Order Code RL32427
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Millennium Challenge Account
Updated August 1, 2006January 3, 2007
Curt Tarnoff
Specialist in Foreign Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
Millennium Challenge Account
Summary
In a speech on March 14, 2002, President Bush outlined a proposal for a major
new U.S. foreign aid initiative. The Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) is
managed by the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) and provides assistance,
through a competitive selection process, to developing nations that are pursing
political and economic reforms in three areas: ruling justly, investing in people, and
fostering economic freedom. If fully implemented, the initiative would represent one
of the largest increases in foreign aid spending in half a century, outpaced only by the
Marshall Plan following World War II and the Latin America-focused Alliance for
Progress in the early 1960s.
The MCC differs in several respects from past and current U.S. aid practices:
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the size of the $5 billion commitment;
the
the competitive process that rewards countries for past and current
actions measured by 16 objective performance indicators;
the pledge to segregate the funds from U.S. strategic foreign policy
objectives that often strongly influence where U.S. aid is spent; and
the requirement to solicit program proposals developed solely by
qualifying countries with broad-based civil society involvement.
As announced by the President in March 2002, the initial plan had been to fund
the MCC annually at $5 billion by FY2006, but this figure has not yet been reached.
The Administration sought a combined $6.8 billion for the MCA program, FY2004FY2006, while Congress appropriated $4.2 billion, or roughly two-thirds of the total
sought. For FY2007, the MCC requestsrequested $3 billion, the House approved $2 billion,
and the Senate Appropriations recommends $1.9 billion. As announced by the
President in March 2002, the initial plan had been to fund the MCC annually at $5
billion by FY2006recommended $1.9 billion. FY2007 funding is provided
under the terms of a continuing resolution (H.R. 5631/P.L.109-289, as amended)
which provides foreign aid spending at the FY2006 level or the House-passed
FY2007 level, whichever is less. The resolution expires on February 15, 2007.
Congress authorized the MCC in P.L. 108-199 (January 23, 2004). Since that
time, the MCC’s Board of Directors has selected 2325 eligible countries for FY2004
— FY2006, and signed eight FY2007 (another, the Gambia, was suspended in 2006) and signed eleven
Compacts with Madagascar (April 2005), Honduras
June 2005), Cape Verde (July
2005), Nicaragua (July 2005), Georgia (September
2005), Benin (February 2006),
Vanuatu (March 2006), and Armenia (March 2006).
A ninth Compact has been approved with Ghana (July 2006). Other MCA
implementation , Ghana (August 2006), Mali
(November 2006) and El Salvador (November 2006). Other MCA implementation
matters continue to unfold, including the relationship of MCA and
USAID, how to
support “threshold” countries, and the country programs.
A growing question raised by some Members of Congress concerns the level of
funding to support MCC programs. Some, noting that proposals received by the
Corporation in 2004have totaled more than $4.2 billion, fear that insufficient funds might
force the MCC to reduce the number of recipients or the size of the grants. Others,
however, believe that the slower-than-anticipated pace of Compact agreements
means that the Corporation has or will have enough resources, and have supported
reductions in MCC budget requests.
This report will be updated as events unfold.
Contents
Most Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
MCCMCA Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
MCC Implementation Steps and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Establishing the Millennium Challenge CorporationSelection Criteria and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Naming FY2004 Candidate Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Selecting Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Publishing the Selection Criteria and Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Country Selection7
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2004 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Country Selection — FY2004 . . . . . . . . . 8
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Country Selection7
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Country Selection — FY2005 . . . . . . . . . . 11
Continuity in the FY2005 Selection Round . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Excluding More Countries that Qualified10
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Naming Candidate Countries13
Country Selection — FY2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Country Selection — FY2006 . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 13
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Greater Board Selectivity? . . .16
Country Selection — FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Selection of Lower Middle-Income Countries was Less Clear . . . . . . 16
MCA Compacts and Program Proposals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
MCA Compacts .Compact Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
“Threshold” Countries and U.S. Assistance20
“Threshold” Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Role of USAID and the Future of Agency Programs in MCA Countries . . 26
Funding Issues — Previous and in the 109th Congress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
MCA Request and Congressional Action for FY200726
Select Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Authorizing Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Authorizes Appropriations . . . . . . .27
Role of USAID and the Future of Agency Programs in MCA Countries . . 27
Funding Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Allows Compacts to Cover a Longer Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Permits Multiple Compacts . . . .MCA Request and Congressional Action for FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Authorizing Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Adds New Notification Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
List of Tables
Table 1. Status of MCA Compacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Table 2. MCA Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold Countries — FY2004 . . . . 30
Table 3. MCA Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold Countries — FY2005 . . . . 31
Table 4AAppropriations: FY2004-2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Table 3A. MCA Low-Income Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold
Countries — FY2006FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230
Table 4B3B. MCA Lower Middle-Income Candidate and Eligible
Countries — FY2006FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3331
Table 54. MCC Performance Indicators for FY2006FY2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Millennium Challenge Account
Most Recent Developments1
On July 13, 2006, the House International Relations Committee reported H.R.
