Order Code RL33436
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Japan-U.S. Relations:
Issues for Congress
Updated August 7October 5, 2006
Emma Chanlett-Avery (Coordinator)
Analyst in Asian Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Mark E. Manyin
Specialist in Asian Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
William H. Cooper
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress
Summary
The post-World War II U.S.-Japan alliance has long been an anchor of the U.S.
security role in East Asia. The alliance, with its access to bases in Japan, where
about 53,000 U.S. troops are stationed, facilitates the forward deployment of U.S.
military forces in the Asia-Pacific, thereby undergirding U.S. national security
strategy. For Japan, the alliance and the U.S. nuclear umbrella provide maneuvering
room in dealing with its neighbors, particularly China and North Korea.
The Bush Administration has made significant strides in its goals of broadening
U.S.-Japan strategic cooperation and encouraging Japan to assume a more active
international role. Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, Japan made
its first-ever military deployments in noncombatnon-combat support of U.S. and allied forces in
Afghanistan. Koizumi was a prominent backer of the U.S. invasion of Iraq and in
in Afghanistan. In 2004 Tokyo sent noncombatnon-combat troops to Iraq, despite considerable
domestic opposition.
Japan generally has supported the “hardline” U.S. position in
the Six-Party Talks on
North Korea’s nuclear program. Japan is participating in bilateral missile defense
research and development. In 2005 the U.S. and Japan
announced a sweeping new
agreement to strengthen military cooperation. The plan
calls for U.S. forces to be
realigned and Japan to take on a more active (non-combat)
role in maintaining
regional and global security. The envisioned changes are intended to complement the
broader Pentagon goal of deploying a more streamlined and mobile force in Asia.
Most of these developments have been viewed warily by South Korea and
opposed outright by China. Beijing and Seoul also have expressed concern at the
assertive foreign policy stance adopted by Koizumi, who has been buoyed by
heightened senses of Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and his
predecessor Junichiro Koizumi, both of whom were buoyed by heightened senses of
nationalism and vulnerability (to North Korea and China)
among many Japanese. Koizumi’s party also
The ruling party has drafted a new constitution that
would eliminate most of the
clauses prohibiting participation in collective security
arrangements. The United
States has supported both moves. Sino-Japanese and
Korean-Japanese tensions also
have risen due to competing territorial claims and
accusations that Japan is
attempting to whitewash its history of aggression during the
first half of the 20th Century
century. Koizumi’s repeated visits to the controversial Yasukuni
Shrine have Shrine further
fueled China’s and South Korea’s resentment. Abe has pledged to improve ties with
his neighbors, but some fear that his nationalist views will preclude more than a
superficial and temporary mending of relations.
Japan is one of the United States’ most important economic partners. Outside
of North America, it is the United States’ largest export market and second-largest
source of imports. Japanese firms are the U.S.United States’ second-largest source of foreign
foreign direct investment, and Japanese investors are by far the largest foreign
holders of
U.S. treasuries, helping to finance the U.S. deficit and reduce upward
pressure on
U.S. interest rates. Bilateral trade friction has decreased in recent years, partly
partly because U.S. concern about the trade deficit with Japan has been replaced by concern
concern about a much larger deficit with China. The exception was U.S. criticism over
over Japan’s decision in 2003 to ban imports of U.S. beef, which have since resumed.
This report replaces CRS Issue Brief IB97004, Japan-U.S. Relations: Issues for
Congress, coordinated by Emma Chanlett-Avery.
Contents
Most Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Bush-Koizumi Summit1
A New Prime Minister . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Abe Schedules Bilateral Asian Summits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
North Korean Missile LaunchesJapan Imposes Sanctions on North Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Progress in Japan’s Intelligence Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Beef Ban Lifted. . . . . . . . . . 1
Setbacks to Energy Deals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Troops Withdrawn from IraqA New Imperial Heir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
The Role of Congress in U.S.-Japan Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Major Diplomatic and Security Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Global Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Counterterrorism Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Support for U.S. Policy Toward Iraq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
U.S. and Japanese Korean Peninsula Priorities Converge . . . . . . . . . . . 5
United Nations Security Council Reform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Kyoto Protocol and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Regional and Historical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Converging Korean Peninsula Priorities . . . .6
Abe’s Asian Diplomacy: A New Beginning? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Japan-China Rivalry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Territorial Conflicts6
Japan-South Korean Relations Uneasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Territorial Conflicts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Historical Issues Divide Asian Powers . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Impact of Historical Disputes on U.S. Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Claims of Former World War II POWs and Civilian Internees . . . . . . . 77
Congressional Interest in Japanese History Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Military Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Deepening Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Article 9 Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
Proposed Command Structure Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
U.S. Bases on Okinawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
Burden-Sharing Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Cooperation on Missile Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011
Economic Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Japan’s Ban on U.S. Beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312
Overview of the Bilateral Economic Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Bilateral Trade Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Japan’s Ban on U.S. Beef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Insurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The Byrd Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
The Doha Development Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1415
Japanese Political Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Koizumi’s Sweeping Victory in September 2005 Elections . . . . . . . . 15
Koizumi’s Successor16
Koizumi’s Political Legacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Abe “Agenda” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 17
The Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1718
Constitutional Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1719
Conclusion — Japan’s Increased Assertiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
20
Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1921
List of Figures
Figure 1.: Map of Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3
Figure 2. Map of Military Facilities in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
List of Tables
Table 1. U.S. Trade with Japan, Selected Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Japan-U.S. Relations:
Issues for Congress
Most Recent Developments
Bush-Koizumi Summit. On June 29, 2006, Prime Minister Junichiro
Koizumi and President Bush held a bilateral summit at the White House. The two
leaders released a joint statement entitled “The Japan-U.S. Alliance of the New
Century,” which reaffirms the bilateral alliance and sets forth their common values
and interests. The statement reflects the trend of the relationship over the past few
years in that it focuses not only on bilateral issues but also on regional and global
cooperation. Following the official visit in Washington, Bush and Koizumi traveled
to Memphis, Tennessee, to tour the home of Elvis Presley, Koizumi’s favorite singer.
The visit was seen as a farewell to Koizumi, one of Bush’s most stalwart allies.
Koizumi is scheduled to step down in September 2006.
North Korean Missile Launches. North Korea’s test-firing of several
missiles on July 5 (July 4 in the United States) rattled Japan and stimulated unusually
aggressive diplomacy by Japan’s government. Japan responded quickly and
forcefully by announcing unilateral financial penalties on the regime and drafting a
UNSC resolution that would impose sanctions and threaten military action if North
Korea did not end its ballistic missile program. Chief Cabinet Secretary Shinzo Abe,
frontrunner in the Prime Ministerial race, inflamed the South Korean government by
suggesting that Japan should consider the legality of launching pre-emptive strikes
on North Korea’s missiles if future threats arise. Ongoing U.S.-Japanese cooperation
on missile defense accelerated as a result of the tests: the Pentagon announced that
it would begin relocating the Patriot Advanced Capability-3 system (known as the
PAC-3) from Texas to Okinawa in August.
Beef Ban Lifted. On July 27, Japan announced it would resume imports from
the United States of beef from cattle 20 months old or younger. While praising the
decision, some Members of Congress and other officials have called on Japan to
broaden the procedures to include beef from older cattle.
Troops Withdrawn from Iraq. On June 20, Koizumi announced that Japan’s
ground troops would withdraw from Iraq; the withdrawal was completed less than
a month later. Japan’s Air Self Defense Forces, however, have expanded their
mission of airlifting multinational troops and supplies from Kuwait into Iraq. Japan
also announced a $30 million loan for Iraq’s infrastructure, in addition to the earlier
pledge of $5 billion and the forgiveness of 80% of the debts owed it by Baghdad, or
$6.9 billion.
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Figure 1. Map of JapanA New Prime Minister. Former Chief Cabinet Secretary Shinzo Abe was
elected to succeed Junichiro Koizumi as Prime Minister of Japan in a special Diet
(parliament) session on September 26, 2006. A member of the ruling Liberal
Democratic Party (LDP), Abe, at 52, is the youngest Japanese premier to serve since
World War II. Abe appears likely to continue his predecessor’s legacy of increasing
Japan’s diplomatic and military stature and concentrating more power in his Cabinet.
Abe Schedules Bilateral Asian Summits. Shortly after assuming office,
Abe pushed for bilateral summits with Chinese President Hu Jintao and South
Korean President Roh Myoo-hun in Beijing and Seoul, respectively. North Korea’s
October 3 announcement that it planned to conduct a nuclear test added urgency to
the meetings scheduled for October 8-9. Abe has pledged to improve relationships
with Japan’s Asian neighbors, which had suffered during Koizumi’s term. Seoul and
Beijing remain wary of Abe’s support for policies that call for Japan to become more
assertive on the international stage and to increase Japanese pride. Historical
grievances stemming from Japan’s imperial past continue to taint relationships in the
region. See “Regional and Historical Issues” section for further details.
Japan Imposes Sanctions on North Korea. After North Korea test-fired
several missiles in July, Japan played a leading role in pushing through a United
Nations Security Council resolution that demands that Pyongyang cease its ballistic
missile program and that all states work to block the shipment of missile-related
items to North Korea. On September 19, 2006, Japan and Australia announced the
imposition of coordinated sanctions that complied with U.N. resolution 1695. The
Japanese sanctions will freeze bank remittances to North Korea; officials said they
would inspect 270 financial institutions, many of which serve the large ethnic Korean
community in Japan, to ensure that any remittances to North Korea complied with
the new regulations. The imposition of sanctions is considered another hurdle to
convincing Pyongyang to return to the Six-Party Talks that aim to peacefully end
North Korea’s nuclear weapons program.
Progress in Japan’s Intelligence Programs. In September 2006, Japan
launched its third intelligence-gathering satellite and reportedly will establish an
intelligence liaison office in Washington, DC. According to Japanese media reports,
the office, which will function separately from the Japanese embassy, will allow
Japanese intelligence officials to share intelligence with their U.S. counterparts.
Setbacks to Energy Deals. As the world’s fourth-largest consumer of
energy, Japan, with few indigenous natural supplies, has been actively pursuing new
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access to energy supplies overseas. In September 2006, these efforts were dealt
separate setbacks in Iran and in Russia. Negotiations between the Japanese firm
Inpex and Iran to go forward on a $2 billion deal to develop the Azadegan oil field
missed the already extended deadline of September 30. Japanese media have
reported that the U.S. government has pressured Japan to withdraw from the project,
originally agreed upon in 2004 over U.S. objections. Iran supplies Japan with about
15% of its crude oil, and Japan is Iran’s biggest export market.
