Order Code 95-1013
Updated August 4, 2006
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS WebNovember 29, 2007
Bahrain: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy
Kenneth Katzman
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
After instability during the late 1990s, Bahrain undertook substantial political
reforms, but lingering tensions between ruling Sunni Muslims and the Shiite majority
are re-emerging in advance of October 2006 parliamentary elections. Bahrain’s
re-emerged
in November 2006 parliamentary elections, fueled by Sunni-Shiite conflict in Iraq.
Bahrain’s stability has long been a key U.S. interest; it has hosted U.S. naval
headquarters for the
Gulf for nearly 60 years. In September 2004, the United States and
Bahrain signed a
free trade agreement (FTA); legislation implementing it (H.R. 4340) was signed
January 11, 2006 (H.R. 4340, P.L. 109-169). This report will be updated. See also CRS Report
Report RS21846, U.S.-Bahrain Free Trade Agreement.
The Political Structure, Reform, and Human Rights1
The Al Khalifa family, which is Sunni Muslim, has ruled Bahrain since 1783, when
the family’s arrival ended
a century of domination by Persian settlers. Bahrain became
independent from Britain
in August 1971 after a 1970 U.N. referendum determined that
its inhabitants preferred
independence to Iranian control. Political reform has been
instituted by King Hamad bin
Isa Al Khalifa (about 5760 years old), who succeeded his
father, Shaykh Isa bin Sulman Al
Khalifa, upon his sudden death onin March 6, 1999. King Hamad, 2
educated at Sandhurst
Military Academy in Britain, had previously been commander of
the Bahraini Defense
Forces (BDF) and handled U.S.-Bahrain defense cooperation. Hamad2 subsequently
Forces (BDF). He subsequently named his son, Salman, as Crown
Prince. Salman, who is about 35 years old40, is U.S.- and
U.K.-educated and, as head of the
“Economic Development Board,” is considered a
proponent of rapid reform and
accommodation with Bahrain’s Shiite majority (about 60% of the 480,000 person
citizenry). The King’s uncle (the brother of the late ruler), Prime Minister Khalifa bin
1
Much of the information in this section are from the following reports by the State Department:
is from State Department reports: Country Reports on
Human Rights Practices - 20052006 (March 8, 20066, 2007); Supporting Human Rights
and Democracy: The
U.S. Record 2005-2006 (April 5, 2006); the Trafficking in Persons Report
for 2006 (June 5, 2006); and International Religious Freedom report - 2005 (November 8, 2005),
as well as a CRS visit to Bahrain during February 20-26, 2005.
2
Hamad changed his title to King, from Amir, just prior to the February 2002 referendum on the
new national charter.
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
CRS-2
proponent of rapid reform. The King’s uncle (the brother of the late ruler), Khalifa bin
Salman Al Khalifa, generally opposes dramatic reform, but he remains Prime Minister.
Since taking office, King Hamad has quieted Shiite unrest through reform, earning
Bush Administration praise as a regional model. The minor political reforms under his
father — the December 1992 establishment of a 30-member appointed Consultative
Council to review and comment on proposed laws and its June 1996 expansion to 40
members — led to serious political Shiite unrest during 1994-1998. During that time, a
coalition of Shiite and Sunni Muslims demonstrated and petitioned for a restoration of an
elected national assembly, provided for under the 1973 constitution but abolished in
August 1975. The unrest started out as broad based but took on a more narrow Shiite
sectarian character, and became increasingly violent. Shiites are over 60% of the
465,000-citizen population, but have suffered official and economic discrimination. The
far more limited reform steps by Shaykh Isa did not satisfy popular demands2007); the International Religious Freedom Report for 2007
(September 14, 2007); and the Trafficking in Persons Report for 2007 (June 12, 2007).
2
Hamad changed his title to King, from Amir, just prior to the February 2002 referendum on the
new national charter.
CRS-2
Salman Al Khalifa, along with hardliners in the royal court and several ministries, seeks
to repress any Shiite power.
King Hamad and the Crown Prince have tried to channel Shiite unrest into peaceful
political competition. The minor political reforms under his father, namely the December
1992 establishment of a 30-member appointed Consultative Council to comment on
proposed laws and its June 1996 expansion to 40 members, failed to satisfy Shiite and
Sunni demands for the restoration of an elected national assembly, provided for under the
1973 constitution but abolished in August 1975. The unrest eventually took on a more
Shiite sectarian character and produced daily anti-government violence during 1994-1998.