4014, the Millennium Challenge Reauthorization Act of 2006 (H.Rept. 109-563). In
addition to authorizing appropriations, the legislation would permit Compacts of
longer duration than the current five year limit, and would allow up to two Compacts
to occur concurrently. The bill adds the requirement that the MCC Board notifies
congressional authorizers and appropriators 15 days prior to the signing of a
Compact.
On July 12, 2006, the MCC Board approved a five-year $547 million Compact
with Ghana. The Compact would focus on agriculture, transportation, and rural
development needs.
On June 29, 2006, the Senate Appropriations Committee approved its version
of the FY2007 State/Foreign Operations appropriations, providing $1.9 billion for the
Millennium Challenge Corporation, $1.1 billion below the Administration request.
On June 16, 2006, the MCC Board suspended The Gambia from eligibility for
MCA assistance due to “a disturbing pattern of deteriorating conditions” in half of
the 16 conditions that are used to determine candidate countries. The Gambia had
been selected in November 2005 for eligibility in FY2006. Among the problems
cited in this case were human rights abuses, restrictions on civil liberties and press
freedom, and worsened anti-corruption efforts.
On June 9, 2006, the House approved H.R. 5522 (H.Rept. 109-486), the Foreign
Operations Appropriations, FY2007, providing $2 billion for the Millennium
Challenge Corporation in FY2007. This represents a $1 billion reduction from the
President’s $3 billion request, but an increase over the $1.75 billion provided for
FY2006.
Overview
In a speech on March 14, 2002, President Bush outlined a proposal for the
United States to increase foreign economic assistance beginning in FY2004 so that
by FY2006 American aid would be $5 billion higher than three years earlier. The
funds, referred to as the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA), is managed by a
new Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) providing assistance, through a
1
This report was originally written by Larry Nowels, who retired from CRS in June 2006.
CRS-2
competitive selection process, to developing nations that are pursing political and
economic reforms in three areas:
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Ruling justly — promoting good governance, fighting corruption,
respecting human rights, and adhering to the rule of law.
32
Millennium Challenge Account
Most Recent Developments1
Under the terms of a continuing resolution (H.R. 5631/P.L.109-289, as
amended), FY2007 funding for the MCA is provided at the FY2006 level ($1.75
billion) or the House-passed FY2007 level ($2.0 billion), whichever is less. The
resolution expires on February 15, 2007.
On November 29, 2006, a five-year $461 million Compact with El Salvador was
signed. The eleventh Compact to date would focus on education, clean water, poor
farmer and small business development, and road construction.
On November 13, 2006, a five-year $461 million Compact was signed with
Mali. The tenth Compact to date would focus on irrigation, airport improvement,
and development of an associated industrial park.
On November 8, 2006, the MCC Board added three new countries to the list of
those eligible for MCA compact grants. Moldova, Jordan, and Ukraine joined the 22
chosen in previous years, eleven of which already have Compacts. In addition, three
new threshold-eligible countries were chosen — Niger, Peru, and Rwanda.
In the FY2007 selection process, the MCC Board adopted two new indicators
measuring a country’s commitment to policies that promote sustainable management
of natural resources. The Natural Resources Management index and the Land Rights
and Access index were applied for FY2007 only to supplement other indicators.
However, the new indicators may be integrated into the “Investing in People”
category in FY2008.
Overview
In a speech on March 14, 2002, President Bush outlined a proposal for a new
program that would represent a fundamental change in the way the United States
invests and delivers economic assistance. The resulting Millennium Challenge
Account (MCA), managed by a new Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC),
provides assistance, through a competitive selection process, to developing nations
that are pursing political and economic reforms in three areas:
!