In a separate energy deal on the Russian island of Sakhalin, the Russian
government withdrew a permit for an ongoing liquefied natural gas (LNG) project,
in which two Japanese companies owned a nearly 45% stake. The project was to
have provided Japan with 10% of its energy needs. Abe said that Moscow’s action
could hurt diplomatic relations between the two countries, which never signed a
peace treaty after World War II because of a territorial dispute over several islands.
Bilateral relations were already tense because of a skirmish near the islands between
Japanese fishermen and the Russian Coast Guard in August. One fisherman was
killed and three were seized, then subsequently released.
A New Imperial Heir. On September 6, 2006, Princess Kiko of Japan gave
birth to a baby boy, the first male born into the imperial family in over 40 years. The
birth of a male heir negated the debate, at least for now, on whether a female can
ascend the throne. Former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi had pushed through
legislation that would have allowed for female succession, but the bill stalled when
the news broke that the princess was expecting a child.
The Role of Congress in U.S.-Japan Relations
Congressional powers, actions, and oversight form a backdrop against which
both the Administration and the Japanese government must formulate their policies.
In 2005, Congress showed a renewed interest in U.S.-Japan relations. After holding
two Japan-specific public hearings from 2001 through 2004, Congress held three in
2005. In 2004 and 2005, Members of Congress were particularly critical of Japan’s
two-year ban on imports of U.S. beef and of the Bush Administration’s handling of
the beef dispute. On security issues, Members have expressed concern that steps
taken by the Japanese government are harming U.S. interests in East Asia by
worsening Sino-Japanese and South Korean-Japanese relations. Prime Minister
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Former Prime
Minister Junichiro Koizumi’s continued visits to Yasukuni Shrine, which enshrines
the names
of several Class A war criminals from World War II, has come under particular
particular criticism. Relatedly, some Members have called attention to signs that revisionist
revisionist views of World War II and the U.S. Occupation of Japan (1945-52)
increasingly are
seeping into the mainstream in Japan. The Bush Administration’s
reaction to and
role in fostering these developments also have begun to come under greater
congressional scrutiny. Congressional attention also has focused on Japan’s
increased diplomatic and military assertiveness, as well as dramatic political
developments in Japan in 2005 and 2006. (See also the “Legislation” section.)
Major Diplomatic and Security Issues1
The dominant theme in U.S.-Japan
relations for the past five years has been
deepened alliance cooperation across a range
of issues since the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attacks. Prior to traveling to Asia in
November 2005, President Bush described
Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi as “one of
the best friends that I have in the
international arena.” During the one-day
summit between the two leaders in Kyoto in
November 2005, Prime Minister Koizumi
said that the closer U.S.-Japan relations are,
the “easier for us [Japan] to behave and
establish better relations with China, with
South Korea and other nations in Asia.”
greater congressional scrutiny. (See also the “Legislation” section.)
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Figure 1: Map of Japan
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Major Diplomatic and Security Issues1
Global Issues
Japan Country Data
Counterterrorism Cooperation.
Population: 127.4 million (July 2005 est.)
% of Population over 64: 19.5% (U.S. =
Following the terrorist attacks of September
12.4%) (2005)
11, 2001, the Koizumi government initiated
Area: 377,835 sq km (slightly smaller
a series of unprecedented measures to
than California)
protect American facilities in Japan and
Life Expectancy: 81.15 years (2005)
Per Capita GDP: $29,400 (2004 est.)
provide non-lethal, “rear area” logistical
purchasing power parity
support to U.S. military operations against
Primary Export Partners: US 22.7%,
Al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan.
China 13.1%, South Korea 7.8%,
The latter mainly took the form of at-sea
Taiwan 7.4% (2004)
replenishment of fuel oil and water to U.S.,
Primary Import Partners: China 20.7%,
US 14%, South Korea 4.9%,
British, French, and other allied warships
Australia 4.3% (2004)
operating in the Indian Ocean. The dispatch
Yen:Dollar Exchange Rate: 117.3
of Japan’s Maritime Self-Defense Forces
(2005), 108.3 (2004), 115.93
(MSDF) was the first such deployment since
(2003), 125.39 (2002)
World War II. A small flotilla of Japanese
Foreign Exchange Reserves: $828.8
billion (2005)
transport ships, oilers, and destroyers has
provided about 30% of the fuel used by U.S.
Source: CIA World Factbook, July 2005,
and allied warships, and Japan’s Air SelfIMF, US Treasury Department
Defense Force (ASDF) conducted hundreds
of airlift support missions for U.S. forces.
On June 10, 2005, the Japanese government decided to extend its anti-terrorism law.
Although set to expire in November 2006, Abe has expressed his support for
extending the law for another year. Japan also has been the third-largest donor
country for Afghan relief and reconstruction.
Population: 127.4 million (July 2005 est.)
% of Population over 64: 19.5% (U.S. =
12.4%) (2005)
Area: 377,835 sq km (slightly smaller
than California)
Life Expectancy: 81.15 years (2005)
Per Capita GDP: $29,400 (2004 est.)
purchasing power parity
Primary Export Partners: US 22.7%,
China 13.1%, South Korea 7.8%,
Taiwan 7.4% (2004)
Primary Import Partners: China 20.7%,
US 14%, South Korea 4.9%,
Australia 4.3% (2004)
Yen:Dollar Exchange Rate: 117.3
(2005), 108.3 (2004), 115.93
(2003), 125.39 (2002)
Foreign Exchange Reserves: $828.8
billion (2005)
Counterterrorism Cooperation.
Source: CIA World Factbook, July 2005,
Following the terrorist attacks of September
IMF, US Treasury Department
11, 2001, the Koizumi government initiated
a series of unprecedented measures to
protect American facilities in Japan and provide non-lethal, “rear area” logistical
support to U.S. military operations against Al Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan.
The latter mainly took the form of at-sea replenishment of fuel oil and water to U.S.,
British, French, and other allied warships operating in the Indian Ocean. The
dispatch of Japan’s Maritime Self-Defense Forces (MSDF) was the first such
deployment since World War II. From late 2001 through March 2005, a small flotilla
of Japanese transport ships, oilers, and destroyers provided about 30% of the fuel
used by U.S. and allied warships, and Japan’s Air Self-Defense Force (ASDF)
conducted hundreds of airlift support missions for U.S. forces. On June 10, 2005, the
Japanese government decided to extend its anti-terrorism law for two years. Japan
also has been the third-largest donor country for Afghan relief and reconstruction.
1
This section was written by Emma Chanlett-Avery.
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Support for U.S. Policy Toward Iraq. While strongly preferring a clear
United Nations role in resolving the U.S./British confrontation with Iraq, Japan
nonetheless gave almost unqualified support to the Bush Administration’s position.
During an open debate in the U.N. Security Council, Japan was one of only two out
of 27 participating countries (the other being Australia) to support the U.S.
contention that even if the U.N. inspections were strengthened and expanded, they
were unlikely to lead to the elimination of Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction. Since
2003, Japan has provided $1.5 billion in grant assistance to Iraq, has pledged to
provide $3.5 billion in yen loans, and has agreed to a phased cancellation of 80% of
the approximately $7.5 billion in debt Iraq owed Japan. In addition, in January 2004,
the Koizumi government deployed about 600 military personnel — mainly ground
troops — to carry out humanitarian aid and reconstruction activities in Iraq. The
ground troops were withdrawn from the southern area of Samawah in June-July
2006, but the air division of the Self Defense Forces (the official name of Japan’s
military) has expanded its mission of airlifting multinational troops and their supplies
from Kuwait into Iraq.
1
This section was written by Emma Chanlett-Avery.
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U.S. and Japanese Korean Peninsula Priorities Converge. Japan’s
policy toward North Korea has hardened in recent years, drawing it closer to the U.S.
position in the ongoing Six-Party Talks on Pyongyang’s nuclear weapons program.
Japan has insisted on North Korea abandoning its nuclear weapons, promising
substantial aid in return; has taken steps to squeeze North Korea economically; and
participates in the U.S.-led Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI). The issue of
Japanese citizens kidnapped in the 1970s and 1980s by North Korean agents has
largely driven Tokyo’s harder position. The Bush Administration and Congress have
supported Japan’s insistence on a full accounting of the fate of those abducted, and
have included the abductions as part of the justification for keeping North Korea on
the state sponsors of terrorism list. The North Korean Human Rights Act (P.L.
108-333), passed by the 108th Congress and signed by President Bush in October
2004, requires that U.S. nonhumanitarian assistance to North Korea depend on
“substantial progress” toward fully disclosing information on the abductees.
After North Korea test-fired several missiles in July 2006, Japan played a
leading role in pushing through a United Nations Security Council resolution that
demands that Pyongyang cease its ballistic missile program and that all states work
to block the shipment of missile-related items to North Korea. In September 2006,
Japan and Australia announced the imposition of coordinated sanctions that complied
with U.N. resolution 1695. The Japanese sanctions freeze bank remittances to North
Korea and put financial institutions that serve the large ethnic Korean community in
Japan under scrutiny. Abe’s prominence rose significantly because of his strong
stance on the abductee issue. Japan’s position toward North Korea is expected to
remain hawkish under Abe’s leadership.
United Nations Security Council Reform. In 2004, Japan accelerated its
longstanding efforts to become a permanent member of the United Nations Security
Council by forming a coalition with Germany, India, and Brazil (the so-called “G-4”)
to achieve non-veto membership for all four countries. Though the Bush
Administration has backed Japan’s bid,2 it did not support the G-4 proposal and
opposed taking a vote on expanding the Security Council until a “broader consensus”
on reforming the entire organization can be reached. After the G-4 bid failed in the
run-up to the U.N.’s Millennium Summit in September 2005, Prime Minister
Koizumi reportedly
told Secretary General Kofi Annan that in the future Japan would
have to coordinate
more closely with the United States to achieve its goal. To
become a new member,
Japan needs to obtain support from two-thirds (128
countries) of all the U.N. member
countries. Japan is the second-largest contributor
to the U.N. regular budget, paying
more than 20% of the total, more than twice the
percentage paid by the third-largest
contributor. After investigations revealed that
mismanagement had allowed millions
of dollars to be lost to corruption in the oil-forfoodfor-food program for Iraq, Japan
threatened to withhold part of its funding if drastic
reforms were not adopted.
Kyoto Protocol and Climate Change. Japan is the fourth-leading producer
of so-called greenhouse gases after the United States, the Russian Federation, and
2
China and South Korea have criticized the Bush Administration for its support for Japan’s
bid for permanent U.N. Security Council membership.
