statutory exceptions include the following:
!
!
!
!
!
treatment under Medicaid for emergency medical conditions (other
than those related to an organ transplant);32
short-term, in-kind emergency disaster relief;
immunizations against immunizable diseases and testing for and
treatment of symptoms of communicable diseases;
services or assistance (such as soup kitchens, crisis counseling and
intervention, and short-term shelters) designated by the Attorney
General as: (i) delivering in-kind services at the community level,
(ii) providing assistance without individual determinations of each
recipient’s needs, and (iii) being necessary for the protection of life
and safety; and
to the extent that an alien was receiving assistance on the date of
enactment, programs administered by the Secretary of Housing and
Urban Development, programs under title V of the Housing Act of
1949, and assistance under Section 306C of the Consolidated Farm
and Rural Development Act.33
PRWORA sought further to prevent unauthorized aliens from receiving the Earned
Income Tax Credit (EITC) by also requiring that the social security numbers (SSN)
of recipients (and spouses) be valid for employment in the United States.34
P.L. 104-193 also states that individuals who are eligible for free public
education benefits under state and local law shall remain eligible to receive school
lunch and school breakfast benefits. (The act itself does not address a state’s
obligation to grant all aliens equal access to education under the Supreme Court’s
decision in Plyler v. Doe.) Beyond these nutrition benefits, the act neither prohibits
nor requires a state to provide unauthorized aliens other benefits funded under the
31
§401(c) of PRWORA, 8 U.S.C. 1611.
32
For analysis, see CRS Report RL31630, Federal Funding for Unauthorized Aliens’
Emergency Medical Expenses, by Alison Siskin.
33
Subtitle E of Title V of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act
(Division C of Public Law 104-208) later facilitated the removal of unauthorized aliens from
housing assistance. For analysis, see CRS Report RL31753, Immigration: Noncitizen
Eligibility for Needs-Based Housing Programs, by Alison Siskin and Maggie McCarty.
34
For a legal analysis, see CRS congressional distribution memorandum, Legal Analysis of
Whether Section 401 of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation
Act Prohibits Unauthorized Resident Aliens from Receiving Refundable Tax Credits, by
Erika Lunder and Edward Liu, January 28, 2008 (available on request).
CRS-18
National School Lunch Act or the Child Nutrition Act, or under the Emergency Food
Assistance Act, Section 4 of the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act, or the
Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations under the Food Stamp Act.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), however,
promulgated regulations in 2002 permitting states to provide the State Children's
Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) coverage to fetuses.35 States arguably can use this
option of SCHIP coverage for fetuses to provide prenatal care services to pregnant
women who are unauthorized aliens, in contradiction of the statutory bar expressed
in Title IV of PRWORA.36
State Benefits
Unlike earlier federal law, P.L. 104-193 expressly bars unauthorized aliens from
most state and locally funded benefits. The restrictions on these benefits parallel the
restrictions on federal benefits. Unauthorized aliens are generally barred from state
and local government contracts, licenses, grants, loans, and assistance.37 The
following exceptions are made:
!
!
!
!
treatment for emergency conditions (other than those related to an
organ transplant);
short-term, in-kind emergency disaster relief;
immunization against immunizable diseases and testing for and
treatment of symptoms of communicable diseases; and
services or assistance (such as soup kitchens, crisis counseling and
intervention, and short-term shelters) designated by the Attorney
General as: (i) delivering in-kind services at the community level,
(ii) providing assistance without individual determinations of each
recipient’s needs, and (iii) being necessary for the protection of life
and safety.
Also, the restrictions on state and local benefits do not apply to activities that
are funded in part by federal funds; these activities are regulated under the 1996 law
as federal benefits. Furthermore, the law states that nothing in it is to be construed
as addressing eligibility for basic public education. Finally, the 1996 law allows the
states, through enactment of new state laws, to provide unauthorized aliens with state
and local benefits that otherwise are restricted.38
35
Fed. Reg. v. 67, pp. 61955–74, October 2, 2002.
36
8 U.S.C §1611.
37
For further analysis, see CRS Report RL34345, State and Local Restrictions on
Employing, Renting Property to, or Providing Services for Unauthorized Aliens: Legal
Issues and Recent Judicial Developments, by Michael John Garcia, Jody Feder, and Alison
M. Smith.
38
For further analysis, see CRS Report RS22500, Unauthorized Alien Students, Higher
Education, and In-State Tuition Rates: A Legal Analysis, by Jody Feder.
CRS-19
Despite the federally imposed bar and the state flexibility provided by the 1996
law, states still may be required to expend a significant amount of state funds for
unauthorized aliens. Public elementary and secondary education for unauthorized
aliens remains compelled by judicial decision, and payment for emergency medical
services for unauthorized aliens remains compelled by federal law. Meanwhile,
certain other costs attributable to unauthorized aliens, such as criminal justice costs,
remain compelled by the continued presence of unauthorized aliens.39
39
For a fuller discussion, see CRS Report RS21832, Immigration: Frequently Asked
Questions about the State Criminal Alien Assistance Program (SCAAP), by Karma Ester.
CRS-20
Appendix A. Noncitizen Eligibility for Selected Major Federal Programs
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
Medicaid
Legal permanent residents (LPRs):
— without a substantial
(generally 10-year) work
history,a
Ineligible for 5 years after
entry, except:
Ineligible until naturalized,
except:
Eligibility required for
persons with a military
connection.
(1) persons with a military
connection,
(1) persons with a military
connection,
Eligibility at state option for
persons resident in the U.S.
as of August 22, 1996.Post-
(2) persons resident in the
U.S. as of August 22, 1996,
and age 65+ at the time,
(2) persons receiving SSI
benefits as of August 22,
1996, and
(3) persons receiving
disability benefits, and
(3) persons resident in the
U.S. as of August 22, 1996,
and now disabled (eligible for
SSI disability benefits).
(4) children under age 18.
Same as TANF, plus
coverage required for SSI
recipients. (Note: Eligible for
emergency medical services.)
August 22, 1996, entrants:
ineligible for 5 years after
entry, then eligible at state
option.
(Note: Disabled children are
included as eligible if
resident in the U.S. as of
August 22, 1996.)
— with a substantial
(generally 10-year) work
history.a
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible.
CRS-21
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
Medicaid
Military connection:
Eligible.b
Eligible.b
Eligible.b
Eligible.b
Eligible after entry/grant of
such status.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry/grant of such status.
Ineligible after 7 years unless
naturalized or if in receipt of
SSI benefits as of August 22,
1996.
Eligible for 5 years after
entry/grant of such status.
Eligible at state option after 5
years.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry/grant of such status.
Eligible at state option after 7
years.
— noncitizen “cross-border”
American Indians,d
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible at state option.
Eligible.
— Hmong/Highland
Laotians,e
Eligible.
Eligible only if individual
meets eligibility criteria for
another noncitizen category
— e.g., as a legal permanent
resident, asylee, refugee,
person with a military
connection.
Same as SSI. (Note: LPRs
eligible under conditions
noted above for TANF
treatment of LPRs.)
Same as SSI. (Note: LPRs
eligible under conditions
noted above for Medicaid
treatment of LPRs.)
— parolees and conditional
entrants,f
Eligible.
Eligible only if individual:
(1) has a military connection,
(2) was receiving SSI as of
Eligible if resident as of
August 22, 1996. Ineligible
for 5 years after entry, if
Same as TANF.
— aliens with a military
connection (active duty
military personnel, honorably
discharged veterans, and their
immediate families).
Humanitarian cases:
— asylees, refugees,
Cuban/Haitian entrants, Iraqi
and Afghan special
immigrants, certain aliens
whose deportation/removal is
being withheld for
humanitarian reasons, and
Vietnam-born Amerasians
fathered by U.S. citizens.c
Special Cases:
CRS-22
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
August 22, 1996, or
(3) was resident in the U.S. as
of August 22, 1996, and is
now disabled (eligible for SSI
disability benefits).
entry is post-August 22,
1996. Otherwise eligible at
state option.
Medicaid
— cases of abuse (battery or
extreme cruelty),g
Eligible.
If not eligible as an LPR or
humanitarian case, then
eligible if the individual:
(1) has a military connection,
(2) was receiving SSI as of
August 22, 1996, or
(3) was resident in the U.S. as
of August 22, 1996, and is
now disabled (eligible for SSI
disability benefits).
Eligible if resident as of
August 22, 1996. Ineligible
for 5 years after entry, if
entry is post-August 22,
1996. Otherwise eligible at
state option.
Same as TANF.
— victims of trafficking in
persons,h
Eligible.
Same as food stamps.
Eligible for 5 years after
entry. Eligible at state option
after 5 years.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry. Eligible at state option
after 7 years.
— aliens in temporary
protected status, in extended
voluntary departure (EVD)
status, or deferred enforced
departure (DED) status.
Ineligible.