1
Ruling justly — promoting good governance, fighting corruption,
respecting human rights, and adhering to the rule of law.
This report was originally written by Larry Nowels, who retired from CRS in June 2006.
CRS-2
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Investing in people — providing adequate health care, education,
and other opportunities promoting an educated and healthy
population.
Fostering enterprise and entrepreneurship — promoting open
markets and sustainable budgets.
If fully implemented, the initiative would represent one of the largest increases in
foreign aid spending in half a century, outpaced only by the Marshall Plan following
World War II and the Latin America-focused Alliance for Progress in the early
1960s. It would also represent a fundamental change in the way the United States
invests and delivers economic assistance.
While the program was established and initially funded during the 108th
Congress, the 109th Congress has been and As the new agency develops, the 110th Congress will continue to debate MCC funding
issues, as well asMCA
funding issues and conduct oversight hearings on operations of the Corporation. In
2006, Congress is also considering changes to the authorizing legislation, as
proposed in H.R. 4014.
MCC Background2
The concept
MCA Background2
The concept of the MCA is based on the premise that economic development
succeeds best
where it is linked to free market economic and democratic principles
and policies,
and where governments are committed to implementing reform
measures in order to
achieve such goals. The MCC differsMCA proposal differed in several
fundamental respects from past and
current U.S. aid practices:
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the size of the original $5 billion commitment;
the competitive process that will reward countries for past actions
measured by 16 objective performance indicators;
the pledge to segregate the funds from U.S. strategic foreign policy
objectives that often strongly influence where U.S. aid is spent; and
the requirement to solicit program proposals developed solely by
qualifying countries with broad-based civil society involvement.
The new initiative, which Congress authorized in January 2004 (Division D of
P.L. 108-199),3 was scheduled to phase in over a three-year period, beginning in
2
For a more in-depth discussion of the original MCA proposal and issues debated by
Congress in 2003, see CRS Report RL31687, The Millennium Challenge Account:
Congressional Consideration of a New Foreign Aid Initiative, by Larry Nowels.
3
Table 2, found at the end of this report, provides a summary of major MCA issues and
compares positions approved by the House, Senate, and Conference Committee during the
(continued...)
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FY2004. During the first year, MCCFY2004. During the first year, MCA participation was limited to the 74 poorest
nations with per capita incomes below $1,415 and that were eligible to borrow from
the World Bank’s International Development Association. The list expanded in
FY2005 to include all countries with a per capita income below $1,465 (adding
another 13 nations). Beginning in FY2006 and beyond, all lower middle-income
countries (with per capita incomes between $1,575675 and $3,255 may 465 in FY2007) may
compete for MCC
resources (adding another 29 countries in FY2006 and FY2007).
Country selection is based largely, but not exclusively, on the nation’s record
measured by 16 performance indicators related to the three categories, or “baskets,”
of good governance, economic freedom, and investing in people. Countries that
score above the median on half of the indicators in each of the three areas qualify.
Emphasizing the importance of fighting corruption, the indicator for corruption is a
“pass/fail” test: should a country fall below the median on the corruption indicator,
it will be disqualified from consideration unless other, more recent trends suggest
otherwise. (See Table 14 below for a complete list of the 16 performance indicators.)
Administration officials, since announcing the MCCMCA initiative in 2002, have said that the
2
For a more in-depth discussion of the original MCA proposal and issues debated by
Congress in 2003, see CRS Report RL31687, The Millennium Challenge Account:
Congressional Consideration of a New Foreign Aid Initiative, by Larry Nowels.
CRS-3
the selection process would be guided by, but not necessarily bound to the outcomes of
of the performance indicators. Missing or old data, general trends, and recent steps
taken by governments might also be taken into account when annual decisions are
made.
Eligibility to receive MCA assistance, however, does not necessarily result in
an aid grant. Once selected, countries are required to submit program proposals —
referred to as MCA Compacts — that have been developed through a broad-based,
national discussion that includes input from civil society. The focus of program
submissions may vary among countries in size, purpose, and degree of specificity,
and are evaluated by the Corporation for, among other things, how well the Compact
supports a nation’s economic growth and poverty reduction goals. Only those
Compacts that meet the MCCMCA criteria will be funded. It is expected that successful
Compacts will support programs lasting three to five years, providing a level of
resources roughly equivalent to the largest providers of assistance in the country. In
most cases, this will likely result in a significant increase of U.S. economic assistance
to MCA participant countries.