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China. Under the Kyoto Protocol, which Tokyo ratified in 2002, Japan is obligated
to reduce its emissions to 6% below its 1990 levels by 2010. Japanese industry
shares many of the concerns of U.S. industry about the cost and feasibility of
achieving these reductions, but the Japanese government, which places a high value
on its support of the protocol, has expressed dismay over the Bush Administration’s
decision to back away from the protocol. In 2005, Japan joined with the United
States, China, India, South Korea, and Australia in a new, non-binding, agreement.
The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate calls on the six
2
China and South Korea have criticized the Bush Administration for its support for Japan’s
bid for permanent U.N. Security Council membership.
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nations to cooperate on the development and diffusion of technology to combat
climate change, reduce pollution, and promote energy security. The group is
designed to “complement, but not replace, the Kyoto Protocol.” Some
environmentalists have criticized the arrangement for its absence of mandates —
particularly on greenhouse gas emissions — and for being a part of a suspected U.S.
strategy to prevent the Kyoto Protocol from being renewed after it expires in 2012.
Regional and Historical Issues
Converging Korean Peninsula Priorities. Japan’s policy toward North
Korea has hardened in recent years, drawing it closer to the U.S. position in the
ongoing Six-Party Talks on Pyongyang’s nuclear weapons program. Japan has
insisted on North Korea abandoning its nuclear weapons, promising substantial aid
in return; has taken steps to squeeze North Korea economically; and participates in
the U.S.-led Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI). Several prominent Japanese have
called for Tokyo to impose sanctions against North Korea, a step opposed by
Koizumi and the Bush Administration. The issue of Japanese citizens kidnapped in
the 1970s and 1980s by North Korean agents has largely driven Tokyo’s harder
position. The Bush Administration and Congress have supported Japan’s insistence
on a full accounting of the fate of those abducted, and have included the abductions
as part of the justification for keeping North Korea on the state sponsors of terrorism
list. The North Korean Human Rights Act (P.L. 108-333), passed by the 108th
Congress and signed by President Bush in October 2004, requires that U.S.
nonhumanitarian assistance to North Korea depend on “substantial progress” toward
fully disclosing information on the abductees.
At the same time, Japan has reportedly encouraged the United States to adopt
a more flexible position; after a Koizumi-Bush meeting at the June 2004 G-8
Summit, the Bush Administration submitted its first and only detailed negotiating
position at the Six-Party Talks. Outside the framework of the Talks, Koizumi has
pursued an independent channel of diplomacy with North Korea, holding summits
with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il in September 2002 and May 2004. Koizumi
has made the normalization of relations contingent upon the settlement of the nuclear
and abduction issues. Progress on this goal appears unlikely before Koizumi leaves
office in September 2006Abe’s Asian Diplomacy: A New Beginning? As he entered office, Prime
Minister Abe established the improvement of relations with Japan’s Asian neighbors
as a foreign policy priority. During Koizumi’s term, long-standing Chinese and
South Korean grievances resurfaced, chilling political relations with Tokyo even as
economic interaction grew more robust. Most damaging were Koizumi’s annual
visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, a Shinto shrine that honors Japanese soldiers who died
in war, including fourteen Class A war criminals who were convicted by the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East following Japan’s defeat in World
War II. Although Abe has reportedly prayed at the shrine on his own and voiced
support for Koizumi’s visits, some insiders suggest he will refrain from visiting
immediately for the sake of regional diplomacy.
Although analysts predict that Japan’s relations with China and South Korea
will improve in the short term, the longer-term implications of Abe’s leadership are
less clear. Abe, the grandson of Nobusuke Kishi, a cabinet minister during World
War II who was held for suspected war crimes before going on to become Prime
Minister, has outlined his campaign to restore Japanese pride and revise the pacifist
constitution imposed on Japan during the American occupation. In the past, he has
cast doubt on the judgements of the International Military Tribunals. Among his
appointments to the cabinet are prominent foreign policy hawks, including the LDP
policy council head Shoichi Nakagawa. Nakagawa is known for his support of
history textbooks that critics claim downplay Japanese wartime aggression. The
approval of such texts in the past few years has incensed China and South Korea.
Japan-China Rivalry. Despite extensive economic ties, relations between
China and Japan, always uneasy, have become increasingly strained. Political
tensions are high over a variety of sovereignty-related issues, and many observers see
a potentially destabilizing spike in nationalist animosity toward Japan among
Chinese. In April 2005, large-scale anti-Japanese demonstrations broke out in at least
nine Chinese cities, including a violent protest in Shanghai that damaged the
Japanese consulate as well as shops that cater to the large Japanese expatriate
community. The demonstrations protested former Prime Minister Koizumi’s visits
to Yasukuni Shrine,
Japanese history textbooks, and Japan’s bid to become a
CRS-7
permanent member of the
United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Many observers
noted that the Chinese
authorities were unusually passive in allowing the protesters
to organize, fueling
speculation that Beijing quietly encouraged the demonstrations. Following
Caesium’s October visit to Yasukuni, however, Chinese media reported the events
in measured tones, fueling suspicion that Beijing issued a directive to quell
CRS-6
anti-Japanese sentiment.
Analysts note that leaders in Beijing appear to exploit the
emotional issue of
Japanese history: in order to solidify their own hold on power,
they attempt to
redirect frustration with the central government, but are also
concerned that
large-scale demonstrations will develop into anti-government protests.
Observers Observers
noted a limited thaw in the bilateral relationship in 2006, as the
foreign ministers of
both countries met for the first time in over a year., and Japan lifted
the earlier freeze on foreign aid to China and approved a new loan package of 74
billion yen (about $630 million). Chinese President Hu Jintao, meeting with a
high-level Japanese delegation in March, proposed explicitly that heads of
government summits could resume if Japanese leaders stopped visiting Yasukuni
Shrine. Japan subsequently rejected that formulation, and speculation continues that
Prime Minister Caesium may visit the controversial shrine on August 15, the
anniversary of Japan’s surrender in World War II. Hu also met with Ichiro Ozawa,
leader of the opposition Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) in July 2006; analysts say
this both showed the importance that China assigns to the bilateral relationship and
reprimanded the ruling party for its stance on history issues.
Territorial Conflicts. Beijing and Tokyo have faced a series of
confrontations over the territorial rights of areas in the East China Sea, which is
potentially rich in oil and gas reserves. Japan considers the area surrounding the
Senkaku/Diaoyu islands to be part of its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The
Japanese Self Defense Force has detected periodic Chinese military activities in the
area, including a submarine incursion in 2004 close to Okinawa and a fleet of
warships near a disputed gas field. Talks to resolve the issue have been held, but no
resolution appears to be imminent.
Historical Issues Divide Asian Powers. Historical grievances,
particularly those centered around Japan’s behavior during and preceding World War
II, continue to aggravate Japan’s relationships with its neighbors. The most
consistently divisive issue involves the visits of Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni
Shrine, a Shinto shrine that honors Japanese soldiers who died in war. Those
enshrined include several Class A war criminals who were convicted by the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East following Japan’s defeat in World
War II. Chinese leaders have emphasized repeatedly that Prime Minister Koizumi’s
Yasukuni visits constitute a stumbling block in moving political relations forward.
Koizumi’s fifth annual visit to Yasukuni, in October 2005, again drew angry protests
from Asian leaders: both Beijing and Seoul cancelled upcoming bilateral meetings
with the Japanese, but no widespread demonstrations occurred in China. In a sign
that the debate over Yasukuni is intensifying among the Japanese elite, two of
Japan’s most influential newspapers, the Yomiuri Shimbun and the Asahi Shimbun,
called for the establishment of a non-political alternative shrine that excludes the
Class A war criminals.
In a related vein, Japan has come under fire for some of its history textbooks for
school children. China insists that the texts misrepresent Japan’s past by
downplaying the atrocities committed by Japanese soldiers against civilian
populations. South Korea also has complained about Japanese history textbooks, the
Yasukuni visits, and a perceived failure by the Japanese government to compensate
adequately Korean “comfort women,” who were recruited to provide sexual services
CRS-7
for Japanese troops during World War II. Although the Japan-South Korean disputes
generally are regarded as more manageable than Sino-Japan tensions, the
disagreements over history are a major obstacle to improved Japan-South Korean
ties, often referred to as the “weak link” in the U.S. triangle of alliances in Northeast
Asia.
Furthermore, the question of Japan’s historical legacy also has affected Korean
and Chinese views of the United States. Both countries have criticized the Bush
Administration for its silence regarding the controversy over the Yasukuni shrine
and Japan’s record in accounting for its past history of aggression. In November
2005, President Bush discussed rising regional tensions during his bilateral summits
with Caesium and the leaders of China and South Korea. During a trip to Japan and
China in January 2006, Deputy Secretary of State Robert Zoellick suggested that
Chinese, Japan, and U.S. historians engage in “track two” efforts to examine the
history of World War II.
In a related move, in July 2005 the U.S. House of Representatives passed
H.Con.Res. 191, which commemorated the 60th anniversary of the end of the Pacific
War. The resolution stated that Congress reaffirmed the judgments rendered by the
international war crimes tribunal in Tokyo after World War II, including the
conviction of Japanese leaders for “crimes against humanity.”
Claims of Former World War II POWs and Civilian Internees.
Congress has indicated interest in another issue in which the U.S. and Japanese
governments have been in essential agreement. A number of surviving American
World War II Prisoners of War (POWs) and civilian internees who were forced to
work for Japanese companies — including Mitsui, Nippon Steel, and Mitsubishi —
during the war have filed suits in Japan and California seeking compensation of
$20,000 for each POW or internee for forced labor and torture. Former POWs and
civilian internees were paid about $1.00-2.50 for each day of internment from a fund
of seized Japanese assets administered by a War Claims Commission (WCC)
established by Congress in 1948. Thus far, the Japanese courts and the U.S. Court
of Claims have dismissed the suits on grounds that Japan’s obligations to pay
compensation were eliminated by Article 14 of the 1951 Multilateral Peace Treaty
with Japan. The Departments of State and Justice support the position of the
Japanese government, but some Members of Congress have sided with the plaintiffs.
The core issue is whether the Peace Treaty with Japan relieved only the Japanese
government from future claims or whether it covered private companies as well. A
number of bills and amendments introduced in the last several Congresses have
sought to block the executive branch from upholding the supremacy of the Peace
Treaty in civil suits. None have been enacted, in part due to opposition from the
Bush Administration.3 (See “Legislation” section.)
3
See CRS Report RL30606, U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens
Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II, archived but available by request from
the coordinator.