Ineligible, unless in receipt of
SSI benefits August 22, 1996.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for emergency
services.
Nonimmigrantsi
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for emergency
services.
Unauthorized aliensj
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for emergency
services.
Naturalized aliens
Eligible on naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
CRS-23
a. A substantial work history consists of 40 “qualifying quarters” of work (credits) calculated as they would be for Social Security eligibility purposes — including work not covered
by Social Security and work credited from parents and spouses, but not including work performed after 1996 while receiving federal means-tested benefits like TANF, food stamps,
or Medicaid. A qualifying quarter is a three-month period of full or part-time work with sufficient income to qualify the earner for credit toward eligibility for Social Security benefits.
The qualifying quarter income amount is increased annually, and, for 2001, stands at $830; no more than 4 credit quarters can be earned in any 1 year. The qualifying quarter test takes
into account work by an alien’s parent before the alien became 18 (including work before the alien was born/adopted) and by the alien’s spouse (provided the alien remains married
to the spouse or the spouse is deceased).
b. Eligible military personnel, veterans, and immediate family members also must be a legal permanent resident, or an asylee, refugee, Cuban/Haitian entrant, alien whose
deportation/removal is being withheld, parolee, or conditional entrant.
c. Includes Amerasians admitted as immigrants who were born in Vietnam during the Vietnam era and fathered by a U.S. citizen — as well as their spouses, children, and certain other
immediate family members.
d. Noncitizen “cross-border” American Indians (from Canada or Mexico) are noncitizens who belong to a federally recognized tribe or who were born in Canada and have the right
to cross the Canadian-U.S. border unhindered (so-called “Jay Treaty” Indians).
e. Members of a Hmong or Highland Laotian tribe when the tribe assisted U.S. personnel by taking part in military/rescue missions during the Vietnam era — including spouses and
unmarried dependent children.
f. Eligible parolees must be paroled for at least 1 year.
g. Eligibility in abuse cases is limited to aliens who have been abused (subject to battery or extreme cruelty) in the U.S. by a spouse or other family/ household member, aliens whose
children have been abused, and alien children whose parent has been abused — where the alien has been approved for, or has pending an application/petition with a prima facie case
for, immigration preference as a spouse or child or cancellation of removal. The alien cannot be residing with the individual responsible for the abuse, and the agency providing benefits
must determine that there is a substantial connection between the abuse and the need for benefits.
h. Eligible for treatment as refugees under the provisions of Section 107 of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386). Eligible victims of
trafficking in persons are those subjected to (1) sex trafficking where the act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or the person induced to perform the act is under age 18, or (2)
involuntary servitude. If age 18 or older, they must be “certified” as willing to assist in the investigation and prosecution of the trafficker(s) and have made an application for a
nonimmigrant “T” visa (or be in the U.S. to ensure the effective prosecution of the trafficker(s)).
i. Nonimmigrants are those admitted temporarily for a limited purpose (e.g., students, visitors, or temporary workers).
j. Unauthorized (“illegal”) aliens are those in the U.S. in violation of immigration law for whom no legal relief or recognition has been extended.
CRS-24
Appendix B: “Qualified Aliens”
The 1996 welfare law divided noncitizens into two general categories for
purposes of benefit eligibility. The least restrictive category is that of qualified
aliens, a category that, despite its name, is subject to numerous limitations and does
not itself indicate eligibility for assistance. Qualified aliens are legal permanent
residents, refugees, aliens paroled into the United States for at least one year, and
aliens granted asylum or related relief. The 1996 immigration law added certain
abused spouses and children as another class, and P.L. 105-33 added Cuban-Haitian
entrants.
The other, more restrictive category is that of non-qualified aliens. It consists
of other noncitizens, including unauthorized (illegal) aliens, nonimmigrants (i.e.,
aliens admitted for a temporary purpose, such as education or employment), shortterm parolees, asylum applicants, and various classes of aliens granted temporary
permission to remain. Non-qualified aliens generally are ineligible for almost all
federal assistance provided directly to households or individuals. Limited exceptions
include emergency medical services and disaster relief.40
In general, qualified aliens compose the “universe” of potentially eligible
noncitizens. As noted below and in the earlier portions of this report, however, these
aliens must, in most cases, pass another test to gain eligibility. In addition, some
classes of noncitizens who are not specifically listed as qualified aliens (e.g.,
Hmong/Highland Laotians, Vietnam-born Amerasians fathered by U.S. citizens) are
indeed eligible for benefits. Qualified aliens are subject to eligibility restrictions that
vary by program (see Appendix A) and may be subject to sponsor-to-alien deeming
rules that affect their financial eligibility for aid (noted earlier in this report).
!
!
!
!
40
To gain eligibility for food stamps, qualified aliens must (1) have a
substantial work history or military connection; (2) have been
resident in the United States as of August 22, 1996, and meet certain
age or disability requirements; or (3) be within seven years of entry
(e.g., if a refugee/asylee).
To gain eligibility for SSI, qualified aliens must (1) have a
substantial work history or military connection; (2) have been an SSI
recipient as of August 22, 1996; (3) have been resident in the United
States as of August 22, 1996, and be disabled; or (3) be within seven
years of entry (e.g., if a refugee/asylee).
To gain eligibility for TANF, qualified aliens must (1) have a
substantial work history or military connection; (2) be in a state that
has chosen to allow eligibility to those resident as of August 22,
1996, and/or new entrants who have been resident five years; or (3)
be within five years of entry (e.g., if a refugee/asylee). New entrants
are not eligible for five years after entry.
To gain eligibility for Medicaid, qualified aliens must (1) have a
substantial work history or military connection; (2) be in a state that
For discussion of these legislative activities, see CRS Report RL33102, Federal Food
Assistance in Disasters: Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, by Joe Richardson.
CRS-25
has chosen to allow eligibility to those resident as of August 22,
1996, and/or new entrants who have been resident five years; or (3)
be within seven years of entry (e.g., if a refugee or asylee). For
Medicaid and SCHIP, new entrants are not eligible for 5 years after
entry. However, for SCHIP, the five-year ban is the only additional
citizenship-related eligibility requirement that must be met by
qualified aliens. United States.
This report does not track legislation and is updated as policy changes warrant.
Congressional Research Service
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Contents
Latest Policy Updates..................................................................................................................1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
Overview of Alien Eligibility Law...............................................................................................1
Pre-1996 Program Policies ....................................................................................................1
The 1996 Welfare Reform Law .............................................................................................2
Post-1996 Revisions..............................................................................................................2
Current Eligibility Policy ......................................................................................................4
Related Immigrant Policies Affecting Eligibility: Sponsorship and Deeming ...............................5
“Public Charge” ....................................................................................................................5
Historical Development...................................................................................................5
1996 Immigration Law Reforms......................................................................................6
“Deeming” of Income and Resources ....................................................................................7
Pre-1996 Policy ..............................................................................................................7
Post-1996 Requirements .................................................................................................7
Trends in Noncitizen Poverty and Benefit Use.............................................................................8
Noncitizen Poverty Levels ....................................................................................................8
General Trends................................................................................................................8
Comparative Analysis ................................................................................................... 10
Noncitizen Benefit Use ....................................................................................................... 11
Formative Research ...................................................................................................... 11
Recent Findings ............................................................................................................ 12
Program Participation Data ................................................................................................. 15
Supplemental Security Income (SSI) ............................................................................. 15
Food Stamps ................................................................................................................. 16
Cash Assistance ............................................................................................................ 16
Federal and State Benefit Eligibility Standards for Unauthorized Aliens .................................... 17
Federal Benefits .................................................................................................................. 17
State Benefits ...................................................................................................................... 18
Figures
Figure 1. Noncitizen Residents in Poverty, 1994-2007.................................................................9
Figure 2. Comparative Poverty Levels by Citizenship, 1995 and 2007 ....................................... 11
Figure 3. Percentage of Noncitizens Receiving Selected Assistance of Benefits: 1995,
1998, 2005, and 2007 ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 4. Percentage Distribution of Recipients by Citizenship Status: 1995 and 2007 .............. 14
Figure 5. Noncitizens as a Percentage of all Food Stamp, SSI, and TANF/AFDC Cash
Assistance, 1989-2006 ........................................................................................................... 15
Congressional Research Service
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Tables
Table 1. Poverty by Citizenship Status, 1995 and 2007 .............................................................. 10
Appendixes
Appendix A. Noncitizen Eligibility for Selected Major Federal Programs.................................. 20
Appendix B. Estimated Benefit Usage, by Citizenship, for Selected Years ................................. 23
Appendix C. “Qualified Aliens” ................................................................................................ 24
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 25
Congressional Research Service
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Latest Policy Updates
One of the first pieces of legislation taken up by the 111th Congress—P.L. 111-3, H.R. 2, the
Children’s Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009 (CHIPRA 2009)—contains
provisions that give states the option of providing Medicaid and the state Children’s Health
Insurance Program (CHIP) benefits to certain legal permanent residents (LPRs, i.e., foreign
nationals who live lawfully and permanently in the United States) who are pregnant or are
children during the first five years that they are living in the United States.1
Introduction
The extent to which residents of the United States who are not U.S. citizens should be eligible for
federally funded public aid has been a contentious issue for more than a decade. This issue meets
at the intersection of two major policy areas: immigration policy and welfare policy. 2 Over the
past ten years, Congress has enacted significant changes in U.S. immigration policy and welfare
policy. Congress has exercised oversight of revisions made by the 1996 welfare reform law (the
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, P.L. 104-193)—including the
rules governing noncitizen eligibility for public assistance that it established—and legislation
covering programs with major restrictions on noncitizens’ eligibility (e.g., food stamps,
Medicaid).