As Hamad’s first step, Bahrain held a referendum (February 14, 2002) on a new
“national action charter (constitution).” Elections were held in October 2002 for a 40seat 40-seat
“Council of Representatives” (COR). However, some mostly Shiite opposition
“political
societies” (formal parties are banned), including Al Wifaq, (the largest political
society,
led by Shaykh Ali al-Salman), National Action, the Islamic Action Association,
and the
Nationalist Assembly boycotted the elections on the grounds that the appointed
upper body (Shura
Council) is of the same size and with powers nearly equal to the COR.
The boycott
lowered turnout to about 52% and causedhelped Sunni Muslims to win two-thirds
of the seats. Of those Sunnis, 12 are Islamic conservatives. Of
the 170 total candidates,
6 were women; none was elected, but two received enough votes to force a runoff. King
Hamad appointed six women to the Shura Council; he also appointed one Jew and one
Christian. There are two female ministers — Social Affairs (Dr. Fatima al-Balushi) and
Health (Dr. Nada Haffadh). Two other women, including the president of the University
of Bahrain, have ministerial rank. In June 2006, a female judge was appointed to the
civil court system. Twenty-one women have applied to run in the 2006 parliamentary and
the municipal elections. (Thirty-one ran in the 2002 contests.) 6 were women, but none was elected.
Together, the COR and the Shura Council constitute an increasingly vibrant National
Assembly, and they arehave been gaining in scope of authority as a check on government
power.
The COR can propose (but not actually draft) legislation, and question ministers,
although (not in
public session, however), and override the King’s veto of approved legislation. It can, by
a two-thirds majority, vote no-confidence against ministers and the Prime Minister. The
Shura Council is largely public session. It can, by a two-thirds majority, vote no-confidence against
ministers and the Prime Minister and override the King’s veto of approved legislation,
although none of these actions has occurred since the COR was formed. The Shura
Council is formally limited to amending draft legislation and, in concert with the
COR, reviewing the annual budget. The Shura Council contains generally more educated
and pro-Western members and is widely viewed as a check against the more Islamist
COR.
Despite the reforms, Sunni-Shiite tensions remain and have been partly aggravated
by the Shiite perception that a once-repressed Shiite majority is now, through elections,
the predominant power in Iraq. Some Shiite anti-government protests persist, asserting
that the government is backsliding on reform and that it will adjust the parliamentary
election districts to ensure that Shiites do not win a majority in parliament. However,
there is not nearly the level of violence seen in the 1990s. In a possible sign that some
Shiite groupings want to try to empower themselves through what they still view as a
flawed electoral process, Wifaq and the National Democratic Action Association say they
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will participate in the October 2006 elections.3 Islamic Action Association and other
factions are expected to follow suit.
Although its reforms and human rights progress remain uneven, as noted in the
referenced State Department reports, Bahrain allows freedom of worship for Christians,
Jews, Hindus, and Baha’is, although the constitution declares Islam the official religion.
Even
reviewing the annual budget, but these powers do provide the Shura Council with the
ability to block action by the COR. The Shura Council contains generally more educated
and pro-Western members.
In the run-up to the November 25, 2006, parliamentary and municipal elections,
Sunni-Shiite tensions were aggravated by the Shiite perception that a once-repressed
Shiite majority is now, through elections, in power in Iraq. In the fall of 2006, some Shiite
protests occurred in Bahrain, particularly after allegations — some of which were publicly
corroborated by a government adviser (Salah al-Bandar) in August 2006 in a report to an
outside human rights organization — that the government was adjusting election districts
as part of a plan to ensure that Shiites did not win a majority in parliament. Despite the
allegations, the major Shiite groupings decided to try to empower themselves through
what they still view as a flawed electoral process. Wifaq and the National Democratic
Action Association participated, raising voter turnout to 72%.
The opposition led by Wifaq won 18 seats, virtually all those it contested. Sunni
Islamists (Salafists and Muslim Brotherhood candidates) together won another 8 seats.