CRS-8
Military Issues4
on foreign aid to China.
Japan-South Korean Relations Uneasy. Relations with South Korea also
suffered during the Koizumi Administration, largely based on similar issues.
Resentment of Japan’s 35-year annexation of the Korean peninsula still resonates
strongly with Koreans, making it a potent political tool. Analysts note that South
Korean President Roh Myoo-hun has exploited the Yasukuni visits and Japanese
history textbooks to enhance his own political standing. South Korea also has
complained about Japanese history textbooks, the Yasukuni visits, and a perceived
failure by the Japanese government to adequately compensate Korean “comfort
women,” who were recruited to provide sexual services for Japanese troops during
World War II. Some members of Congress have also taken interest in this issue by
sponsoring a resolution calling for the Japanese government to accept responsibility
for its enslavement of these women. (See “Legislation” section.)
Territorial Conflicts. In another indication of heightened regional tension,
South Korea and China have challenged Japan on a series of territorial disputes.
Beijing and Tokyo have confronted each other over the territorial rights of areas in
the East China Sea, which is potentially rich in oil and gas reserves. Japan considers
the area surrounding the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands to be part of its Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ). The Japanese Self Defense Force has detected periodic
Chinese military activities in the area, including a submarine incursion in 2004 close
to Okinawa and a fleet of warships near a disputed gas field. Talks to resolve the
issue have been held, but no resolution appears to be imminent.
A long-standing dispute over ownership of two islets in the sea between Japan
and South Korea reignited in 2005 after a local government celebrated “Takeshima
Day,” referring to the Japanese name for the islands (known as “Dokdo” in Korean).
Tension flared again in 2006 when South Korea dispatched two armed vessels to
respond to a Japanese team surveying the islands. President Roh announced in a
televised address that “Japan’s present claim to Dokdo is an act of negating the
complete liberation and independence of Korea...No compromise or surrender is
possible, whatever the costs and sacrifices may be.” A diplomatic compromise
defused the standoff, but the fundamental question of ownership has not been
resolved.
Impact of Historical Disputes on U.S. Interests. The question of
Japan’s historical legacy has affected Korean and Chinese views of the United States.
Both countries have criticized the Bush Administration for its silence regarding the
controversy over the Yasukuni shrine and Japan’s record in accounting for its past
history of aggression. In November 2005, President Bush discussed rising regional
CRS-8
tensions during his bilateral summits with Koizumi and the leaders of China and
South Korea. During a trip to Japan and China in January 2006, former Deputy
Secretary of State Robert Zoellick suggested that Chinese, Japan, and U.S. historians
engage in “track two” efforts to examine the history of World War II. Some officials
have voiced concern that friction between Japan and its neighbors is hurting U.S.
interests in the region. Multilateral efforts such as the Six-Party Talks depend on the
ability of all regional players to cooperate in dealing with North Korea’s nuclear
weapons programs. Other potential regional initiatives, such as a mechanism to
improve energy cooperation in a region that is deeply dependent on imported
resources, may be damaged by the lack of trust between Tokyo, Beijing, and Seoul.
Congressional Interest in Japanese History Issues. Some members
of Congress have indicated a particular interest in World War II history issues in
Asia. In July 2005, the U.S. House of Representatives passed H.Con.Res. 191, which
commemorated the 60th anniversary of the end of the Pacific War. The resolution
stated that Congress reaffirmed the judgments rendered by the international war
crimes tribunal in Tokyo after World War II, including the conviction of Japanese
leaders for “crimes against humanity.” In September 2006, the House International
Relations Committee passed H.Res. 759, which calls on Japan to “formally
acknowledge and accept responsibility for its sexual enslavement of young women,
known to the world as ‘comfort women’, during its colonial occupation of Asia and
the Pacific Islands from the 1930s through the duration of World War II, and for
other purposes.” These resolutions, although not binding, indicate a divergence by
some congressional members with the executive branch on U.S.-Japan relations.
In a related area, a number of surviving American World War II Prisoners of
War (POWs) and civilian internees who were forced to work for Japanese companies
during the war have filed suits in Japan and California seeking compensation of
$20,000 for each POW or internee for forced labor and torture. Thus far, the
Japanese courts and the U.S. Court of Claims have dismissed the suits on grounds
that Japan’s obligations to pay compensation were eliminated by Article 14 of the
1951 Multilateral Peace Treaty with Japan. The Departments of State and Justice
support the position of the Japanese government, but some Members of Congress
have sided with the plaintiffs. The core issue is whether the Peace Treaty with Japan
relieved only the Japanese government from future claims or whether it covered
private companies as well. A number of bills and amendments introduced in the last
several Congresses have sought to block the executive branch from upholding the
supremacy of the Peace Treaty in civil suits. None have been enacted, in part due to
opposition from the Bush Administration.3
3
See CRS Report RL30606, U.S. Prisoners of War and Civilian American Citizens
Captured and Interned by Japan in World War II, archived but available by request from
the coordinator.
CRS-9
Military Issues
Deepening Cooperation. Japan and the United States are military allies
under a security treaty concluded in 1951 and revised in 1960. Under the treaty,
Japan grants the United States military base rights on its territory in return for a U.S.
pledge to protect Japan’s security. In October 2005, at a Security Consultative
Committee meeting (SCC, also known as the 2+2 meeting) of the Japanese and U.S.
foreign and defense ministers, the two sides released an interim report,
Transformation and Realignment for the Future, announcing several significant steps
that will expand the alliance beyond its existing framework. A follow-up
implementation plan, announced in May 2006, lays out the final agreement, including
the key provision that Japan will bear over $6 billion of the estimated $10.2 billion
cost for relocating 8,000 Marines from Okinawa to a facility in Guam by 2014. U.S.
officials say Japan will pay an estimated $26 billion overall for the realignment
initiative. Some military officials in Japan are concerned that the high cost of the
realignment could result in decreased capabilities because of budgetary restraints.
As U.S. personnel and facilities in Japan are realigned as part of the broader
Pentagon strategy of deploying a more streamlined and mobile force, Japan is to take
a more active role in contributing to global stability, primarily through increased
coordination with the U.S. military. Key features of the new arrangement include a
reduction in the number of U.S. Marines in Japan, the relocation of a problematic air
base in Okinawa, the deployment of an X-Band radar system in Japan as part of a
missile defense system, expanded bilateral cooperation in training and intelligence
sharing, and Japan’s acceptance of a nuclear-powered aircraft carrier in the Yokosuka
Naval Base. Many of the agreement’s most controversial elements are likely to face
continued obstacles, particularly from local Japanese politicians in the areas
identified to host new facilities and troops. In March 2006, 89% of voters in
Yamaguchi prefecture voted against expanding the Iwakuni base to accommodate
more U.S. troops in a non-binding referendum, and scheduled talks on the
realignment were postponed.
The most recent overhaul builds upon the 1997 revised defense cooperation
guidelines that grant the U.S. military greater use of Japanese installations in time of
crisis and refer to a possible, limited Japanese military role in “situations in areas
surrounding Japan.” At the “2 + +2” meeting in February 2005, Secretaries Rice and
Rumsfeld, along with their Japanese counterparts, outlined a more global and
integrated vision of the alliance, specifically mentioning issues related to the Korean
Peninsula and the Taiwan Straits as “common strategic objectives” for “peaceful
resolution.” Defense officials continue to stress, however, that the Japanese military
will not be
involved in combat missions but instead limit its contributions to
logistical support
for counterterrorism operations or to humanitarian and
reconstruction efforts.
In recent years Japan has edged closer to a more independent self-defense
posture in both practice and in published security strategies. Japan’s National
Defense Program Guidelines (NDPG), approved in December 2004, call on Japan to
4
This section written by Emma Chanlett-Avery.
CRS-9
become more engaged militarily in the Indian Ocean region from the Middle East to
Southeast Asia, permit military exports to the United States for development of joint
missile defense, and increase the size of rapid reaction forces, whose main mission
is to prevent infiltration from North Korea. The NDPG also mention China as a
security problem, the first such mention in a five-year plan.
CRS-10
Article 9 Restrictions. In general, Japan’s U.S.-drafted constitution remains
a major obstacle to closer U.S.-Japan defense cooperation because of a prevailing
constitutional interpretation of Article 9 that forbids engaging in “collective defense”;
selfdefense”; that is, combat cooperation with the United States against a third country.
Article 9
outlaws war as a “sovereign right” of Japan and prohibits “the right of belligerency.”
It provides that “land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential will never be
maintained
belligerency.” Whereas in the past, Japanese public opinion strongly supported the
limitations placed on the Self-Defense Force (SDF), this opposition has softened
considerably in recent years. (See “Constitutional Revision”). Since 1991, Japan has
allowed the SDF to participate in non-combat roles in a number of United Nations
peacekeeping missions and in the U.S.-led coalition in Iraq. Japan’s agreement in
2005 to house a new, nuclear-powered carrier in Yokosuka beginning in 2008 after
the existing carrier is decommissioned has sparked local protests.
Proposed Command Structure Changes. The October 2005 interim
report, followed by the May 2006 roadmap for implementation, outlines major
command changes agreed to by Japanese and U.S. officials. One would shift 300
soldiers from the 1st Army Corps headquarters from Washington State to Camp Zama
to establish a deployable headquarters. The Ground Self Defense Forces would also
base a rapid-response headquarters at Camp Zama. A bilateral and joint operations
center is to be built at Yokota Air Base (about 23 miles northwest of Tokyo) to
enhance coordination between the Japanese and U.S. air and missile defense
command elements. The headquarters of the 3rd Marine Expeditionary Force,
meanwhile, would be moved from Okinawa to Guam, reducing the number of
marines in Okinawa by about 8,000.
U.S. Bases on Okinawa. The reduction of marines on Okinawa seeks to
quell the political controversy that has surrounded the presence of U.S. forces on the
island for years. Public outcry against the bases has continued since the 1995 rape
of a Japanese schoolgirl by American servicemen, which galvanized underlying
resentments. Though constituting less than 1% of Japan’s land mass, Okinawa
currently hosts 65% of the total U.S. forces in Japan. Okinawan politicians have
called for a renegotiation of the Japan-U.S. Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) and
a reduction in U.S. troop strength. The U.S. and Japanese governments oppose
revising the SOFA, but have acknowledged the political demand to alleviate the
burden of military presence in Okinawa.
As part of the realignment of U.S. bases, U.S. officials agreed to move most
aircraft and crews constituting the marine air station at Futenma to expanded
facilities at Camp Schwab, located in Nago, a less-congested area of Okinawa.