This report deals with the four major federal means-tested benefit programs: the Food Stamp
program, the Supplemental Security Income (SSI) program, Temporary Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF) block grant programs, and Medicaid. It is organized into four main parts: an
overview of existing eligibility law for the four programs and the policies that preceded the 1996
act; an overview of related immigrant policies affecting eligibility (specifically, the treatment of
sponsored aliens); an analysis of trends in noncitizen poverty and benefit use; and a summary of
the eligibility rules for aliens residing in the United States illegally. Appendices at the conclusion
elaborate on the specifics of current eligibility rules for the four major programs.
Overview of Alien Eligibility Law
Pre-1996 Program Policies
Prior to the major amendments made in 1996, there was no uniform rule governing which
categories of noncitizens were eligible for which government-provided benefits and services, and
no single statute where the rules were described. Alien eligibility requirements, if any, were set
forth in the laws and regulations governing the individual federal assistance programs.
1
For a complete analysis, see CRS Report R40144, State Medicaid and CHIP Coverage of Noncitizens, by Ruth Ellen
Wasem.
2
For further background, see CRS Report RL34204, Immigration Legislation and Issues in the 110th Congress,
coordinated by Andorra Bruno; CRS Report RL34206, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF): Issues for
the 110th Congress, by Gene Falk; and CRS Report RS22629, Medicaid Citizenship Documentation, by Ruth Ellen
Wasem.
Congressional Research Service
1
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Summarizing briefly, lawful permanent residents (i.e., immigrants) and other noncitizens who
were legally present (e.g., refugees) were generally eligible for federal benefits on the same basis
as citizens in programs where rules were established by law or regulation. These included major
public assistance programs like Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC, the predecessor
of TANF), the SSI program, food stamps, and Medicaid. With the single exception of emergency
Medicaid, unauthorized (illegally present) aliens were barred from participation in all the major
federal assistance programs that had statutory provisions for noncitizens, as were aliens here
legally in a temporary status (i.e., nonimmigrants such as persons admitted for tourism, education,
or employment).
However, many health, education, nutrition, income support, and social service programs did not
include specific provisions regarding alien eligibility, and unauthorized aliens were potential
participants.3 These programs included, for example, the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program
for Women, Infants, and Children (the WIC program), child nutrition programs, initiatives funded
through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC),
community and migrant health centers, and the Social Services Block Grant (SSBG) program.
The 1996 Welfare Reform Law
Title IV of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (P.L.
104-193) established comprehensive new restrictions on the eligibility of noncitizens for meanstested public assistance—with significant exceptions for those with a substantial U.S. work
history or military connection. For legal permanent residents (LPRs) who were resident as of
enactment of the law (August 22, 1996), the act generally barred eligibility (food stamps and SSI)
or allowed it at state option (Medicaid and TANF). For food stamps and SSI benefits, LPRs
entering after August 22, 1996, (new entrants) also were denied eligibility, with no time
constraint. On the other hand, new entrants applying for Medicaid and the newly established
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program were barred for five years after their
entry, and then allowed eligibility at state option. Refugees and asylees were allowed eligibility
for five years after entry/grant of status, then made ineligible (unless they became citizens or
qualified under another status). Nonimmigrants (i.e., aliens on temporary visas) and unauthorized
aliens were barred.
Post-1996 Revisions
The 1996 changes made in the alien eligibility rules proved controversial, particularly the
termination of benefits for recipients who were receiving benefits or for legal residents of the
United States as of the date the new welfare law was enacted, August 22, 1996.
The SSI termination date for these recipients was extended from August 22, 1996, to September
30, 1997, by P.L. 105-18, signed into law on June 12, 1997. More extensive modifications to the
new alienage rules were then included in P.L. 105-33, the 1997 Balanced Budget Act, signed into
law on August 5, 1997. It amended the welfare reform law to provide that legal immigrants who
were receiving SSI as of August 22, 1996, continue to be eligible, regardless of whether their
3
Changes made by the 1996 welfare reform law potentially affecting eligibility for these programs are not covered in
this report.
Congressional Research Service
2
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
claim was based on disability or age. Additionally, those who were here by August 22, 1996, and
subsequently become disabled were made eligible for SSI.
Food stamp eligibility was expanded by provisions of P.L. 105-185, the Agricultural Research,
Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998. Eligibility was extended to several groups of
LPRs who were here as of August 22, 1996: elderly (65+) persons (not including those who
become 65 after August 22, 1996); individuals receiving government disability benefits
(including those who become disabled after August 22, 1996); and children (persons who were
under 18 as of August 22, 1996, until they become adults). Amendments in P.L. 105-33 and P.L.
105-185 extended the period of food stamp/SSI/Medicaid (but not TANF) eligibility for refugees
and asylees from five to seven years.
During the 107th Congress, P.L. 107-171, the “farm bill,” contained substantial changes to food
stamp eligibility rules for noncitizens, expanding food stamp eligibility to include the following
groups:
•
all LPR children, regardless of date of entry (it also ends requirements to deem
sponsors’ income and resources to these children);
•
LPRs receiving government disability payments, so long as they pass any
noncitizen eligibility test established by the disability program (e.g., SSI
recipients would have to meet SSI noncitizen requirements in order to get food
stamps); and
•
all individuals who have resided in the United States for five or more years as
“qualified aliens”—i.e., LPRs, refugees/asylees, and other non-temporary legal
residents (such as Cuban/Haitian entrants).4
•
The changes to rules for the disabled became effective October 1, 2002; new
rules for children were effective October 1, 2003; and the five-year residence rule
went into effect April 1, 2003.
Subsequent laws have resulted in additional revisions, as follows:
•
In 2007, §525 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act for FY2008 (P.L. 110-161)
made Iraqi and Afghan aliens granted special immigrant status under §101(a)(27)
of the INA eligible for resettlement assistance, entitlement programs, and other
benefits available to refugees admitted under §207 of the INA for a period not to
exceed 6 months. Also, §409 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act prohibited
funds from being used to provide homeowners assistance to foreign nationals
who are neither an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence, nor
authorized to be employed in the United States.
•
P.L. 110-328 extends to nine years (during FY2009 through FY2011) the period
of eligibility of certain refugees, asylees, and aliens in other specified
humanitarian categories for SSI benefits, provided that the alien has a pending
naturalization application or makes a declaration that he or she has made a good
faith effort to pursue U.S. citizenship. It also made victims of trafficking among
4
Although the conference agreement does not explicitly adopt the Senate proposal to lift the current seven-year limit
on eligibility for refugees and asylees, adoption of a five-year legal residence rule would effectively eliminate it. Also
see Appendix C “Qualified Aliens.”
Congressional Research Service
3
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
the eligible population. As a result of this provision, the specified LPR must
additionally fit within one of several categories, which include being an LPR for
less than six years, applying for LPR status within four years of beginning to
receive SSI, being at least age 70, or being under age 18. (Those under 18 would
not be subject to the declaration requirement.)
•
The Children’s Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act of 2009 (CHIPRA
2009, P.L. 111-3) allows states to waive—for children and pregnant women who
are LPRs and battered individuals lawfully residing in the United States—key
elements of PRWORA: the statutory bar, the limited eligibility provision, and the
five-year bar, and thus gives states the option of providing Medicaid and CHIP to
children and pregnant women who are LPRs and battered individuals (described
in section 431(c) of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity
Reconciliation Act of 1996, P.L. 104-193) lawfully residing in the United States
during the first five years that they are living in the United States.
Current Eligibility Policy
Under current law, legally resident noncitizens’ eligibility for the major federal means-tested
benefit programs depends on their immigration status; whether they arrived (or were on a
program’s rolls) before August 22, 1996 (the enactment date of P.L. 104-193); their work history
and military connection; their length of legal residence; and how states have exercised their
options to allow program participation by noncitizens.5 Following significant changes made by
the 1997, 1998, and 2002 amendments noted above, the basic rules now are as follows: 6
•
Refugees and asylees are eligible for food stamps.