Only one woman won (she was unopposed) out of 16 female candidates (down from 31
female candidates in the 2002 elections). As evidence of continued friction, Wifaq
subsequently boycotted the speakership contest, and incumbent COR Speaker Khalifa alDhahrani was re-elected Speaker. A new Shura Council was appointed by the King, with
20 Sunnis, 18 Shiites, one Jew and one Christian (both women). Ten women were
appointed to the body. In a nod to the increased Shiite strength, the government appointed
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a Shiite as deputy prime minister and another (who is close to Wifaq) as a Minister of
State for Foreign Affairs. In the cabinet, there are now four Shiites and one female
ministers – a Shiite woman, Health Minister Nada Haffadh, resigned in October 2007
following allegations of corruption in her ministry by COR conservatives who are
believed to oppose women occupying high positions in Bahrain. Two other women,
including the president of the University of Bahrain, have ministerial rank. In June 2006,
a female judge was named to the Higher Civil Court.
Although its reforms and human rights progress remain uneven, as noted in State
Department reports, Bahrain allows freedom of worship for Christians, Jews, Hindus, and
Baha’is, although the constitution declares Islam the official religion. The government
requires licenses for churches to operate, and in November 2007 it threatened to shutter
seven un-licensed churches serving the Indian expatriate community. About half of the
approximately 235,000 expatriates living in Bahrain are non-Muslim. On labor issues,
even before the U.S.-Bahrain free trade agreement, Bahrain was credited with significant
labor reforms, including a 2002 law granting workers, including non-citizens, the right
to form and join unions. There are now 47 trade unions in Bahrain, and workers are
permitted to conduct work stoppages. On human trafficking, Bahrain remains a “Tier 2”
country (Watch List) in the 2006 “was dropped in the
2007 Trafficking in Persons” report because it does not
“fully comply with the minimum standards for elimination of trafficking,”although the
report says it is making efforts to comply. The referenced State Department reports have
criticized Bahrain for its September 2004 closure of the Bahrain Center for Human
Rights, one of the most active human rights organizations. Several other Bahraini human
rights organizations remain open. In June 2006, Bahrain shut down the first private radio
station in Bahrain due to “violations” of its operating agreements. On July 20, 2006, King
report to “Tier 3” (worst level) because it is “not making
significant efforts” to “fully comply with the minimum standards for elimination of
trafficking.” In July 2006, King Hamad ratified a law passed by the National Assembly
to restrict the right of public
association and to provide for jail terms for organizers of
unauthorized protests.
According to the State Department, the United States seeks to accelerate political
reform in Bahrain through and empower its political societies through several programs, including
the “Middle East Partnership Initiative (MEPI),” including
efforts to strengthen the institutional capacity of Bahrain’s political societies. Other U.S.funded programs included training for senior judges, women’s rights, journalist training,
and civic education and teacher training in Bahraini schools.” Economic Support Funds (ESF) are
requested for FY2008 to help build an independent judiciary and strengthen the COR.
Other U.S.-funded programs focus on women’s empowerment, journalist training, and
civic education for Ministry of Education officials and teachers. Some MEPI funds have
been used to fund AFL-CIO projects with Bahraini labor organizations, and to help
Bahrain implement its commitments under the U.S.-Bahrain FTA. During 2006, the U.S.
embassy added a position to focus on outreach to NGOs and civil society groups.
Suggesting a still Suggesting a still
difficult climate for U.S. programs, in May 2006 Bahrain revoked the
visa for the resident
program director of the National Democratic Institute (NDI), an
implementor of some
U.S. democracy programs.
Defense and Economic Relations4
Although U.S. relations with Bahrain are broadening on economic and political
reform issues, defense issues remain a major feature of the relationship. A U.S. Embassy
in U.S. democracy programs. Bahrain resisted October 2006 entreaties
by NDI officials to allow the office to reopen.
Defense and Economic Relations3
Defense issues remain a key feature of U.S.-Bahrain relations. A U.S. Embassy in
Manama, Bahrain’s capital, opened in September 1971. A resident ambassador was
sent in 1974. In large part to keep powerful
neighbors in check, Bahrain has long linked
its security to the United States, and U.S.
efforts to address threats from Iraq and Iran have benefitted from access to Bahraini
facilities. February 1998 marked the 50th anniversary of a U.S.
naval command presence
in Bahrain; MIDEASTFOR (U.S. Middle East Force), its
successor, NAVCENT (naval
3
Information in this section obtained from a variety of press reports, CRS interviews in Bahrain
and Washington, DC, and the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA).