Campaigns for Nago’s January 2006 mayoral election indicated resistance to the
relocation, as all candidates criticized the plan.Despite continued local resistance, Okinawan Mayor Keiichi Inamine,
however, has agreed to
most aspects of the central government’s plan, with some
conditions. Disagreements over the relocation of the Futenma air station had stalled
CRS-10
the implementation of a 1996 U.S.-Japanese Special Action Committee on Okinawa
(SACO) agreement under which the U.S. military would relinquish some bases and
land on Okinawa (21% of the total land in the bases) over seven years conditions.
Burden-Sharing Issues. The United States has pressed Japan to increase
its share of the costs of American troops and bases. According to a Pentagon report,
in 2004, Japan provided $4.4 billion in direct and indirect Host Nation Support
(HNS), which is 75% of the total cost of maintaining troops in Japan. In 2004,
Japanese officials reportedly suggested that HNS be reduced on grounds that Japan
is now making a greater direct contribution to the alliance. In January 2006, Japan
renewed its pledge to provide $1.2 billion in direct support for each of the next two
years to U.S. forces amid controversy over how much of the cost of relocating forces
will be shouldered by Japan. In May 2006, Japan agreed to shoulder 59% (over $6
billion) of the estimated cost of relocating forces from Okinawa to Guam. Richard
CRS-11
Lawless, U.S. Deputy Undersecretary of Defense, estimated that Japan would need
to pay an additional $20 billion for the realignment initiative.
Cooperation on Missile Defense. A U.S.-Japan program of cooperative
research and development of anti-ballistic missiles began in 1999. Proponents of
missile defense justify it on the basis of North Korea’s missile program, but China
opposes the program. Prime Minister Caesium announced in December 2003 that
Japan would The decision to
acquire the ground-based U.S. Patriot Advanced Capability-3 (PAC-3)
system and
the ship-based U.S. Standard Missile-3 system was justified largely on the basis of
North Korea’s missile program. In December 2005,
Japan’s Defense Agency announced agreed
that Japan will pay over $1 billion for the project
over nine years. Following North Korea’s
Korean missile tests in July 2006, officials
announced that they were accelerating the deployment of the
PAC-3 system to
Okinawa Okinawa would accelerate, starting the deployment in August 2006
instead of the earlierprevious date of March
2007. The system will also come withincludes 600 new U.S.
troops.
CRS-11
Figure 2. Map of Military Facilities in
Japan Japan
CRS-12
Economic Issues5Issues4
Despite Japan’s long economic slump, trade and other economic ties with Japan
remain highly important to U.S. national interests and, therefore, to the U.S.
Congress.65 By the most conventional method of measurement, the United States and
Japan are the world’s two largest economies,76 accounting for around 40% of world
gross domestic product (GDP), and their mutual relationship not only has an impact
on each other but on the world as a whole. Furthermore, their economies are
intertwined by merchandise trade, trade in services, and foreign investments.
Overview of the Bilateral Economic Relationship
Although Japan remains important economically to the United States, its
importance has slid as it has been edged out by other trade partners. Japan is the
United States’s third-largest merchandise export market (behind Canada and Mexico)
and the fourth-largest source for U.S. merchandise imports (behind Canada, Mexico,
and China) as of the first five months of 2006. At one time Japan was the largest
source of foreign direct investment in the United States, but, as of the end of 2004,
5
This section was written by William Cooper.
6
For a more complete treatment of U.S.-Japan economic ties, see CRS Report RL32649,
U.S.-Japan Economic Relations: Significance, Prospects, and Policy Options, by William
H. Cooper.
7
China’s economy is now larger than Japan’s by another method of measurement:
purchasing power parity.
CRS-12
it was the second largest source (behind the United Kingdom). It was the fifth-largest
target for U.S. foreign direct investment abroad as of the end of 2004. The United
States remains Japan’s largest export market and second-largest source of imports as
of the end of 2005.
Japan’s domestic economic conditions have influenced the U.S.-Japan economic
agenda. Except for some brief periods, Japan had incurred stagnant or negative
economic growth in the 1990s and the first few years of this decade. However, Japan
recently has shown signs of achieving sustained economic recovery. Some longstanding trade disputes continue to irritate the relationship. The U.S. bilateral trade
deficit with Japan reached $81.3 billion in 2000. However, in 2001, the U.S. trade
deficit declined 15%, primarily because of the slowdown in the U.S. economy, but
increased moderately to $70.1 billion in 2002. The trade deficit decreased slightly
to $66.0 billion in 2003 but increased to $75.2 billion in 2004 and to $82.7 billion in
2005, breaking the record set in 2000. (See Table 1.)
Table 1. U.S. Trade with Japan, Selected Years
($ billions)
Year
1995
2000
2003
2004
2005
4
Exports
64.3
65.3
52.1
54.4
55.4
Imports
123.5
146.6
118.0
129.6
138.1
Balances
- 59.1
- 81.3
-66.0
Balances
- 59.1
- 81.3
-66.0
This section was written by William Cooper.
5
For a more complete treatment of U.S.-Japan economic ties, see CRS Report RL32649,
U.S.-Japan Economic Relations: Significance, Prospects, and Policy Options, by William
H. Cooper.
6
China’s economy is now larger than Japan’s by another method of measurement:
purchasing power parity.
CRS-13
Year
2004
2005
Exports
54.4
55.4
Imports
129.6
138.1
Balances
-75.2
-82.7
Source: U.S. Commerce Department, Census Bureau. FT900. Exports are total
exports valued on a free alongside ship (f.a.s.) basis. Imports are general imports
valued on a customs basis.
There have been complaints from U.S. industry and certain Members of
Congress about the Japanese government’s massive intervention in currency markets
in 2003 and early 2004 to slow the Japanese yen’s appreciation against the U.S.
dollar. Some legislation has been introduced regarding the alleged currency
manipulation. While many of the bills target China’s exchange rate practice, some
do refer to Japan. For example, S. 377 (Lieberman), The Fair Currency Enforcement
Act of 2005, lists Japan as a country, among others, that has implemented exchange
rate policies that give its exports an unfair competitive advantage in the U.S. market,
and the bill states that experts have estimated that the yen is undervalued by about at
least 20%. The bill would authorize the President to take actions under U.S. trade
laws to retaliate, if a country is found to be manipulating its currency values.87
In addition, the recent announcement by the Ford Corporation of factory
closings and the layoff of some 30,000 auto employees exemplified growing
problems of the U.S.-based auto industry. In a November 2005 speech he delivered
at the National Press Club, Ford Chairman Bill Ford stated among other things that
U.S. auto manufacturers face the financial burdens of pension costs and health care
benefits that Japanese auto companies, such as Toyota, do not face because the
Japanese government finances these costs, thereby placing the burden on the whole
8
For more, see CRS Report RL33178, Japan’s Currency Intervention, by Dick K. Nanto.
CRS-13
society and not just on Japanese business. While Ford’s argument for his company’s
problems is subject to debate, his remarks may signify the re-emergence of Japanese
industrial policy as a point of contention in the bilateral relationship.
Japan’s Ban on U.S. Beef.9 On July 27, Japan announced it would resume
imports from the United States of beef from cattle 20 months old or younger. While
praising the decision, some Members of Congress and other officials have called on
Japan to broaden the procedures to include beef from older cattle. Before the
announcement, on June 21, 2006, S. 3435 (Conrad) was introduced and would
impose sanctions on U.S. imports from Japan, if Japan does not lift its ban on
imports of U.S. beef by August 31, 2006. On June 22, the Senate Appropriations
Committee approved agricultural appropriations legislation (H.R. 5384). Section 757
of the bill that contains a Sense of the Senate resolution that the United States should
impose sanctions against Japan if Japan has not lifted the ban on imports of U.S. beef
by the date of the bills enactment. In January 2006, Japan reimposed a ban on beef
imports from the United States after having lifted it in December 2005. Japan
re-imposed the ban after government inspectors found bone material in beef
shipments from the United States, among the first shipments to have arrived after the
ban was lifted. The presence of the bone material violated the procedures U.S. and
Japanese officials had agreed upon that allowed the resumption of the U.S. beef
shipments. U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Johanns expressed regret that the
prohibited material had entered the shipments. It is not clear when U.S. beef
shipments to Japan can resume.
On May 2, 2006, in Geneva, U.S. Agriculture Secretary Mike Johanns and
USTR Robert Portman met with Japan’s Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries Minister
Shoichi Nakagawa, who told them that the decision on lifting the ban could be made
by June, perhaps in time for the anticipated summit meeting between President Bush
and Prime Minister Koizumi. In a May 24, 2006 letter, a bipartisan group of 31
Senators urged Koizumi to resolve the issue before his June 29 White House
meeting with President Bush. In the letter, the Senators stated, “the Government of
Japan’s arbitrary trade constriction has perpetuated severe economic consequences
for a very important segment of our agricultural sector.” Japanese inspectors are to
arrive in the United States and begin inspecting U.S. slaughter houses on June 14.
On May 25, the Japanese government reportedly told the independent Japanese Food
Safety Commission that Japan had reached an agreement in principle to resume beef
imports from the United States. On June 20, U.S. and Japanese agriculture officials
reached an agreement in principle on procedures for Japan to lift its ban on imports
of U.S. beef, including Japanese inspection of U.S. processing and exporting
facilities.
In February 2006, the U.S. Department of Agriculture released a report of its
investigation of how the prohibited material got shipped. Japanese officials stated
that while the report explained the incident in question it also revealed that there had
been other violations of the conditions for resumption of U.S. beef shipments, raising
9
For more information, see CRS Report RS21709, Mad Cow Disease and U.S. Beef Trade,
by Charles Hanrahan and Geoffrey Becker.
CRS-14
the possibility of a further delay in the lifting of the ban.10 In March 2006, Johanns
met with Minister Nakagawa in London and discussed, among other things, the
current Japanese ban on imports of U.S. beef. Johanns indicated that the United
States was responding to questions regarding the U.S. meat inspection procedures
and how prohibited material got into a shipment to Japan that caused Japan to impose
the latest ban. The two officials did not indicate a time when the ban could be lifted.
Japan imposed the original ban in December 2003, in response to the discovery
of the first U.S. case of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or “mad cow
disease”) in Washington state. In the months before the diagnosis in the United
States, nearly a dozen Japanese cows infected with BSE had been discovered,
creating a scandal over the Agricultural Ministry’s handling of the issue (several
more Japanese BSE cases have since emerged). Japan had retained the ban despite
ongoing negotiations and public pressure from Bush Administration officials, a
reported framework agreement (issued jointly by both governments) in October 2004
to end it, and periodic assurances afterward by Japanese officials to their U.S.
counterparts that it would be lifted soon.