•
Refugees and asylees are eligible for SSI benefits and Medicaid for seven years
after arrival, and are eligible for TANF for five years.7 After this term, they
generally are ineligible for SSI, but may be eligible, at state option, for Medicaid
and TANF. As noted above, there is a time-limited extension of SSI for nine years
through FY2011 for refugees and asylees waiting to naturalize.
•
LPRs with a substantial work history—generally 10 years (40 quarters) of work
documented by Social Security or other employment records—or a military
connection (active duty military personnel, veterans, and their families) are
eligible for the full range of programs.
•
LPRs receiving SSI as of August 22, 1996, continue to be eligible for SSI.
5
In addition, “deeming” rules (discussed later in this report) may affect eligibility.
Appendix A lays out these rules in more detail, including special rules that apply to several limited noncitizen
categories: certain “cross-border” American Indians, Hmong/ Highland Laotians, parolees and conditional entrants, and
cases of abuse. Appendix C presents the basic eligibility rules from a different perspective, using a new
term/category—“qualified alien”—established by the 1996 welfare reform law but not otherwise used in immigration
or welfare law.
7
Refugee/asylee treatment is accorded to Cuban/Haitian entrants, certain aliens whose deportation/removal is withheld
for humanitarian purposes, Vietnam-born Amerasians fathered by U.S. citizens, and victims of human trafficking. For
those aliens who arrive in the United States without one of these forms of humanitarian relief, the seven- or five-year
period begins after the date the aliens receive the status.
6
Congressional Research Service
4
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
•
Medicaid coverage is required for all otherwise qualified SSI recipients (they
must meet SSI noncitizen eligibility tests).
•
Disabled LPRs who were legal residents as of August 22, 1996, are eligible for
SSI.
•
Disabled LPRs are eligible for food stamps.8
•
LPRs who were elderly (65+) and legal residents as of August 22, 1996, are
eligible for food stamps.
•
LPRs who have been legal residents for five years or are children (under 18) are
eligible for food stamps.
•
LPRs entering after August 22, 1996, are barred from TANF and Medicaid for
five years, after which their coverage becomes a state option. 9 States have the
option to cover LPRs who are children or who are pregnant during the first five
years. For SSI, the five-year bar for new entrants is irrelevant because they
generally are denied eligibility (without a time limit).
Related Immigrant Policies Affecting Eligibility:
Sponsorship and Deeming
“Public Charge”
Historical Development
Opposition to the entry of foreign paupers and aliens “likely at any time to become a public
charge”—language found in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) today—dates from
colonial times. A bar against the admission of “any person unable to take care of himself or
herself without becoming a public charge” was included in the act of August 3, 1882, the first
general federal immigration law. Over time, a policy developed in which applicants for immigrant
status can overcome the public charge ground for exclusion based on their own funds,
prearranged or prospective employment, or an affidavit of support from someone in the United
States.
An affidavit of support on behalf of a prospective immigrant had to be submitted as necessary by
one or more residents of the United States in order to provide assurance that the applicant for
entry would be supported in this country. Starting in the 1930s and continuing until the 1980s,
8
For SSI eligibility, disabled LPRs must meet SSI permanent and total disability standards. For food stamp eligibility,
disabled LPRs must be receiving governmental benefits for disability (e.g., SSI, Social Security disability payments,
certain veterans disability benefits).
9
This five-year ban on eligibility for new entrants also applies to a program closely related to the Medicaid program—
the State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP). It is the only categorical noncitizen eligibility rule affecting
CHIP. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), however, promulgated regulations in 2002 allowing
states to provide CHIP coverage to fetuses. Since fetuses do not have an immigration status, states arguably can use this
option to provide prenatal care services to pregnant women, regardless of their immigration status. Fed. Reg. v. 67, pp.
61955–74, October 2, 2002.
Congressional Research Service
5
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
affidavits of support were administratively required by what was then the Immigration and
Naturalization Service (INS) but had no specific basis in statute or regulation. Court decisions
beginning in the 1950s generally held that affidavits of support were not legally binding on the
U.S. resident sponsors.10 The unenforceability of affidavits of support led to the adoption of
legislation in the late 1970s and early 1980s intended to make them more effective (see the
discussion of “deeming” of income and financial resources below).
1996 Immigration Law Reforms
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 (IIRIRA, Division C
of P.L. 104-208), coupled with the 1996 welfare reform law altered the obligations of persons
who sponsor immigrants arriving or adjusting to LPR status in the United States. The IIRIRA
standards, which are part of the INA, cover requirements for sponsors, mandatory affidavits for
family immigrants, and sponsorship liability, as follows:
10
•
The person petitioning for the immigrant’s admission must be the sponsor
signing the affidavit of support.
•
Sponsors must demonstrate the ability to maintain an annual income of at least
125% of the federal poverty line (100% for sponsors who are on active duty in
U.S. Armed Forces), or share liability with one or more joint sponsors, each of
whom must independently meet the income requirement.
•
All family-based immigrants as well as employment-based immigrants who are
coming to work for relatives must have affidavits of support filed for them.
•
Sponsors who fail to support sponsored aliens are legally liable to the sponsored
aliens and to any government agency that provides sponsored aliens needs-based
assistance. As modified by the 1996 immigration law, a sponsor’s liability ends
when the sponsored alien is no longer subject to deeming, either through
naturalization or meeting a work test.11
•
Since passage of IIRIRA, the affidavit of support is a legally binding contract
enforceable against the affiant (i.e., sponsors) if the immigrant collects any
means-tested benefit.12 Upon notification that a sponsored alien has received
designated means-tested benefits, the federal, state, or local entity which
provided the benefit must request the sponsor’s reimbursement for an amount
equal to the cost of the benefit.13 If the sponsor fails to respond to the request
within 45 days, the agency may commence an action in federal or state court.14
There is a 10-year limit on actions to obtain reimbursement.15
Department of Mental Hygiene v. Renal, 6 N.Y. 2d 791 (1959); State v. Binder, 356 Mich. 73 (1959).
11
This work test is similar to the one applied in determining noncitizens’ eligibility for public assistance—attaining a
substantial work history of 10 years (40 quarters of documented work).
12
8 C.F.R. § 213a.1 defines “means-tested public benefit.” This includes food stamps, Medicaid, Supplemental
Security Income (SSI), and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).
13
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2). Despite the mandatory nature of the statutory language, Congress may lack constitutional
authority to compel states to request reimbursement of state funds from sponsors, and the statute itself recognizes that
the states have discretion on whether to follow up requests with further legal action.
14
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2)(A).
15
8 U.S.C. § 1183a(b)(2)(C).
Congressional Research Service
6
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
In the context of Medicaid, §214 of CHIPRA 2009 (P.L. 111-3) states: “no debt shall accrue under
an affidavit of support against any sponsor of such an alien on the basis of provision of assistance
to such category and the cost of such assistance shall not be considered as an unreimbursed cost.”
According to the legislative language, this provision applies only to LPRs who are covered under
§214 of that Act; that is, LPRs who are pregnant or children, whom the state opts to provide CHIP
and Medicaid during their first five years in the United States.
“Deeming” of Income and Resources
Pre-1996 Policy
In response to concerns about the unenforceability of affidavits of support and the perceived
abuse of the welfare system by some newly arrived immigrants, legislation was enacted in the late
1970s and early 1980s limiting the availability of SSI, food stamps, and Aid to Families with
Dependent Children (AFDC) to sponsored immigrants. The enabling legislation for these
programs was amended to provide that—for the purpose of determining financial eligibility—
immigrants who had used an affidavit of support to meet the public charge requirement would be
deemed to have a portion of their immigration sponsors’ income and resources available to them.
Post-1996 Requirements
The 1996 welfare reform law and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility
Act of 1996 significantly expanded the use of sponsor-to-alien deeming as a means of restricting
the participation of new immigrants in federal means-tested programs.16 Both deeming and the
affidavits of support upon which deeming is based are intended to implement the provision of the
INA that excludes aliens who appear “likely at any time to become a public charge.”
The new deeming rules (primarily set out in the 1996 welfare reform act) are designed to make it
more difficult for sponsored aliens to meet financial tests for benefits—even if they pass the
“categorical” eligibility test by being in an eligible class of noncitizen. They apply to aliens who
enter after December 19, 1997 (the effective date of the new affidavit of support) and who apply
for TANF, Medicaid, SSI, or food stamps. Under these rules, all of the income and resources of a
sponsor (and a sponsor’s spouse) may be deemed available to the sponsored applicant for
assistance until the noncitizen becomes naturalized or meets a work test.17 Previous law contained
specific deeming requirements only for SSI, food stamps, and AFDC (TANF’s predecessor); only
a portion of a sponsor’s income and resources was deemed to the sponsored applicant; and
deeming lasted for three years after entry (with a brief five-year rule for SSI).18 Since it is §213A
of the INA that makes the affidavits of support legally binding, some policy makers use “213A”
as shorthand to identify who is covered by the deeming rules.