CRS-4
component of U.S. Central Command), and the Fifth Fleet
(reconstituted in June 1995)
have been headquartered there. The Fifth Fleet headquarters
is a command facility that, after a pending expansion, will cover
now covers over 100 acres. About
3,000 2,500 U.S. personnel, mostly Navy (but from several
different commands) work there;
fewer than half live on the compound. Some smaller
U.S. ships (minesweepers) are
docked there, andbut the port facility is being improved to handle aircraft carriers. The
3
Elections for five municipal councils are to be held just before the parliamentary elections. No
exact dates have been set for either elections.
4
Some of the information in this section obtained during CRS visit to Bahrain, February 2005.
CRS-4
aircraft carriers. The headquarters currently coordinates the operations of over 30 U.S.
warships performing
support missions for U.S. operations in Iraq war (securing Iraqi oil platforms); preventing
the seaborne movement of Al Qaeda; and interception of arms or weapons of mass
platforms) and interdicting the movement of Al Qaeda members, arms, or weapons of
mass destruction (WMD)-related technology, and narcotics trafficking across the Arabian Sea. Most of these U.S.
Sea. These U.S. operations are in partnership with ships from nations contributing to the
Iraq war (Britain,
Italy, Australia, Canada, and Singapore) and the U.S.-led stabilization
operations in
Afghanistan (including ships from Germany, France, and Pakistan). According to U.S.
commanders in Bahrain, the maritime mission is increasingly expanding into maritime
narcotics interdiction as well. During the 1990s, the U.S.-led Multinational Interdiction
Force (MIF), which enforced a U.N. embargo on Iraq, was run out of the headquarters.
Bahrain participated in the allied coalition that ousted Iraq from Kuwait in 1991,
hosting 17,500 troops and 250 combat aircraft at Shaykh Isa Air Base. Bahraini pilots
flew strikes over Iraq during the war, and Iraq fired nine Scud missiles at Bahrain during
the conflict, of which three hit facilities there. After the 1991 Persian Gulf war against
Iraqthat war, the United States and
Bahrain signed a 10-year defense pact (October 28, 1991),
renewed in October 2001. The
agreement reportedly provides U.S. access to Bahraini
bases during a crisis, the pre-positioningprepositioning of strategic materiel (mostly U.S. Air Force
munitions), consultations with
Bahrain if its security is threatened, and expanded
exercises and U.S. training of Bahraini
forces.54 Bahrain hosted the regional headquarters
for U.N. weapons inspections in Iraq during 1991-1998.
Bahrain
during 1991-1998, and the U.S.-led Multinational Interdiction Force (MIF) that enforced
a U.N. embargo on Iraq during 1991-2003.
Bahrain has provided extensive support to the recent U.S.-led wars in Afghanistan
(Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF) and Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom, OIF), despite
domestic opposition in Bahrain particularly to the war in Iraq. During major combat of
OEF, Bahrain hosted about 4,000 U.S. military personnel — a major increase from the
1,300 U.S. military personnel hosted during the 1990s to contain Iraq. U.S. forces
increased slightly,force levels
there increased to about 4,500 for OIF; (mostly additional U.S. Air Force personnel
deployed to Shaykh Isa Air Base. ).
Bahrain allowed the United States to fly combat
missions from the base in both OEF and
OIF, and it was the only Gulf state to deploy its
own fores to provide humanitarian aid in Aghanistan. own forces to provide aid to Afghanistan.
During OEF and OIF, Bahrain
publicly deployed its U.S.-supplied frigate warship (the
Subha) to help protect U.S. ships,
and it sent ground and air assets to Kuwait in support
of OIF. In recognition of the close
defense relationship, in March 2002, President Bush
(Presidential Determination 2002-10)
designated Bahrain a “major non-NATO ally
(MNNA),” a designation that will facilitate
future U.S. arms salesfacilitates U.S. arms sales. Because of its limited oil
income, Bahrain has not contributed funds to Iraq reconstruction, but it is attending the
“Expanded Neighbors of Iraq” regional conference process that began in Baghdad on
March 10, 2007 and has continued with two regional meetings since (May 2007 in Egypt
and November 2007 in Turkey). It does not have a full embassy in Iraq.