To manage the new initiative, the Administration proposed and Congress
authorized the creation of a Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC), an
independent government entity separate from the Departments of State and the
Treasury and from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). The
MCC plans for an eventual staff of about 300, up significantly from initial estimates,
drawn from various government agencies, non-governmental organizations, and the
private sector, and led by a CEO confirmed by the Senate. The current CEO is
Ambassador John Danilovich.3 A Board of Directors,
chaired by the Secretary of
State and composed of the Secretary of the Treasury, the
USAID Administrator, the
U.S. Trade Representative, and the Corporation’s CEO,
oversees operations of the
MCC and makes the country selections. Four additional
Board members, two of
which have yet to be confirmed by the Senate, are individuals
3
(...continued)
2003 debate.
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from the private sector
drawn from lists of proposed nominees submitted by
Congressional leaders.4
The decision to house the MCA in a new organization was one of the most
debated issues during early congressional deliberations of the President’s foreign aid
initiative. The Administration argued that because the MCA represents a new
concept in aid delivery, it should have a “fresh” organizational structure,
unencumbered by bureaucratic authorities and regulations that would interfere in
effective management. Critics, however, contended that if the MCA is placed
outside the formal U.S. government foreign aid structure, it would lead to further
fragmentation of policy development and consistency. Some believed that USAID,
the principal U.S. aid agency, should manage the MCA, while others said that the
MCA should reside in the State Department where more U.S. foreign policy entities
have been integrated in recent years. At least, some argued, the USAID
3
4
Replacing Paul Applegarth who resigned on August 8, 2005.
On July 13, 2004, the Senate confirmed two of the four new Board members: Kenneth
Hackett, President and CEO of Catholic Relief Services, and Christine Todd Whitman,
former Governor of New Jersey and former head of the Environmental Protection Agency,
2001-2003. No further nominees have been submitted by the White House.
CRS-4
Administrator should be a member of the MCC Board, which had not been proposed
in the initial Administration request.
It appears that the MCC’s status will remain unchanged under Secretary Rice’s
realignment of foreign aid authorities, announced on January 19, 2006. Randall
Tobias, the new USAID Administrator, also serves concurrently in the newly created
State State
Department position of Director of Foreign Assistance. While gaining policy
and and
budget authority over nearly all USAID and State Department foreign aid
programs,
the Director will play a more limited role in other agency activities, by
developing developing
an overall U.S. government development strategy and providing
“guidance” to
foreign aid programs delivered through other agencies like the MCC.
For FY2004, the Administration sought $1.3 billion for the MCA’s first year,
a level reduced by Congress to $994 million. The FY2005 budget proposed $2.5
billion while Congress approved $1.488 billion. Congressional reductions continued
in FY2006, as lawmakers trimmed the $3 billion request to roughly $1.75 billion
(after adjusting for a 1% across-the-board rescission). For FY2007, the
Administration again seekssought $3 billion for the MCC. On June 9, 2006, the House
approved $2 billion for the MCC in the Foreign Operations bill (H.R. 5522). On
June 29, 2006, the Senate Appropriations Committee approved its version of the
FY2007 State/Foreign Operations appropriations, providing $1.9 billion for the
MCC.
MCC Implementation Steps and Issues
The passage of legislation on January 23, 2004 authorizing and funding the
MCC for FY2004 (Division D of P.L. 108-199) launched a period of 90 days during
which the new Corporation formed, issued required reports, consulted with Congress
and the public, and selected first year participant countries. Within 10 days of
4
On July 13, 2004, the Senate confirmed two of the four new Board members: Kenneth
Hackett, President and CEO of Catholic Relief Services, and Christine Todd Whitman,
former Governor of New Jersey and former head of the Environmental Protection Agency,
2001-2003. No further nominees have been submitted by the White House.
CRS-5
enactment However, under the terms of a continuing resolution (H.R. 5631/P.L.109-289,
as amended), FY2007 funding for the MCA is provided at the FY2006 level ($1.75
billion) or the House-passed FY2007 level ($2.0 billion), whichever is less. The
resolution expires on February 15, 2007.