When IIRIRA made an affidavits of support a legally binding contract as discussed above, it also
directed the Attorney General to include “appropriate information” regarding affidavits of support
16
Enacted as Division C of the Omnibus Consolidated Appropriations Act for 1997 (P.L. 104-208), signed into law on
September 30, 1996.
17
This work test is similar to the one applied in determining noncitizens’ eligibility for public assistance—attaining a
substantial work history of 10 years (40 quarters of documented work).
18
The deeming period under SSI was five years from January 1994 through September 1996.
Congressional Research Service
7
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
in the Systematic Alien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE) system. While Congress did not
specify exactly what information was to be included in the SAVE system, it did require the
Attorney General to establish an automated record of the sponsors’ social security numbers.19 The
SAVE system enables federal, state, and local governmental agencies to obtain immigration status
information to determine eligibility for public benefits. The goal of the system is to aid eligibility
workers in determining an applicant’s immigration status to ensure that only entitled applicants
receive public benefits.20
Trends in Noncitizen Poverty and Benefit Use
The eligibility rules for “means-tested” benefits are, by design, linked to income and poverty
among other criteria (e.g., citizenship status and family structure). This portion of the report
analyzes poverty among the foreign born and follows with a comparative analysis of benefit use
for the four major federal means-tested benefit programs: food stamps, Supplemental Security
Income (SSI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) cash assistance, and Medicaid
Noncitizen Poverty Levels
One of the most comprehensive source of information on the foreign born is the U.S. Census
Bureau’s March Current Population Survey (CPS). The Census Bureau conducts the CPS each
month to collect labor force data about the civilian noninstitutionalized population. The March
Supplement of the CPS gathers additional data about income, education, household
characteristics, and geographic mobility. Because the CPS is a sample of the U.S. population, the
results are estimates. Additionally, while the data distinguish between the foreign born who have
naturalized and those who have not, they do not distinguish between types of noncitizens (e.g.,
permanent, temporary, illegal). 21
General Trends
The number of noncitizens who are poor has remained rather steady despite a substantial increase
in the number of foreign born over the past decade, as Figure 1 illustrates. The total number of
foreign born residents of the United States went from an estimated 24.5 million in 1995 to 37.2
million in 2007, and the number of those who were not citizens went from an estimated 16.6
million in 1995 to 22.1 million in 2007. During this same period, the estimated number of
noncitizens in poverty, defined as below 100% of the poverty level, dropped slightly from 4.6
19
“The Attorney General shall ensure that appropriate information regarding the application of [affidavits of support] is
provided to the system for alien verification of eligibility (SAVE)” P.L. 104-208, §551(a); See also §213A(i)(2) of
INA.
20
SAVE’s statutory authority dates back to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). IRCA mandated
immigrant status verification of applicants for AFDC, Medicaid, unemployment compensation, and food stamps, and
required an individual who is not a citizen or national of the United States to present documentation of alien status,
which shall be used to verify the alien’s immigration status with the INS through an automated or other system. IRCA
specified that the federal government would reimburse the states and any other entity charged with immigrant status
verification 100% of the cost incurred by implementing and operating the status verification system.
21
The CPS began collecting immigration data on the foreign born in 1994, and the first years were plagued by
problems of weighting, particularly with the Asian population in the sample, and by over-reporting of naturalization by
the foreign born. Most of these problems appear to have been resolved by 1996.
Congressional Research Service
8
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
million in 1995 to 4.4 million in 2005, then rose slightly to 4.7 million in 2007.22 More significant
to the eligibility for federal assistance programs, the estimated number of naturalized citizens in
poverty rose from 0.8 million in 1995 to 1.4 million in 2007. This shift among the foreign-born
citizens and noncitizens may be due to a variety of factors, including the aging of the naturalized
population (and resulting diminished earnings), increased naturalization rates, and the earning
potential of newer, higher-skilled immigrants.23
Figure 1. Noncitizen Residents in Poverty, 1994-2007
25
Millions
Percent
100
20
80
15
60
All Noncitizen Residents
10
40
$
$
$
Percent in Poverty
$
5
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$ 20
Noncitizen Residents in Poverty
0
0
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplements, 1995-2008.
22
For an explanation of how poverty levels are calculated, see CRS Report RL33069, Poverty in the United States:
2007, by Thomas Gabe.
23
For more background and analysis of legal permanent immigration, see CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration
Policy on Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
Congressional Research Service
9
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Table 1. Poverty by Citizenship Status, 1995 and 2007
(estimated in millions)
1995
2007
Total population
263.733
298.699
Estimated poor
36.425
37.276
Poverty rate
13.8%
12.5%
Naturalized citizens
7.904
15.050
Estimated poor
0.833
1.426
Poverty rate
Noncitizens
Estimated poor
Poverty rate
10.5%
9.5%
16.623
22.193
4.619
4.724
27.8%
21.3%
Source: CRS analysis of CPS by Thomas Gabe.
Comparative Analysis
Noncitizens appeared to be disproportionately poorer than native-born residents of the United
States, as Table 1 shows. Noncitizens had an estimated poverty rate of 21.3%, in contrast to a
poverty rate of 12.5% for the total population in 2007. Naturalized citizens had the lowest poverty
rate of the three groups (9.5%) in 2007. Notably, the poverty rate for noncitizens residing in the
United States has fallen from 27.8% in 1995.24
Figure 2 provides a more detailed comparison of the change over the past decade in poverty by
citizenship status by grouping the CPS data into three poverty levels in comparison to the total
population: below 100% of poverty, from 100% to 199% of poverty, and at or above 200% of
poverty. Despite being an increasing share of the total population, noncitizens have remained a
steady portion of those below 100% of poverty from 1995 to 2005. Noncitizens nonetheless are
poorer in comparison to their share of the total population. There are a variety of factors that
contribute to this variation, not the least of which are education and skill levels, naturalization
rates, and length of residency in the United States.
24
For general statistics on poverty, see CRS Report RL33069, Poverty in the United States: 2007, by Thomas Gabe.
Congressional Research Service
10
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Figure 2. Comparative Poverty Levels by Citizenship, 1995 and 2007
Native
Less than
100%
1995
100% to
199%
1995
Naturalized
Noncitizens
2007
2007
200% and 1995
greater
2007
1995
Total
population 2007
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplements, 1996 and 2008.
Noncitizen Benefit Use
Formative Research
In 1995, the Congressional Research Service (CRS) analyzed data from the March 1994 CPS (the
first CPS to ask participants about their citizenship status) that indicated that the foreign born
were significantly more likely to use SSI, but were not significantly more likely to use AFDC or
food stamps.25 In AFDC, food stamps, and Medicaid, noncitizens had higher participation rates
than the native born, but naturalized citizens had lower participation rates than the native born.
However, in the SSI program both noncitizens and naturalized citizens had higher participation
rates than native-born citizens. This finding was especially true among the aged population. 26
In addition to the elderly, the other major subgroup of the foreign born using welfare appeared to
be noncitizens from refugee-sending countries. While the 1995 CRS study did not disaggregate
refugees, Urban Institute analysts did try to do so in Senate testimony. Based also on the March
25
The CRS analysis analyzed three categories of citizenship status: native-born citizens, naturalized citizens, and
noncitizens, which are based on subchapter III of the INA. 8 U.S.C. §§ 1401-1452 and § 1101(a)(3).
26
CRS (archived) Report 95-276, Native and Naturalized Citizens and Noncitizens: An Analysis of Poverty Status,
Welfare Benefits, and Other Factors, by Michael O’Grady.
Congressional Research Service
11
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
1994 CPS, they found that 13.1% of foreign born from the major refugee sending countries used
AFDC, SSI, or general assistance, compared to 5.8% of foreign born from other countries.27
The Urban Institute continued to analyze the CPS for noncitizen use of welfare and found
changes in usage from 1994 to 1997. Noteworthy among the principal findings of the later Urban
Institute study were the following:
•
Use of public benefits among noncitizen households fell more sharply than
among citizen households between 1994 and 1997, 34% and 14% respectively.
•
Those noncitizens imputed to be refugees experienced declines (33%) that were
at least as steep as other noncitizens despite the fact that most refugees continued
to be eligible for benefits in 1997.
•
Noncitizen households accounted for a disproportionately large share of the
overall decline in welfare caseloads that occurred between 1994 and 1997.
•
Welfare usage among elderly immigrants and naturalized citizens did not appear
to change between 1994 and 1997.
•
Neither naturalization nor rising incomes accounted for a significant share of
noncitizens’ exits from public benefit use.