U.S. Arms Transfers. Congress and successive Administrations, citing Bahrain’s
limited oil income, have supported military assistance to Bahrain’s small BDF — aboutof about
4
Details of the U.S.-Bahrain defense agreement are classified. Some provisions are discussed
in Sami Hajjar, U.S. Military Presence in the Gulf: Challenges and Prospects (U.S. Army War
College: Strategic Studies Institute), March 2002, p.27.
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11,000 personnel. It is eligible to receive grant “excess defense articles” (EDA). The
United States transferred the FFG-7 “Perry class” frigate Subha as EDA in July 1997.
Bahrain reportedly wants another EDA frigate. In . In
1996, the United States gave Bahrain
a no-cost five-year lease on 60 M60A3 tanks; title
subsequently was givenpassed to Bahrain.
Foreign Military Financing (FMF) was suspended for
Bahrain in FY1994, but, in
appreciation of Bahrain’s support in OEF and OIF, has restarted.
5
Details of the U.S.-Bahrain defense agreement are classified. Some provisions are discussed
in Sami Hajjar, U.S. Military Presence in the Gulf: Challenges and Prospects (U.S. Army War
College: Strategic Studies Institute), March 2002, p.27.
CRS-5
U.S. Assistance to Bahrain
FY2002
FY2003
FY2004
FY2005
FY2006
(Est.)
FY2007
(Request)
FMF (in
millions $)
28.5
90.0
24.6
18.847
15.593
15.75
IMET (in
thousands $)
395
448
600
649
644
640
NADR-ATA
1.489
3.098
.955
(in millions $)
Note: IMET = International Military Education and Training Funds, used to promote military
professionalism, interoperability with U.S. forces, and to train Bahrain to maintain U.S.-provided
equipment.
NADR = Non-Proliferation, Anti-Terrorism (ATA), De-Mining and Related Programs, used to sustain
Bahrain’s counter-terrorism training capabilities.
Despite limited funds, Bahrain has purchased some U.S. systems.6 Before the 1991
Gulf war, Bahrain bought M60A3 main battle tanks and older model F-5 fighter aircraft.
In 1998, Bahrain purchased 10 U.S.-made F-16Cs from new production. With spare
engines and restarted in appreciation of Bahrain’s support in OEF and OIF.
Recent FMF has been provided to help Bahrain maintain U.S.-origin weapons, to enhance
inter-operability with U.S. forces, to augment Bahrain’s air defenses, and to promote
international standards of human rights practices in the BDF.
U.S. Assistance to Bahrain
(in $ millions)
FY2007
FY2008
(Request)
FY2002
FY2003
FY2004
FY2005
FY2006
FMF
28.5
90.0
24.6
18.847
15.593
15.0
4.3
IMET
0.395
0.448
0.600
0.649
0.651
0.614
0.650
1.489
2.761
.776
1.25
NADR
ESF
Est.
1.1
Note: IMET = International Military Education and Training Funds, used mainly to enhance BDF military
professionalism and promote U.S. values. NADR = Non-Proliferation, Anti-Terrorism (ATA), De-Mining
and Related Programs, used to sustain Bahrain’s counterterrorism capabilities and interdict terrorists.
Despite limited funds, Bahrain has purchased some U.S. systems. In 1998, Bahrain
purchased 10 U.S.-made F-16Cs from new production. With spare engines and
armaments, the sale was worth about $390 million. In late 1999, the Clinton
Administration, with congressional concurrence, sold Bahrain 26 Advanced MediumRange Air-to-Air Missiles (AMRAAM) to arm the F-16s. Some Members were
concerned concerned
about the sale of AMRAAM’s to Gulf countries on the grounds that the sale
might might
promote an arms race in the Gulf. Section 581 of the FY1990 foreign operations
appropriation act (P.L. 101-167) made Bahrain the only Gulf state eligible to receive the
STINGER shoulder-fired anti-aircraft missile. (This authorization has been repeated in
subsequent legislation.) The, and the United States has sold Bahrain
about 70 Stingers since
1990. Among new sales notified to Congress by the Defense Security Cooperation
Agency (DSCA) are: a sale, worth up to $42 million, of 180 “Javelin” anti-armor missiles
and 60 launch units (July 21, 2006); and a sale, worth up to $252 million, of nine UH60M Blackhawk helicopters and associated equipment and services.