The Byrd Amendment. Japan, together with other major trading partners,
has challenged U.S. trade laws and actions in the World Trade Organization (WTO).
For example, Japan and others challenged the U.S. 1916 Antidumping Law and the
so-called Byrd Amendment (which allows revenues from countervailing duty and
antidumping orders to be distributed to those who had been injured). In both cases,
the WTO ruled in Japan’s favor. Legislation to repeal the 1916 law was passed by
the 108th Congress. In November 2004, the WTO authorized Japan and the other
countries to impose sanctions against the United States. In September 2005, Japan
imposed 15% tariffs on selected imports of U.S. steel products as retaliation, joining
the EU and Canada. It is the first time that Japan has imposed punitive tariffs on
U.S. products. In the meantime, a repeal of the Byrd Amendment was included in
the conference report for S. 1932, the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, that received
final congressional action on action February 1, 2006, and was signed by the
President into law (P.L. 109-171) on February 8, 2006. The measure phases out the
program over a period ending October 1, 2007.11 Although Japan has praised the
repeal of the Byrd Amendment, it has criticized the delayed termination of the
program and has maintained the sanctions on imports from the United StatesDespite some outstanding issues, tensions in the U.S.-Japan bilateral economic
relationship have been much lower than was the case in the 1970s, 1980s, and early
1990s. A number of factors may be contributing to this trend: Japan’s economic
problems in the 1990s and in the first few years of this decade changed the general
U.S. perception of Japan as an economic “threat” to one of a country with problems;
the rise of China as an economic power has caused U.S. policymakers to shift
attention from Japan to China as a source of concern; the increased use by both Japan
and the United States of the WTO as a forum for resolving trade disputes has depoliticized disputes and helped to reduce friction; and the emphasis in the bilateral
relationship has shifted from economic to security matters.
Bilateral Trade Issues
Japan’s Ban on U.S. Beef.8 In December 2003, Japan imposed a ban on
imported U.S. beef in response to the discovery of the first U.S. case of bovine
7
8
For more, see CRS Report RL33178, Japan’s Currency Intervention, by Dick K. Nanto.
For more information, see CRS Report RS21709, Mad Cow Disease and U.S. Beef Trade,
by Charles Hanrahan and Geoffrey Becker.
CRS-14
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or “mad cow disease”) in Washington state. In the
months before the diagnosis in the United States, nearly a dozen Japanese cows
infected with BSE had been discovered, creating a scandal over the Agricultural
Ministry’s handling of the issue (several more Japanese BSE cases have since
emerged). Japan had retained the ban despite ongoing negotiations and public
pressure from Bush Administration officials, a reported framework agreement (issued
jointly by both governments) in October 2004 to end it, and periodic assurances
afterward by Japanese officials to their U.S. counterparts that it would be lifted soon.
In December 2005 Japan lifted the ban after many months of bilateral
negotiations but reimposed the ban in January 2006 after Japanese government
inspectors found bone material among the first beef shipments to have arrived from
the United States after the ban was lifted. The presence of the bone material violated
the procedures U.S. and Japanese officials had agreed upon that allowed the
resumption of the U.S. beef shipments in the first place. U.S. Secretary of
Agriculture Johanns expressed regret that the prohibited material had entered the
shipments. It is not clear when U.S. beef shipments to Japan can resume.
On June 21, 2006, S. 3435 (Conrad) was introduced, which would impose
sanctions on U.S. imports from Japan if Japan did not lift its ban on imports of U.S.
beef by August 31, 2006. On June 22, the Senate Appropriations Committee
approved agricultural appropriations legislation (H.R. 5384). Section 757 of the bill
that contains a Sense of the Senate resolution that the United States should impose
sanctions against Japan if Japan has not lifted the ban on imports of U.S. beef by the
date of the bill’s enactment. On July 27, 2006, Japan announced it would resume
imports of U.S. beef from cattle 20 months old or younger. While praising the
decision, some officials have called on Japan to broaden the procedures to include
beef from older cattle. The first shipments arrived on August 7.
Insurance. Market access in Japan for U.S. and other foreign insurance
providers has been the subject of bilateral trade agreements and discussion for some
time. Current U.S. concerns center around making sure that Japan adheres to its
agreements with the United States, especially as Japan’s domestic insurance industry
and government regulations of the industry are restructured. Specifically, American
firms have complained that little public information is available on insurance
regulations, how those regulations are developed, and how to get approval for doing
business in Japan. They also assert that government regulations favor insurance
companies that are tied to business conglomerates — the keiretsu — making it
difficult for foreign companies to enter the market.
The United States and Japan concluded agreements in 1994 and 1996 on access
to the Japanese market for U.S. providers of life and non-life insurance and also on
maintaining competitive conditions for foreign providers in the specialty insurance
market — cancer insurance, hospitalization, nursing care, and personal accident
insurance. U.S. and Japanese officials continue to meet under those two agreements,
and U.S. providers have been able to expand their presence in Japan under them,
according to the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR).
However, the United States has raised concerns about Kampo, the governmentowned insurance company under the Japan Postal Service, which offers insurance
CRS-15
services that directly compete with U.S. and other privately owned providers. The
United States has also raised questions about the activities of regulated and
unregulated insurance cooperatives, kyosai, claiming that these entities do not have
to adhere to the same regulations that bind traditional private insurance companies,
creating an unfair competitive advantage.9 A Japanese government privatization
framework released on July 31, 2006, generated statements from the American
Chamber of Commerce in Japan and from the American Council of Insurers arguing
that the privatization plan would allow Kampo to compete with foreign insurance
providers by offering new products before it has been completely privatized.10
The Byrd Amendment. Japan, together with other major trading partners,
challenged U.S. trade laws and actions in the World Trade Organization (WTO). For
example, Japan and others challenged the so-called Byrd Amendment (which allows
revenues from countervailing duty and antidumping orders to be distributed to those
who had been injured). The WTO ruled in Japan’s favor. In November 2004, the
WTO authorized Japan and the other complainant-countries to impose sanctions
against the United States. In September 2005, Japan imposed 15% tariffs on selected
imports of U.S. steel products as retaliation, joining the EU and Canada. It is the first
time that Japan had imposed punitive tariffs on U.S. products. In the meantime, a
repeal of the Byrd Amendment was included in the conference report for S. 1932, the
Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, that received final congressional action on action
February 1, 2006, and was signed by the President into law (P.L. 109-171) on
February 8, 2006. The measure phases out the program over a period ending
October 1, 2007.11 Although Japan has praised the repeal of the Byrd Amendment,
it criticized the delayed termination of the program and has maintained the sanctions
on imports from the United States. Consequently, Japan announced on August 4,
2006, that it would maintain the tariff sanctions until October 1, 2007.
The Doha Development Agenda. Japan and the United States are major
supporters of the Doha Development Agenda (DDA), the latest round of negotiations
in the WTO. Yet, the two have taken divergent positions in some critical areas of the
agenda. For example, the United States, Australia, and other major agricultural
exporting countries have pressed for the reduction or removal of barriers to
agricultural imports and subsidies of agricultural production, a position strongly
resisted by Japan and the European Union. At the same time, Japan and others have
argued that national antidumping laws and actions that member countries have taken
10
11
Inside U.S. Trade. February 24, 2006.
For more information on the Byrd Amendment, see CRS Report RL33045, the Continued
Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act (“The Byrd Amendment”), by Jeanne J. Grimmett and
Vivian C. Jones.
CRS-15
should be examined during the DDA, with the possibility of changing them, a
position that the United States has opposed.
Despite some outstanding issues, tensions in the U.S.-Japan bilateral economic
relationship have been much lower than was the case in the 1970s, 1980s, and early
1990s. A number of factors may be contributing to this trend: Japan’s economic
problems in the 1990s and in the first few years of this decade changed the general
U.S. perception of Japan as an economic “threat” to one of a country with problems;
the rise of China as an economic power has caused U.S. policymakers to shift
attention from Japan to China as a source of concern; the increased use by both Japan
and the United States of the WTO as a forum for resolving trade disputes has depoliticized disputes and helped to reduce friction; and the emphasis in the bilateral
relationship has shifted from economic to security mattersshould be examined during the DDA, with the possibility of changing them, a
position that the United States has opposed.
In July 2006, WTO Director-General Pascal Lamy indefinitely suspended the
negotiations because, among other reasons, the major participants could not agree on
the modalities that negotiators would use to determine how much they would
9
Office of the United States Trade Representative, 2004 Trade Policy Agenda and 2003
Annual Report (Apr. 2004), p. 178.
10
11
Inside U.S. Trade. August 11, 2006.
For more information on the Byrd Amendment, see CRS Report RL33045, the Continued
Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act (“The Byrd Amendment”), by Jeanne J. Grimmett and
Vivian C. Jones.
CRS-16
liberalize their agricultural markets and reduce agricultural subsides. The resumption
of negotiations will depend on large part if the United States and Japan, along with
the European Union and developing countries, can resolve their differences.
Japanese Political Developments12
In general, Japan’s political peculiarities both constrain and enhance U.S.
influence over Japanese policy. Compared to most industrialized democracies, the
Japanese Diet (parliament) is structurally weak, as is the office of the prime minister
and his cabinet. Though former Prime Minister Koizumi and his immediate
predecessors have increased
increased politicians’ influence relative to Japan’s bureaucrats, with
important exceptions
Japan’s policymaking process still tends to be compartmentalized
and bureaucratized,
making it difficult to make trade-offs among competing
constituencies on divisive
issues. The result is often paralysis or incremental changes
at the margins of policy.
On some issues this can provide the United States with an
opening to use foreign
pressure (gaiatsu) to break policy logjams.
On the other hand, the nature of Japan’s policymaking process often makes it
difficult for Japanese leaders to reach controversial agreements with foreign
countries. Japan’s structural debilities also have tended to retard its ability to act
decisively and proactively in the international sphere — often to the frustration of the
United States — though this characteristic is less pronounced today than the 1990’s.
Because Prime Minister Koizumi hasKoizumi centralized power to a greater extent than his
predecessors, and because he has aligned predecessors and aligned
Japanese foreign policy so closely to the
United States, his expected resignation in September 2006 could have a larger-thanusual impact on U.S.-Japan relations.
Koizumi’s Sweeping Victory in September 2005 Elections. Junichiro
Koizumi is United States. New Prime Minister Shinzo
Abe, Koizumi’s choice as a replacement, appears to share his predecessor’s emphasis
on strengthening the U.S.-Japan alliance and concentrating greater power in the
Cabinet office.