The Urban Institute analysis grouped use of SSI and general assistance in with AFDC/TANF
usage to measure overall welfare receipt. 28
Recent Findings
More recently, CRS analysis of the March 2006 CPS indicated public assistance usage was down
generally from 1995 to 2005 for all four programs (Figure 3), but the trend has reverse in 2007
for Medicaid and TANF. CPS data are self-reported and generally understate the actual number of
program beneficiaries. It is not possible to determine whether the increased media debate on
immigration’s costs and benefits may have suppressed noncitizens’ reporting of public assistance.
Nonetheless, the downward shifts in usage after enactment of PWORA are consistent with those
observed previously and are comparable to the general findings of the Urban Institute and others.
27
Fix, M., Passel, J.S., & Zimmermann, W. (1996). The use of SSI and other welfare programs by immigrants.
Testimony before the U.S. Senate [Judiciary] Subcommittee on Immigration, February 6, 1996. Washington, DC: The
Urban Institute.
28
Fix, M., & Passel, J.S., (1999).Trends in Noncitizens’ and Citizens’ Use of Public Benefits Following Welfare
Reform: 1994-97. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
Congressional Research Service
12
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Figure 3. Percentage of Noncitizens Receiving Selected Assistance
of Benefits: 1995, 1998, 2005, and 2007
25
Percent
20
15
13.7
12.8
12.3
9.2 9.5
10
8.5
7.7
6.4
5
4
2.3
3.2
1.2 0.8
2.5
1.5 1.3
0
95 98 05 07
19 19 20 20
Welfare
19
95 998 005 007
1 2 2
95 98 05 07
19 19 20 20
SSI
Medicaid
19
95 998 005 007
1 2 2
Food Stamps
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplement, 1996, 1999, 2006, and 2008.
Notes: Food stamp data are by households; all other data are individuals. Welfare includes AFDC, TANF and
general cash assistance.
What is most intriguing from the latest analysis is that these general declines in program
beneficiaries are not evidenced consistently across the programs or among the three citizenship
groupings. As in the 1995 CRS study, this CRS analysis focused on three categories of citizenship
status: native-born citizens, naturalized citizens, and noncitizens. The benefit use patterns for
naturalized persons in the CPS samples offer exceptions to the general trends, as Figure 4
presents. Benefit receipt decreased in estimated total numbers for noncitizens in TANF, food
stamps and SSI, as detailed in Appendix B. The estimated participation of naturalized citizens
rose in TANF, SSI, food stamps, and Medicaid. The substantial increase in immigration
throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s is one of many factors that may be affecting these trends,
as are general economic and labor force factors and family structures.29
As Figure 4 illustrates, the estimated percentage of the welfare recipients (defined here as
individuals who reported receipt of AFDC, TANF, or general cash assistance) who were
noncitizens was virtually constant in 1995 (11.8%) and 2007 (11.1%), even though the total
29
For analysis of immigration trends over this time period, see CRS Report RL32235, U.S. Immigration Policy on
Permanent Admissions, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
Congressional Research Service
13
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
caseload fell substantially. The estimated proportion of welfare recipients who were naturalized
citizens increased from 2.3% in 1995 to 3.4% in 2007.
Figure 4. Percentage Distribution of Recipients by Citizenship
Status: 1995 and 2007
Native
Welfare
Naturalized
Noncitizens
1995
2007
SSI
1995
2007
1995
Medicaid
Food
Stamps
2007
1995
2007
1995
Total
Population 2007
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: CRS analysis of the CPS March Supplement, 1996 and 2008.
Notes: Food stamp data are by households; all other data are individuals. Welfare includes AFDC, TANF and
general cash assistance.
Estimates of SSI usage from the CPS suggest a different pattern, one in which noncitizen usage
decreased from 9.9% to 5.9%, but recipiency among the naturalized increased from 1995 to 2005.
Naturalized citizens as a percentage of SSI recipients reported in the CPS grew markedly from
3.9% to 9.1% over the decade (Figure 4).
Both naturalized citizens and noncitizens as a percentage of Medicaid recipients rose markedly
from 1995 to 2005. Among natives, however, there was a decline over the decade (Figure 4). It is
important to note that reporting of Medicaid use in the CPS is reportedly plagued with
problems.30
30
For further discussion, see U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Ways and Means, 2004 Green Book:
Background Material and Data on the Programs Within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means, chapter
15, Medicaid, March 2004.
Congressional Research Service
14
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
CPS estimates of households receiving food stamps indicate a pattern from 1995 to 2005 that
resembles SSI and Medicaid. Similar to SSI, the proportion of recipients who are naturalized
citizens notably increased. The percentage of reported food stamp recipients who were
noncitizens in 2005 is comparable to Medicaid, 10.0% and 10.4% respectively.
Program Participation Data
Analysis of SSI, TANF, and food stamp program participation data offers another perspective on
changes in noncitizen receipt of public assistance over time. (The administrative data for the
Medicaid program does not provide time series statistics on citizenship status.) These analyses
also reveal the ebb and flow of noncitizen program participation. We cannot assume, however,
that the program participation data always record a change in citizen status when a noncitizen
beneficiary naturalizes. The most recent data available are for FY2006.
Figure 5. Noncitizens as a Percentage of all Food Stamp, SSI, and
TANF/AFDC Cash Assistance, 1989-2006
25
Percent
TANF
SSI
Food Stamps
20
15
10
9.3%
5.4%
5
3.9%
0
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2006
Source: CRS presentation of data published annually by the Social Security Administration, the DHHS
Administration for Children and Families, and the USDA Food Stamp Quality Control Samples.
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
The percentage of the SSI caseload that were noncitizens has dipped slightly in recent years, after
inching upward in the 1980s and early 1990s, as Figure 5 depicts. It stood at 9.3% (or 674,250
Congressional Research Service
15
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
participants) in 2006 after peaking at 12.1% (or 785,410 participants) in 1995. In 2006,
noncitizens accounted for 28.0% of all aged SSI recipients, down from a high of 31.8% in 1995.
Noncitizens accounted for 5.6% of disabled (or blind) recipients in 2006, down from 6.3% in
1995.
Food Stamps
As illustrated in Figure 5, food stamp participation by noncitizens rose during the early 1990s,
then dropped by the late 1990s. The peak occurred in 1996 when 1.8 million noncitizens
comprised 7.1% of the 25.5 million food stamp recipients. The most recent available data from
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Stamp Quality Control Samples estimated that
noncitizens receiving food stamps stood at 3.9% of 26.7 million food stamp recipients in 2006.
Cash Assistance
The actual number of families or persons who receive TANF benefits is not known because there
is no comprehensive reporting on families receiving the range of TANF benefits and services. The
Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), however, does collect data on families
receiving ongoing assistance—most frequently cash welfare. The number of families receiving
cash welfare peaked in March 1994 at 5.1 million families and dropped to 1.9 million in June
2006.31
The HHS data on characteristics of these TANF recipients indicate that, as a percentage of total
adult TANF cash assistance recipients, noncitizens legally in the United States who receive TANF
(formerly AFDC) increased from 7.0% in FY1989 to 12.3% in 1996, then dropped to 5.9% (of
996,312 adult recipients) in 2006. Figure 5 illustrates this curvilinear trend of noncitizen usage.
These data exhibit the same trend as that of the TANF recipients generally.
Thus far, most states have not exercised their option to bar LPRs from TANF. According to the
CRS State Noncitizen Eligibility Survey (SNES), 34 states and Washington, DC, reported that
they are exercising the option to provide TANF to LPRs after the five-year bar ends. In terms of
funding, 27 states and Washington, DC, reported that they used their own funds as well as federal
funds in 2000 and 2002 to cover the costs of providing TANF to those LPRs who were in the
United States prior to the passage of the 1996 welfare reform act. Twenty-six states and the U.S.
Virgin Islands reported that they used their own funds as well as federal funds to cover the costs
of providing TANF to those LPRs who were excluded (e.g., barred first five years) or whose
eligibility had expired (e.g., refugees after five years).32 Preliminary data from the 2004/2006
SNES for the most part indicate a continuation of these policies.
31
CRS Report RL32760, The Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Block Grant:
Responses to Frequently Asked Questions, by Gene Falk.