One of the more controversial sales to a Gulf state resulted from an August 2000
Bahraini request to purchase 30 Army Tactical Missile Systems (ATACMs), a system of
short-range ballistic missiles fired from a multiple rocket launcher. To allay
congressional concerns, the Defense Department told Congress the version sold to
Bahrain would not violate the rules of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).7
The Administration proposed, and Bahrain accepted, a system of joint U.S.-Bahraini
control of the weapon under which Bahraini military personnel do not have access to the
codes needed to launch the missile. The system has been delivered to Bahrain.
Economic Relations. Bahrain is attempting to diversify its economy by
emphasizing banking and services. Among the GCC states, Bahrain has the lowest oil
6
Information in this section was provided to CRS in an unclassified fact sheet prepared by the
Defense Security Cooperation Agency. March 2004.
7
The MTCR commits member states not to transfer to non-member states missiles with a range
of more than 300 km, and a payload of more than 500 kilograms. Turkey, Greece, and South
Korea are the only countries to have bought ATACMs from the United States.
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and gas reserves 1990. (This authorization has been repeated in subsequent
legislation.) To allay congressional concerns about possible U.S. promotion of missile
proliferation in the region, an August 2000 sale of 30 Army Tactical Missile Systems
(ATACMs, a system of short-range ballistic missiles fired from a multiple rocket
launcher) included an agreement for joint U.S.-Bahraini control of the weapon. Among
recent sales notified to Congress by the Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA)
are a sale, worth up to $42 million, of 180 “Javelin” anti-armor missiles and 60 launch
units; and a sale, worth up to $252 million, of nine UH-60M Blackhawk helicopters and
associated equipment and services; and a sale, notified August 3, 2007, of six Bell search
and recovery helicopters and associated equipment and services, valued at about $160
million. Under the State Department’s “Gulf Security Dialogue,” begun in 2006 to
counter Iran, a total of about $20 billion worth of U.S. weapons might be sold to the Gulf
monarchy states, although only a small portion is reportedly slated for Bahrain.
Economic Relations. Bahrain has the lowest oil and gas reserves of the Gulf
monarchy states, estimated respectively at 210 million barrels of oil and 5.3 trillion cubic
feet of gas, and the energy sector accounts for 16.5% of Bahrain’s gross domestic product
(GDP). , and it is attempting to diversify its economy by emphasizing banking and services.
CRS-6
At current rates of production (30,000 barrels per day), Bahrain’s onshore oil
reserves will
be exhausted in 15 years. As of April 1996, the Saudi government has
given Bahrain all
revenues from the 150,000 barrels per day produced from Saudi
Arabia’s offshore Abu
Safa field. The United States buys virtually no oil from Bahrain.
; the major U.S. import
from it is aluminum. To encourage further reform and signal U.S. appreciation, the United
States and Bahrain
signed an FTA on September 14, 2005. Legislation to implement the FTA (H.R. 4340)
was passed in December 2005 and signed January 11, 2006 (P.L. 109-169). See also
CRS Report RS21846, U.S.-Bahrain Free Trade Agreement, by Martin Weiss.
Regional Relations and Anti-Terrorism Cooperation
Iran most concerns Bahrain, particularly for Iran’s ability to influence radical Shiite
oppositionists. The Shia community in Bahrain is of both Arab and Persian origin, and
some follow Iraq’s Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani. Bahrain has consistently blamed
Iran for the internal unrest that took place in the 1990s. On June 3, 1996, Bahrain
publicly claimed to have uncovered an Iranian plot to destabilize Bahrain, acting through
a local militant Shia group called Hizbollah Bahrain-Military Wing (related to Lebanese
Hezbollah, a client of Iran). Bahrain made a similar charge in December 1981, when it
accused Iran of organizing a coup by Bahraini Shiites (the Islamic Front for the Liberation
of Bahrain, IFLB). Bahrain’s relations with Qatar have improved dramatically since a
1986 territorial clash and legal dispute, which Bahrain won at the International Court of
Justice. The two have announced plans to build a causeway linking each to the other.