MCC Implementation Steps and Issues
On February 2, 2004, the Board of Directors held its initial meeting to establish
the program,
and over and agreed to Corporation by-laws. Over the following weeks the
Corporation identified “candidate” countries for
FY2004 that fiscal year, published the criteria
and methodology to be used for country selection,
solicited public comments, issued guidelines for Compact
proposals, and, on May 6,
2004, selected 16 countries to participate in the MCA’s first year of operations. This
was followed on November 10 with the selection of FY2005 eligible MCA countries,
an action that added one new participant to the FY2004 list. The MCA Board issued
its third round of selections on November 8, 2005, choosing 23 countries, six of
which are new for FY2006. In addition, 18 countries have been named as threshold
nations — those that just missed qualifying as eligible countries — for FY2005 and
FY2006.
Implementation matters that continue to unfold in 2006 include the relationship
of MCC programs with those operated by USAID, how the Corporation and USAID
will support threshold countries to better prepare for future performance reviews, the
awarding of MCA grants — in the form of Compacts — to MCA eligible countries,
funding for FY2007, and the selection of FY2007 eligible countries.
Establishing the Millennium Challenge Corporation
On February 2, 2004, the Board of Directors met, agreed to Corporation bylaws, and approved then-Under Secretary of State Larson as the interim CEO.
Subsequently, the President nominated Paul Applegarth to be the permanent MCC
CEO, an individual confirmed by the Senate on May 5.5
Naming FY2004 Candidate Countries
Also on February 2, the MCC Board issued a list of 63 “candidate” countries
that would be reviewed for possible selection as MCA participants in FY2004. These
countries, according to authorizing legislation, must be eligible for assistance from
the World Bank’s International Development Association, have a per capita income
of $1,415 or less, and not be otherwise ineligible to receive U.S. assistance. The
latter condition eliminated twelve countries — Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Central
African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Serbia, Somalia, Sudan,
Uzbekistan, and Zimbabwe — that were statutorily barred from receiving American
aid.6
5
CEO Applegarth resigned his position, effective August 8, 2005. President Bush has
nominated John Danilovich, currently the U.S. Ambassador to Brazil, as the new CEO.
6
Various types of aid restrictions applied to these countries. For several — Burundi,
Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, and Sudan — U.S. aid was blocked
because an elected head of government had been deposed by a military coup. For Cambodia
and Uzbekistan, legislation banned FY2004 assistance to the central governments of these
countries. Aid restrictions imposed on nations not cooperating in counter-narcotics efforts
(Burma), that are on the terrorist list (Sudan), or in arrears on debt owed the United States
(Liberia, Somalia, and Zimbabwe) also applied. Serbia could not receive aid in FY2004
unless the President issued a determination stating, among other things, that the government
was cooperating with the International Criminal Tribunal. Notwithstanding these
(continued...)
CRS-6
Publishing the countries to participate in the MCA program. Although
subsequent years have seen similar steps, there have been changes in procedures and
policy as the program evolves. These are discussed below.
Selection Criteria and Methodology
Pursuant to reporting requirements set in the MCC legislation, the Corporation
on March 5, 2004 sent to Congress an overview of the criteria and methodology that
would be used to determine the eligibility of the 63 candidate countries in FY2004.
The report suggested that there would be relatively few and only minor changes to
the criteria and methodology that had been outlined 15 months earlier. The same 16
performance indicators, as listed in Table 14 below, would be utilized. In a few cases,
data sources shifted from international institutions to national governments. This
was especially true in cases where existing data for an indicator were old or
incomplete.
CRS-5
Although the Corporation did not alter any of the original 16 performance
indicators, it attempted to address additional criteria added by Congress in P.L. 108199 through the use of supplemental data and qualitative information. While the
legislative authorities broadly match criteria proposed by the Administration,
lawmakers included four additional matters on which to evaluate a country’s
performance. These relate to the degree to which a country:
!
!
!
!
recognizes the rights of people with disabilities;
supports a sustainable management of natural resources;
respects worker rights; and
makes social investments, especially in women and girls.