32
CRS Report RL32363, State Policies on Immigrant Eligibility for Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF),
by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
Congressional Research Service
16
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Federal and State Benefit Eligibility Standards for
Unauthorized Aliens
Federal Benefits33
Unauthorized aliens (often referred to as illegal aliens) are not eligible for most federal benefits,
regardless of whether they are means tested. The class of benefits denied is broad. The scope of
the bar on unauthorized aliens hinges on how broadly the clause “federal public benefit” is
implemented. The law defines this clause to be:
(A) any grant, contract, loan, professional license, or commercial license provided by an
agency of the United States or by appropriated funds of the United States; and (B) any
retirement, welfare, health, disability, public or assisted housing, postsecondary education,
food assistance, unemployment benefit, or any other similar benefit for which payments or
assistance are provided to an individual, household, or family eligibility unit by an agency of
the United States or by appropriated funds of the United States.34
So defined, this bar covers many programs whose enabling statutes do not individually make
citizenship or immigration status a criterion for participation. Thus, unauthorized aliens are
statutorily barred from receiving benefits that previously were not individually restricted—Social
Services Block Grants, and migrant health centers, for example—unless they fall within the 1996
welfare act’s limited exceptions. These statutory exceptions include the following:
•
treatment under Medicaid for emergency medical conditions (other than those
related to an organ transplant);35
•
short-term, in-kind emergency disaster relief;
•
immunizations against immunizable diseases and testing for and treatment of
symptoms of communicable diseases;
•
services or assistance (such as soup kitchens, crisis counseling and intervention,
and short-term shelters) designated by the Attorney General as: (i) delivering inkind services at the community level, (ii) providing assistance without individual
determinations of each recipient’s needs, and (iii) being necessary for the
protection of life and safety; and
•
to the extent that an alien was receiving assistance on the date of enactment,
programs administered by the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development,
programs under title V of the Housing Act of 1949, and assistance under Section
306C of the Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act.36
33
For a more complete analysis, see CRS Report RL34500, Unauthorized Aliens’ Access to Federal Benefits: Policy
and Issues, by Ruth Ellen Wasem.
34
§401(c) of PRWORA, 8 U.S.C. 1611.
35
For analysis, see CRS Report RL31630, Federal Funding for Unauthorized Aliens’ Emergency Medical Expenses, by
Alison Siskin.
36
Subtitle E of Title V of the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (Division C of P.L. 104208) later facilitated the removal of unauthorized aliens from housing assistance. For analysis, see CRS Report
RL31753, Immigration: Noncitizen Eligibility for Needs-Based Housing Programs, by Alison Siskin and Maggie
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
17
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
PRWORA sought further to prevent unauthorized aliens from receiving the Earned Income Tax
Credit (EITC) by also requiring that the social security numbers (SSN) of recipients (and spouses)
be valid for employment in the United States.37
P.L. 104-193 also states that individuals who are eligible for free public education benefits under
state and local law shall remain eligible to receive school lunch and school breakfast benefits.
(The act itself does not address a state’s obligation to grant all aliens equal access to education
under the Supreme Court’s decision in Plyler v. Doe.) Beyond these nutrition benefits, the act
neither prohibits nor requires a state to provide unauthorized aliens other benefits funded under
the National School Lunch Act or the Child Nutrition Act, or under the Emergency Food
Assistance Act, Section 4 of the Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act, or the Food
Distribution Program on Indian Reservations under the Food Stamp Act.
State Benefits
Unlike earlier federal law, P.L. 104-193 expressly bars unauthorized aliens from most state and
locally funded benefits. The restrictions on these benefits parallel the restrictions on federal
benefits. Unauthorized aliens are generally barred from state and local government contracts,
licenses, grants, loans, and assistance. 38 The following exceptions are made:
•
treatment for emergency conditions (other than those related to an organ
transplant);
•
short-term, in-kind emergency disaster relief;
•
immunization against immunizable diseases and testing for and treatment of
symptoms of communicable diseases; and
•
services or assistance (such as soup kitchens, crisis counseling and intervention,
and short-term shelters) designated by the Attorney General as: (i) delivering inkind services at the community level, (ii) providing assistance without individual
determinations of each recipient’s needs, and (iii) being necessary for the
protection of life and safety.
Also, the restrictions on state and local benefits do not apply to activities that are funded in part
by federal funds; these activities are regulated under the 1996 law as federal benefits.
Furthermore, the law states that nothing in it is to be construed as addressing eligibility for basic
public education. Finally, the 1996 law allows the states, through enactment of new state laws, to
provide unauthorized aliens with state and local benefits that otherwise are restricted.39
(...continued)
McCarty.
37
For a legal analysis, see CRS congressional distribution memorandum, Legal Analysis of Whether Section 401 of the
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act Prohibits Unauthorized Resident Aliens from
Receiving Refundable Tax Credits, by Erika Lunder and Edward Liu, January 28, 2008 (available on request).
38
For further analysis, see CRS Report RL34345, State and Local Restrictions on Employing, Renting Property to, or
Providing Services for Unauthorized Aliens: Legal Issues and Recent Judicial Developments, by Yule Kim, Jody
Feder, and Alison M. Smith.
39
For further analysis, see CRS Report RS22500, Unauthorized Alien Students, Higher Education, and In-State Tuition
Rates: A Legal Analysis, by Jody Feder.
Congressional Research Service
18
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Despite the federally imposed bar and the state flexibility provided by the 1996 law, states still
may be required to expend a significant amount of state funds for unauthorized aliens. Public
elementary and secondary education for unauthorized aliens remains compelled by judicial
decision, and payment for emergency medical services for unauthorized aliens remains compelled
by federal law. Meanwhile, certain other costs attributable to unauthorized aliens, such as
criminal justice costs, remain compelled by the continued presence of unauthorized aliens.40
40
For a fuller discussion, see CRS Report RL33431, Immigration: Frequently Asked Questions on the State Criminal
Alien Assistance Program (SCAAP), by Karma Ester.
Congressional Research Service
19
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Appendix A. Noncitizen Eligibility for Selected Major Federal Programs
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
Medicaid
Legal permanent residents (LPRs):
—without a substantial (generally 10-year)
work history,a
Ineligible for 5 years
after entry, except:
Ineligible until naturalized, except:
Eligibility required for persons
with a military connection.
Same as TANF, plus
coverage required for SSI
recipients. (Note: Eligible
for emergency medical
services.)
(1) persons with a
military connection,
(1) persons with a military
connection,
(2) persons resident in
the U.S. as of August
22, 1996, and age 65+
at the time,
(2) persons receiving SSI benefits
as of August 22, 1996, and
Eligibility at state option for
persons resident in the U.S. as of
August 22, 1996.Post-August 22,
1996, entrants: ineligible for 5
years after entry, then eligible at
state option.
Eligibility at state option
for pregnant LPRs and
children, regardless of the
date of entry.
(3) persons receiving
disability benefits, and
—with a substantial (generally 10-year) work
history.a
(3) persons resident in the U.S. as
of August 22, 1996, and now
disabled (eligible for SSI disability
benefits).
(4) children under age
18.
(Note: Disabled children are
included as eligible if resident in
the U.S. as of August 22, 1996.)
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible.b
Eligible.b
Eligibleb.
Eligible.b
Eligible after
entry/grant of such
status.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry/grant of such status.
Ineligible after 7 years unless
naturalized or if in receipt of SSI
benefits as of August 22, 1996.
Eligible for 5 years after entry/grant
of such status. Eligible at state
option after 5 years.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry/grant of such status.
Eligible at state option
after 7 years.
Military connection:
—aliens with a military connection (active duty
military personnel, honorably discharged
veterans, and their immediate families).
Humanitarian cases:
—asylees, refugees, Cuban/Haitian entrants,
Iraqi and Afghan special immigrants, certain
aliens whose deportation/removal is being
withheld for humanitarian reasons, and
Vietnam-born Amerasians fathered by U.S.
citizens.c
CRS-20
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
Medicaid
Special Cases:
—noncitizen “cross-border” American
Indians,d
Eligible.
Eligible.
Eligible at state option.
Eligible.
—Hmong/Highland Laotians,e
Eligible.
Eligible only if individual meets
eligibility criteria for another
noncitizen category—e.g., as a
legal permanent resident, asylee,
refugee, person with a military
connection.
Same as SSI. (Note: LPRs eligible
under conditions noted above for
TANF treatment of LPRs.)
Same as SSI. (Note: LPRs
eligible under conditions
noted above for Medicaid
treatment of LPRs.)
—parolees and conditional entrants,f
Eligible.
Eligible only if individual:
Eligible if resident as of August 22,
1996. Ineligible for 5 years after
entry, if entry is post-August 22,
1996. Otherwise eligible at state
option.
Same as TANF.
Eligible if resident as of August 22,
1996. Ineligible for 5 years after
entry, if entry is post-August 22,
1996. Otherwise eligible at state
option.
Eligibility at state option
(1) has a military connection,
(2) was receiving SSI as of August
22, 1996, or
(3) was resident in the U.S. as of
August 22, 1996, and is now
disabled (eligible for SSI disability
benefits).
—cases of abuse (battery or extreme cruelty),g
Eligible.
If not eligible as an LPR or
humanitarian case, then eligible if
the individual:
(1) has a military connection,
(2) was receiving SSI as of August
22, 1996, or
(3) was resident in the U.S. as of
August 22, 1996, and is now
disabled (eligible for SSI disability
benefits).
—victims of trafficking in persons,h
Eligible.
Same as food stamps.
Eligible for 5 years after entry.
Eligible at state option after 5
years.
Eligible for 7 years after
entry. Eligible at state
option after 7 years.
—aliens in temporary protected status, in
extended voluntary departure (EVD) status, or
deferred enforced departure (DED) status.