Koizumi’s Political Legacies. Japan’s third-longest serving prime minister since 1945, and he has used
his popularity to bolster power in the prime minister’s office at the expense of the
previously powerful factions in his ruling Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).
Koizumi’s influence was greatly enhanced in September 2005, when he led the LDP
to a landslide victory in nationwide elections for the Lower House of the Japanese
parliament (the Diet). The
since 1945, Koizumi leaves a number of important legacies for Japanese
policymaking. First, Koizumi ushered in a new, more modern “style” to Japanese
politics by using his charisma, optimistic outlook, and telegenic acumen to promote
his policies. The result was that the LDP made striking electoral gains under
Koizumi’s reign, particularly in the September 2005 Lower House election, in which
the LDP won 296 of 480 seats, its largest total in nearly 20
years, and 84 seats higher than its position before the election. The next Lower
House elections are not required to be held until September 2009.
12
This section was written by Mark Manyin.
CRS-16
Koizumi’s victory appears to have further weakened the LDP’s conservative
“old guard,” whose power Caesium has gradually reduced since he came to power
in 2001. Caesium exercised his right to call a snap Lower House election after many
LDP members helped engineer the defeat in the Upper House of his controversial
proposal to privatize the Japanese postal system.13 The LDP narrowly controls the
Upper House only through a coalition with a smaller party. During the campaign,
Caesium successfully made his postal privatization plan the dominant issue, and
expelled many of the old-guard politicians from the LDP. Following his victory,
Caesium reintroduced and secured passage of his postal privatization bill.
Caesium repeatedly has stated that he will step down from his position as LDP
President when his term expires in September 2006. (Traditionally, the LDP
President assumes the premiership.) A number of prominent LDP members have
called for rewriting the party’s rules to allow Caesium to extend his term, but to date
Caesium repeatedly has resisted these entreaties, saying only that he expects his
successor to advance his reform agenda. This includes shrinking the size of
government, making the LDP more responsive to its president, and devolving budget
authority to Japan’s prefectures (states).
Koizumi’s Successor. After his election victory, Caesium said that he wants
his successor to carry on his reforms and that he would reshuffle his Cabinet in order
to give a chance for potential successors to gain more experience. In October 2005,
he appointed a new Cabinet, giving prominent positions to three individuals who are
widely thought to seek the LDP presidency in 2006. Shinzo Abe (51 years old) —
known for his hawkish views on North Korea, China, and history issues — was given
the important position of Chief Cabinet Secretary, a post gives him nearly daily
exposure on the Japanese media, as well as the power to allocate the LDP’s political
funds to individual politicians. Abe is also known as a proponent of expanding
Japan’s foreign policy posture, its military options, and its alliance with the United
States. Abe, who tops all other contenders in polls of the Japanese public and LDP
politicians, is widely expected to prevail. Another hardliner, Taro Aso (65) — who
is known as an advocate of closer relations with Taiwan — was given the Foreign
Ministry portfolio. Sadakazu Tanigaki (60) was reappointed as Finance Minister.
Notably, another potential candidate, former Chief Cabinet Secretary Yasuo Fukuda
(69), announced in July of 2006 that he would not seek the premiership. Fukuda
advocated a more conciliatory position toward China and South Korea and criticized
Koizumi’s controversial visits to the Yasukuni Shrine.
Koizumi’s political authority generally is considered to have declined since the
September 2005 election, due to several factors, including the emergence of several
political and corruption scandals popularly associated with his reforms; the apparent
stagnation of many of Koizumi’s reformist measures (such as overhauling Japan’s
road-building process); the increased focus on potential successors; and the passage
in March 2006 of his last budget, which is his Cabinet’s last major piece of
“must-pass” legislation.
13
In addition to providing mail delivery, Japan Post also functions as the country’s (and
perhaps the world’s) largest bank and life insurer, with about ¥350 trillion (approximately
$3 trillion) in deposits.
CRS-17
The Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). The election also appeared — at
least for the moment — to stall the emergence of a two-party system in Japan. The
LDP has ruled almost continuously since its formation in 1955. Over the past three
years, Japan’s largest opposition party, the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), seemed
to be emerging as a viable candidate to defeat the LDP. In several elections in the
early part of the decade, the DPJ steadily increased its strength in the Diet by winning
over reform-minded urban and independent voters, who were attracted to the DPJ’s
economic reform platform that in many ways is more radical than Koizumi’s. In the
September 2005 election, however, many of these voters opted for Koizumi’s
rebranded LDP. As a result, the DPJ lost more than one-third of its strength; the
party now has 113 seats in the Lower House, down from 175 before the election, and
the party’s leader
than its position before the election. Prime Minister Abe is widely considered to be
a far less charismatic politician than Koizumi, meaning that he will have to employ
different means to advance his agenda.
Second, Koizumi used his immense popularity to bolster the prime minister’s
office at the expense of the previously powerful factions in his ruling LDP. Prior to
Koizumi, cabinet posts, including the office of prime minister, typically were filled
not on the basis of merit or policy principles but rather with a view towards achieving
a proper balance among the LDP’s faction leaders, who acted behind-the-scenes as
kingpins. Because the LDP president was not the true leader of the party, he often
lacked the power to resolve divisive intra-party disputes or even to set the party’s
12
This section was written by Mark Manyin.
CRS-17
agenda. Koizumi successfully attacked and flouted the faction-based system, which
helped him to centralize power in the prime minister’s office. Judging from Prime
Minister Abe’s Cabinet selections — he continued Koizumi’s practice of not using
factional affiliation to determine ministerial posts — he intends to perpetuate the
more top-down party mechanism he inherited.
The Abe “Agenda”. At 52 years old, Prime Minister Abe is Japan’s first
post-war prime minister to be born after the end of World War II. Like many
Japanese politicians, Abe belongs to a political family. His father, Shintaro Abe, was
foreign minister in the 1980s and was a leading contender for the top post. His
grandfather, Nobusuke Kishi, was prime minister from 1957-1960. Shinzo Abe cites
his grandfather as particularly important to his development, an influence which
colors Abe’s views about Japan’s wartime history; as a prominent official in
Japanese-occupied Manchuria and later the Minister of Commerce and Industry from
1941-45, Kishi was imprisoned as a Class A war criminal under the U.S. Occupation
of Japan, which lasted until 1952.
Abe came to prominence earlier this decade by championing the cause of
Japanese abducted by North Korea. Aside from his advocacy of taking hard-line
positions toward North Korea and strengthening the U.S.-Japan alliance, Abe did not
associate himself with many specific policies, though he is widely believed to hail
from the conservative side of the Japanese spectrum on a range of issues. Based
upon statements during his campaign to become LDP President and since taking over
the reigns of government, Abe has proclaimed his vision to be “a beautiful country,
Japan,” which he hopes to achieve through accomplishing several goals, including
the following:13
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
13
further centralizing power in the Prime Minister’s Official (the kantei),
making it into a “control tower” for policy, in part by creating a National
Security Council;
adopting a more “proactive” diplomatic posture;
further reforming and strengthening the U.S.-Japan alliance but
simultaneously giving Japan more equity in alliance so that both countries
“expend sweat”;
forming “strategic dialogues” with Australia and India, “countries that
share fundamental values” with Japan;
restoring normal diplomatic relations with China and South Korea;
pursuing the revision of the Japanese constitution in the medium term;
in the more immediate term, revising the current interpretation of the
constitution’s Article 9 to give Japan more flexibility to deploy its troops
abroad;
Sources for this list include Abe’s September 29, 2006 Policy Speech to the Japanese
Diet; “Excerpts of Abe’s Book ‘Toward a Beautiful Country’,” translated by the U.S.
Embassy in Tokyo’s Office of Translation and Media Analysis, July 27, 2006; “Japan:
Shinzo Abe Grants Interview on DPRK Missile Launches, Implications,” Bungei Shunju,
September 1 - 30, 2006, translated by the Open Source Center, JPP20060816016003;
Election campaign pamphlet provided by the Shinzo Abe Support Team, translated by the
U.S. Embassy in Tokyo in its Daily Summary 2006-9-12 Sep 06 - 30 Sep 06 pp 94-108.
CRS-18
C
C
rectifying Japan’s fiscal imbalances by drastically cutting back
governmental expenditures and reducing the size of government; and
reforming Japan’s educational system.
Abe’s first Cabinet generally is considered to be comprised of foreign policy
hawks. Many analysts consider his appointments to economic posts to be less
prominent — and less powerful — than they were under Koizumi.
Abe’s first major electoral challenge will come in July 2007, when Japan’s
Upper House is scheduled to hold nationwide elections. Currently, the LDP controls
the Upper House by virtue of its alliance with a smaller party, Komeito. The LDP
is not expected to do well in the July vote, in part because it made major gains under
Koizumi during the last election and in part because the government is expected to
have to confront some difficult economic decisions over the coming months.
Opinion polls generally are topped by worries over personal economic security issues
such as concerns over the country’s ageing population, the health of the Japanese
pension system, and the growing gap between rich and poor that occurred under the
Koizumi-era reforms. Indeed, Japan’s second-largest party, the Democratic Party
of Japan (DPJ) has made these economic issues its top priority.
The Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ). The LDP’s sweeping victory in
the September 2005 election appeared — at least for the moment — to stall the
emergence of a two-party system in Japan. The LDP has ruled almost continuously
since its formation in 1955. From 2002-2005, Japan’s largest opposition party, the
Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ), seemed to be emerging as a viable candidate to
defeat the LDP. In several elections in the early part of the decade, the DPJ steadily
increased its strength in the Diet by winning over reform-minded urban and
independent voters, who were attracted to the DPJ’s economic reform platform that
in many ways is more radical than Koizumi’s. In the September 2005 election,
however, many of these voters opted for Koizumi’s LDP, in part because Koizumi
was able to establish himself — rather than the DPJ — as the symbol of reform. As
a result, the DPJ lost more than one-third of its strength; the party now has 113 seats
in the Lower House, down from 175 before the election, and the party’s leader
resigned to take responsibility for the defeat.