Arab-Israeli Issues. Bahrain has mostly followed a Gulf consensus on the ArabIsraeli peace process. During 1990-1996, Bahrain participated in the multilateral ArabIsraeli talks that addressed regional issues, and it hosted a multilateral working group
conference on the environment (October 1994). However, Bahrain did not follow the lead
of Oman and Qatar by exchanging trade offices with Israel. In September 1994, the Gulf
states, including Bahrain, ceased enforcing secondary and tertiary boycotts of Israel,
which black listed companies doing business with Israel, while retaining the ban on direct
dealings (the primary boycott). The Foreign Relations Authorization Act for
FY1994/1995 (P.L. 103-236, Section 564(1)) banned U.S. arms transfers to countries that
maintain the Arab boycott of Israel. Successive administrations have waived the ban for
Bahrain and other GCC countries on national interest grounds. In conjunction with the
U.S.-Bahrain FTA, Bahrain has dropped the primary boycott and closed boycott-related
offices in Bahrain, according to officials of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR).
Anti-Terrorism Cooperation.8 The State Department says Bahrain provides
“important support” to U.S. counterterrorism efforts. It has frozen about $18 million in
terrorist-linked funds and, in November 2004, hosted the inaugural meeting of the Middle
East and North Africa Financial Action Task Force (MENA/FATF). In June 2004,
Bahrain arrested six alleged Al Qaeda militants, but then released them for lack of
evidence. They were re-arrested, but only after the U.S. military became alarmed and
ordered military family dependents to return to the United States.
8
Information in this section is taken from the State Department report, Country Reports on
Terrorism 2005, released April 2006 signed an FTA on September 14, 2005. Implementing legislation was
signed January 11, 2006 (H.R. 4340, P.L. 109-169).
Other Regional Relations and Anti-Terrorism Cooperation
Bahrain’s concerns about Iran stem mostly from Iran’s perceived willingness and
ability to support Shiite oppositionists against Bahrain’s Sunni-dominated government
of Bahrain. The concern has been heightened by the Shiite dominance of post-Saddam
Iraq and related sectarian violence there. In December 1981, and then again in June 1996,
Bahrain publicly accused Iran of trying to organizing a coup by pro-Iranian Bahraini
Shiites (the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain, IFLB). The government has
consistently blamed Iran for the internal unrest that took place in the late 1990s and
subsequently. Some Bahraini leaders suspect that Iran eventually wants to overturn the
results of the 1970 U.N. referendum, discussed above; those concerns were aggravated
by a July 2007 Iranian newspaper article reasserting the Iranian claim. However, that
article, along with the Bahraini Crown Prince’s November 3, 2007 comment that Iran is
developing a nuclear weapon (Iran claims it is building only nuclear power capabilities)
did not mar the visit of Iranian President Ahmadinejad to Bahrain on November 17, 2007.
The visit produced an agreement for Bahrain to buy Iranian natural gas.
Arab-Israeli Issues. On the Arab-Israeli dispute, Bahrain participated in the 19901996 multilateral Arab-Israeli talks, and it hosted a session on the environment (October
1994). However, Bahrain did not follow Oman and Qatar in exchanging trade offices with
Israel. In September 1994, all the Gulf states ceased enforcing secondary and tertiary
boycotts of Israel, which black listed companies doing business with Israel, while
retaining the ban on direct trade (primary boycott). The Foreign Relations Authorization
Act for FY1994/1995 (P.L. 103-236, Section 564(1)) banned U.S. arms transfers to
countries that maintain the Arab boycott of Israel, but successive administrations have
waived the ban for all the GCC states on national interest grounds. In conjunction with
the U.S.-Bahrain FTA, Bahrain has dropped the primary boycott and closed boycottrelated offices in Bahrain. However, Islamist hardliners in the COR have called on the
government to reopen the boycott office, to refrain from attending the November 27, 2007
summit on Middle East peace in Annapolis, and to explain why Bahrain’s foreign minister
met with the Israeli Foreign Minister during U.N. meetings in New York in September.
Anti-Terrorism Cooperation. The State Department’s report on international
terrorism for 2006 (released April 2007) credits Bahrain with enacting legislation to
combat terrorism and its financing, including laws criminalizing terrorism and the
undeclared transfer of money in support of terrorism. It continues to host the Middle East
and North Africa Financial Action Task Force (MENA/FATF) secretariat. However, the
report notes that Bahrain has not overcome legal constraints that have derailed
prosecutions and incarcerations of suspected terrorists, even some who have admitted to
traveling to Afghanistan to fight U.S.-led forces there.