Ineligible.
Ineligible, unless in receipt of SSI
benefits August 22, 1996.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for
emergency services.
CRS-21
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Class of Alien
Food Stamps
SSI
TANF
Medicaid
Nonimmigrantsi
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for
emergency services.
Unauthorized aliensj
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Ineligible.
Eligible only for
emergency services.
Naturalized aliens
Eligible on
naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
Eligible on naturalization.
a.
A substantial work history consists of 40 “qualifying quarters” of work (credits) calculated as they would be for Social Security eligibility purposes—including work not
covered by Social Security and work credited from parents and spouses, but not including work performed after 1996 while receiving federal means-tested benefits
like TANF, food stamps, or Medicaid. A qualifying quarter is a three-month period of full or part-time work with sufficient income to qualify the earner for credit
toward eligibility for Social Security benefits. The qualifying quarter income amount is increased annually, and, for 2001, stands at $830; no more than 4 credit quarters
can be earned in any 1 year. The qualifying quarter test takes into account work by an alien’s parent before the alien became 18 (including work before the alien was
born/adopted) and by the alien’s spouse (provided the alien remains married to the spouse or the spouse is deceased).
b.
Eligible military personnel, veterans, and immediate family members also must be a legal permanent resident, or an asylee, refugee, Cuban/Haitian entrant, alien whose
deportation/removal is being withheld, parolee, or conditional entrant.
c.
Includes Amerasians admitted as immigrants who were born in Vietnam during the Vietnam era and fathered by a U.S. citizen—as well as their spouses, children, and
certain other immediate family members.
d.
Noncitizen “cross-border” American Indians (from Canada or Mexico) are noncitizens who belong to a federally recognized tribe or who were born in Canada and
have the right to cross the Canadian-U.S. border unhindered (so-called “Jay Treaty” Indians).
e.
Members of a Hmong or Highland Laotian tribe when the tribe assisted U.S. personnel by taking part in military/rescue missions during the Vietnam era—including
spouses and unmarried dependent children.
f.
Eligible parolees must be paroled for at least 1 year.
g.
Eligibility in abuse cases is limited to aliens who have been abused (subject to battery or extreme cruelty) in the U.S. by a spouse or other family/ household member,
aliens whose children have been abused, and alien children whose parent has been abused—where the alien has been approved for, or has pending an
application/petition with a prima facie case for, immigration preference as a spouse or child or cancellation of removal. The alien cannot be residing with the individual
responsible for the abuse, and the agency providing benefits must determine that there is a substantial connection between the abuse and the need for benefits.
h.
Eligible for treatment as refugees under the provisions of Section 107 of the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-386). Eligible victims
of trafficking in persons are those subjected to (1) sex trafficking where the act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion, or the person induced to perform the act is
under age 18, or (2) involuntary servitude. If age 18 or older, they must be “certified” as willing to assist in the investigation and prosecution of the trafficker(s) and
have made an application for a nonimmigrant “T” visa (or be in the U.S. to ensure the effective prosecution of the trafficker(s)).
i.
Nonimmigrants are those admitted temporarily for a limited purpose (e.g., students, visitors, or temporary workers).
j.
Unauthorized (“illegal”) aliens are those in the U.S. in violation of immigration law for whom no legal relief or recognition has been extended.
CRS-22
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Appendix B. Estimated Benefit Usage, by Citizenship, for Selected Years
Native
1995
1998
Naturalized
2001
2007
1995
1998
2001
Noncitizens
2007
1995
1998
2001
2007
Estimated number of recipients (in millions)
AFDC/TANF
4.25
2.51
1.74
1.41
0.11
0.11
0.08
0.06
0.58
0.35
0.26
0.18
SSI
4.15
4.20
4.33
4.37
0.19
0.32
0.41
0.39
0.47
0.38
0.26
0.28
Medicaid
28.53
25.06
28.30
35.20
0.55
0.79
1.09
1.61
2.54
1.80
1.99
2.74
Food Stamps
25.11
21.85
16.01
20.50
0.44
0.44
0.55
0.63
2.48
1.47
1.19
1.70
Total population
239.2
244.6
249.1
261.2
7.9
9.9
12.0
15.1
16.6
16.6
16.6
22.2
Percent of total recipients by citizenship category
AFDC/TANF
86.0
84.4
83.8
85.6
2.3
3.9
3.7
3.4
11.8
11.8
12.4
11.1
SSI
86.2
85.8
86.6
86.7
3.9
6.5
8.1
7.8
9.9
7.8
5.3
5.6
Medicaid
90.2
90.6
90.2
89.0
1.7
2.8
3.5
4.1
8.0
6.5
6.3
6.9
Food Stamps
89.6
90.6
90.2
89.8
1.6
2.2
3.1
2.8
8.9
7.2
6.7
7.5
Percent of receipt within citizenship category
AFDC/TANF
2.3
1.3
0.9
0.5
1.5
1.2
0.7
0.4
3.9
2.3
1.4
0.8
SSI
2.3
2.3
2.3
1.7
2.4
3.3
3.5
2.6
3.2
2.5
1.4
1.3
Medicaid
11.9
10.2
11.4
13.4
6.9
8.0
9.1
10.7
15.3
10.9
9.7
12.3
Food stamps
10.5
7.6
6.4
7.8
5.6
4.5
4.6
4.2
14.9
8.9
5.8
7.7
Source: CRS analysis of CPS March Supplements, 1996, 1999, 2002, and 2008.
Note: Food stamp data are by households; all other data are individuals. Welfare includes AFDC, TANF and general cash assistance.
CRS-23
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
Appendix C. “Qualified Aliens”
The 1996 welfare law divided noncitizens into two general categories for purposes of benefit
eligibility. The least restrictive category is that of qualified aliens, a category that, despite its
name, is subject to numerous limitations and does not itself indicate eligibility for assistance.
Qualified aliens are legal permanent residents, refugees, aliens paroled into the United States for
at least one year, and aliens granted asylum or related relief. The 1996 immigration law added
certain abused spouses and children as another class, and P.L. 105-33 added Cuban-Haitian
entrants.
The other, more restrictive category is that of non-qualified aliens. It consists of other
noncitizens, including unauthorized (illegal) aliens, nonimmigrants (i.e., aliens admitted for a
temporary purpose, such as education or employment), short-term parolees, asylum applicants,
and various classes of aliens granted temporary permission to remain. Non-qualified aliens
generally are ineligible for almost all federal assistance provided directly to households or
individuals. Limited exceptions include emergency medical services and disaster relief. 41
In general, qualified aliens compose the “universe” of potentially eligible noncitizens. As noted
below and in the earlier portions of this report, however, these aliens must, in most cases, pass
another test to gain eligibility. In addition, some classes of noncitizens who are not specifically
listed as qualified aliens (e.g., Hmong/Highland Laotians, Vietnam-born Amerasians fathered by
U.S. citizens) are indeed eligible for benefits. Qualified aliens are subject to eligibility restrictions
that vary by program (see Appendix A) and may be subject to sponsor-to-alien deeming rules
that affect their financial eligibility for aid (noted earlier in this report).
•
To gain eligibility for food stamps, qualified aliens must (1) have a substantial
work history or military connection; (2) have been resident in the United States
as of August 22, 1996, and meet certain age or disability requirements; or (3) be
within seven years of entry (e.g., if a refugee/asylee).
•
To gain eligibility for SSI, qualified aliens must (1) have a substantial work
history or military connection; (2) have been an SSI recipient as of August 22,
1996; (3) have been resident in the United States as of August 22, 1996, and be
disabled; or (3) be within seven years of entry (e.g., if a refugee/asylee).
•
To gain eligibility for TANF, qualified aliens must (1) have a substantial work
history or military connection; (2) be in a state that has chosen to allow eligibility
to those resident as of August 22, 1996, and/or new entrants who have been
resident five years; or (3) be within five years of entry (e.g., if a refugee/asylee).
New entrants are not eligible for five years after entry.
•
To gain eligibility for Medicaid, qualified aliens must (1) have a substantial work
history or military connection; (2) be in a state that has chosen to allow eligibility
to those resident as of August 22, 1996, and/or new entrants who have been
resident five years; or (3) be within seven years of entry (e.g., if a refugee or
asylee). For Medicaid and CHIP, new entrants are not eligible for 5 years after
entry, except in the states that have opted to cover children and pregnant LPRs.
41
For discussion of these legislative activities, see CRS Report RL33102, Federal Food Assistance in Disasters:
Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, by Joe Richardson.
Congressional Research Service
24
Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public Assistance: Policy Overview and Trends
However, for CHIP, the five-year ban is the only additional citizenship-related
eligibility requirement that must be met by qualified aliens.
Author Contact Information
Ruth Ellen Wasem
Specialist in Immigration Policy
rwasem@crs.loc.gov, 7-7342
Congressional Research Service
25