A week after the vote, the DPJ elected 43-year-old Seiji Maehara — known as
a realist on security and defense issues — to be the new party president. However,
Maehara and the entire DPJ leadership resigned in March 2006, in response to
widespread criticism over their handling of a political scandal. The following month,
the party’s Diet members selected longtime political leader Ichiro Ozawa (63), once
a top LDP leader before he defected to the DPJ in mid-1993 to press for sweeping
reform in the Japanese political system. The DPJ will hold a more traditional
election for party president in September 2006. Since leaving the LDP, Ozawa has
pushed pushed
for reforming Japan’s political and economic systems, as well as adopting a
more more
assertive and independent foreign policy. Following his selection, Ozawa
stated that
he would push for “a U.N.-centered national security policy” that has the
Japan-U.S.
alliance “as a pivot, but emphasizes Asia.”14 In July 2006, he visited
China and met
with Chinese President Hu Jintao. He has criticized Prime Minister
Koizumi’s visits
14
“Ozawa Elected as New President,” DPJ Press Release. April 7, 2006.
CRS-19
to Yasukuni Shrine and aspects of the U.S. Forces-Japan (USFJ)
USFJ’s troop redeployment plan. In the past,
Ozawa has been hampered by what many see
as his top-down management style and
his political opportunism.
Constitutional Revision. Japan’s constitution was drafted in 1946 by the
U.S. Occupation authorities, who then imposed it on a reluctant Japanese legislature.
Since the early 1990s, previously strong public opposition to revising the constitution
has gradually weakened and public opinion polls now show widespread support for
some sort of revision. In October 2005, Japan’s ruling Liberal Democratic Party
(LDP) released its long-awaited draft revision of the Japanese constitution. The most
notable changes reduce many — though not all — of the provisions in the
war-renouncing clause (Article 9) that set limits on Japan’s military activities. After
renouncing war and the “threat or use of force as a means of settling international
disputes,” the proposed revision explicitly states that Japan “shall maintain armed
forces for self-defense” that operate under the prime minister and are subject to the
Diet’s approval and direction. The explicit mention of a military force is designed
to rectify the disconnect between the current constitution — which says that “land,
sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained” — and
the reality that Japan possesses a Self Defense Force. More importantly, the LDP’s
draft appears to allow Japan to participate in collective security arrangements by
14
“Ozawa Elected as New President,” DPJ Press Release. April 7, 2006.
CRS-18
stating that the armed forces “may act in international cooperation to ensure the
international community’s peace and security.”
Both the LDP and the DPJ are split — with the DPJ’s internal divisions much
deeper — between relatively hawkish and pacifist wings that appear to be sparring
over the question of whether or not conditions (such as United Nations backing)
should be attached to the right to join collective security arrangements. In other
words, the issue is not whether, but how, Article 9 should be revised, a development
that is due in part to increased concerns about North Korea and China. In March
2005, Japan’s House of Representatives Research Commission on the Constitution,
composed of representatives from various parties, released a report indicating that
over two-thirds of members generally favor constitutional provisions allowing Japan
to join U.N. collective security arrangements, stipulating the Self-Defense Forces’
existence, and maintaining some portion of the war-renouncing clause of Article 9.
A wide majority of the commission also favored allowing women to serve as
emperor, establishing stronger privacy and environmental rights, creating a
constitutional court, and revising Japan’s federalist system.
Constitutional amendments must be approved by two-thirds of each chamber of
the Diet, after which they are to be “submitted to the people” for majority approval.
In June 2006, the Lower House of Parliament began debating legislation detailing
how a national constitutional referendum would be conducted. The LDP-led
coalition and the DPJ proposed separate referendum bills, dampening hopes for the
two camps to cooperate on constitutional revision. Notably, according to the
timetables outlined in both drafts, the soonest that a national referendum could be
held would be about three years after a referendum law is passed.
CRS-20
Conclusion — Japan’s Increased Assertiveness15
Since the late 1990s, Japan has displayed a more assertive foreign policy, a
process that Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi has accelerated since coming to
power in 2001. The new Koizumi accelerated and that Abe is likely to continue. The new
assertiveness has manifested itself in at least four notable
ways. First, under Prime Minister Koizumi, Japan has Japan has
intensified its cooperation
with the United States, and Koizumi has developed a strong personal relationship
with President Bush. Second, Tokyo has hardened its
policies toward Beijing,
slashing its bilateral aid program, not backing refusing to back down from territorial and historical
disputes, disputes
and reorienting the U.S.-Japan alliance to give both countries more
flexibility to
respond to perceived and actual threats from China. Third, Japan has
attempted to
exert more influence in Southeast Asia and on the global stage, as
evidenced by its
pursuit of a permanent seat on the U.N. Security Council and its
negotiation of free
trade agreements (FTAs) with a number of Southeast Asian
countries. Fourth,
Japanese leaders have sought to make Japan a more “normal”
country by legitimizing
the military’s ability to participate in collective security
arrangements and take
actions — such as firing at hostile foreign ships in Japanese
waters — that most other
nations take for granted. Currently, Japan’s military role
is highly conscribed by the
constitution’s war-renouncing clause of Article 9.
15
This section was written by Mark Manyin.
CRS-19
The motivations for Japan’s increasing foreign policy assertiveness are both
external and internal. Domestically, Caesium hasKoizumi found that breaking from Japan’s
traditionally passive foreign policy posture has played well with politically influential
right-of-center — not to mention right-wing — groups. Many elements of his
policies also have resonated among the
population as a whole, as ordinary Japanese
have become much more security
conscious since North Korea’s missile launch in
1998. In general, the 1998. The negative implications of
China’s economic and military rise are
viewed with deepening concern in Japan,
particularly when seen against the backdrop
of Japan’s decade-long economic slump.
Many Japanese worry that they gradually
are ceding leadership in East Asia to China,
and that the after-effects of this shift will
harm Japanese interests. In the shorter
term, anxieties have been raised by the
intensifying disputes with China and by North
Korea’s nuclear weapons and missile
programs.
In general, the Bush Administration has encouraged Tokyo’s rising
assertiveness, which thus far has tended to dovetail with U.S. interests in the strategic
realm. In the future, however, it is likely that a more active Japan will be more
willing to question U.S. policies on a range of strategic issues where U.S. and
Japanese interests do not coincide or where domestic factors push Japanese leaders
to avoid being perceived as being too close to the United States.. Asian analysts will watch closely to see if the
U.S.-Japan relationship, labeled by many as “stronger than ever” under the Bush and
Koizumi Administrations, will continue to strengthen under Abe’s leadership.
15
This section was written by Mark Manyin.
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Legislation
P.L. 109-5 (S. 384). Extends the existence of the Nazi War Crimes and
Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group for two years.
Passed by both houses and signed into law by President Bush in March 2005.
P.L. 109-97 (H.R. 2744). The Agriculture Appropriations Act of 2006. Signed
into law (P.L. 109-97) November 10, 2005. The Senate-passed version included two
amendments, adopted on September 20, 2005, that would have denied funds to
implement a rule to lift the U.S. ban on Japanese beef until Japan has lifted its ban
on imports of U.S. beef (S.Amdt. 1732 agreed to by a vote of 72-26); and that
expressed the sense of the Senate that the U.S. ban on imported Japanese beef should
remain in place until Japan has lifted its ban on imports of U.S. beef (S.Amdt. 1738,
agreed to by voice vote). House and Senate conferees did not include either
amendment in the final bill, though the conference report (H.Rept. 109-255) says
Congress “clearly reserve[s] the right to impose restrictions similar to those
suggested by the Senate if there is not a swift resolution to this issue.”
P.L. 109-114 (H.R. 2528). Veterans Affairs Appropriations Act of 2006.
Section 118 requires the Defense Department to report by February 15 on U.S. efforts
to encourage Japan and other allied countries to increase their share of the allied
defense burden. Became public law on November 30, 2005.
P.L. 109-171 (S. 1932). The Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The conference
report includes a repeal of the Byrd Amendment. Received final congressional action
on February 1, 2006, and was signed by the President into law on February 8, 2006.
The measure phases out the program over a period ending October 1, 2007.
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H.Con.Res. 68 (Evans). Expresses the sense of Congress that the Government
of Japan should formally issue a clear and unambiguous apology for the sexual
enslavement of “comfort women” during the colonial occupation of Asia. Introduced
March 17, 2005; referred to House Asia Pacific Subcommittee.
H.Res. 759 (Evans). Expresses the sense of the House of Representatives that
the Government of Japan should formally acknowledge and accept responsibility for
its sexual enslavement of young women, known to the world as “comfort women,”
during its colonial occupation of Asia and the Pacific Islands from the 1930s through
the duration of World War II, and for other purposes. Committee Agreed to Seek
Consideration Under Suspension of the Rules (Amended) by Unanimous Consent.
H.Con.Res. 168 (Hyde). Condemns the Democratic People’s Republic of
Korea for the abductions and continued captivity of citizens of the Republic of Korea
and Japan. Passed by the House (362-1) on July 11, 2005; referred to Senate Foreign
Relations Committee.
H.Con.Res. 191 (Hyde). Commemorates the 60th anniversary of the
conclusion of the War in the Pacific and reaffirms the judgments rendered by the
International Military Tribunal for the Far East of 1946-1948, including the
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conviction of certain individuals as war criminals. Passed by the House (399-0) on
July 14, 2005; referred to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations.
H.Con.Res. 311 (Ramstad)/S.Con.Res. 67 (Coleman). Urges Japan to honor
its commitments under a 1986 bilateral agreement on medical equipment and
pharmaceuticals. House bill introduced December 7, 2005; referred to House Ways
and Means Committee. Senate bill introduced November 18, 2005; referred to
Foreign Relations Committee.
H.Res. 137 (Moran)/S.Res. 87 (Thune). Expresses the sense of the respective
Houses of Congress that the U.S. government should impose economic sanctions
against Japan, if Japan does not lift its ban on U.S. beef. Neither resolution has seen
committee action.
H.Res. 321 (Leach). Expresses support for a “regionally balanced expansion”
of the membership of the United Nations Security Council, which would include
adding Japan, India, Germany, Brazil, and an African country. Introduced June 15,
2005; referred to the House Committee on International Relations.
H.R. 30 (Mica). To provide compensation for certain World War II veterans
who survived the Bataan Death March and were held as prisoners of war by the
Japanese. Introduced January 4, 2005; referred to House Committee on Armed
Services. Similar legislation in the 108th Congress (H.R. 595) did not see action
outside of committee.
H.R. 4179 (Salazar) and S. 1922 (Conrad). Require the President to impose
extra tariffs on various Japanese products beginning on January 1, 2006, if Japan has
not lifted its ban on imports of U.S. beef. H.R. 4179 introduced October 28, 2005;
referred to House Ways and Means Committee. S. 1922 introduced October 26,
2005; referred to Senate Finance Committee.
S. 377 (Lieberman). Requires negotiation and appropriate action with Japan,
China, and other countries that have engaged in currency manipulation. Introduced
February 15, 2005; referred to Senate Finance Committee.