For an evaluation of the rights of people with disabilities, the MCC reported that it
would draw on information in the State Department’s annual Human Rights Report,
which includes a discussion of discrimination based on disability. Regarding natural
resource management, the Corporation would also use the Human Rights Report as
supplemental information on such issues as access to sanitation, deforestation,
conservation of land and marine resources, land tenure institutions, and protection
of threatened and endangered species. The State Department’s Human Rights Report
would also be used for additional information regarding worker rights, while
statistics on girls’ primary enrollment rates would supplement the four social
investment performance indicators.
The MCC also noted that it would use the most recent release (then October
2003) of Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index to update and
supplement the World Bank’s survey data on which corruption performance indicator
is based. This was necessary because the World Bank information was last published
in March 2003. Since the corruption indicator is a “pass/fail” measure, the quality
and timeliness of the data are especially important.
Given the range and diversity of suggestions offered throughout the public and
congressional debate of the MCC, many observers were surprised that the
Corporation did not propose more substantive changes to the criteria and
6
(...continued)
restrictions, each country remained eligible for humanitarian assistance from the United
States.
CRS-7
methodology. Some questioned how seriously the Administration considered
alternative approaches and whether the Corporation would be open to future
revisions.7 During the public comment period and at congressional oversight
hearings, During the public comment period and at congressional oversight hearings,
some suggested that existing data sources needed to be refined or new
surveys surveys
created in order to specifically measure a country’s commitment on the four
criteria criteria
added by Congress.
After further study of the criteria and methodology, the
Corporation announced
on August 26, 2004, a revised set of performance indicators
that were used for the
FY2005 selection process. The MCC lowered the inflation
rate threshold from 20%
to 15%, making it somewhat more difficult to pass this test
(only 6 of the 63
candidate countries failed this test for FY2004). An indicator
measuring girls’
primary education completion rates replaced a broader measure used
in FY2004 that
did not disaggregate primary education graduation by gender. As
noted above,
including the means to measure country performance on key women
and girls issues
was one of the requirements added by Congress during deliberation
on MCC
authorizing legislation.
For FY2006, the Corporation made further changes in the criteria and
methodology. The most notable was the addition of a new indicator — the Cost of
Starting a Business — that replaced the Country Credit Rating, a measure that was
used in the FY2004 and FY2005 evaluation process. Data for the Cost of Starting
a Business are drawn from the World Bank’s Doing Business report, the same source
for another MCC indicator of Days to Start a Business. The Corporation believes
CRS-6
that not only does the new indicator have a strong correlation with economic growth,
but that it is a measurement that may encourage governments to take action in order
to improve their scores. Since the initial use of the indicator Days to Start a
Business, MCA candidates countries have introduced many business start-up
reforms, the results of which have been reflected in a lowered median for this
category. MCC officials hope that adding an indicator for the Cost of Starting a
Business will stimulate additional policy improvements. They believe that the
Country Credit Rating indicator is not as well linked to policy reforms and that it has
a greater income bias than other MCC indicators.
The Corporation also modified the principal, in selected cases, that countries
must score above the median in order to pass a hurdle, with a rule that scores at the
median will represent a passing grade. This comes into play especially for those
indicators (civil liberties, political rights, and trade policy) where performance is
measured on a relatively narrow scale of 1-5 or 1-7. A number of countries fall
exactly on the median of these indicators and the methodology change allows the
MCC to make a more refined determination of whether a country passes or fails these
hurdles.
The MCC further indicated that it willwould explore additional criteria and
methodology changes for the future. Under consideration are options to:
7
See, for example, Steve Radelet, et al., A Comment on the Millennium Challenge Account
Selection Process, Center for Global Development, March 9, 2004.
CRS-8were options to:
!
!
!
identify a measurement related to natural resource management; the
MCC has created a working group to study possibilities.
review other possible indicators that would better measure trade
barriers that are linked with economic growth.
consider additional gender-relation indicators; the MCC looked
closely at the indicator of Skilled Attendants at Birth (a proxy for
maternal mortality) but decided for now that the data lack the
necessary quality and coverage.8
After releasing on January 20, 2006, a set of guidelines the Corporation will use in
evaluating proposals for their environmental and social impact, CEO Danilovich
announced that a new indicator for natural resources will be forthcoming in the near
term for use in the selection of FY2007 qualified countries.9
Country Selection — FY2004
On May 6, the MCC Board of Directors determined that 16 countries would be
eligible for FY2004 MCA funding and invited 5
Efforts to develop a measurement to assess a country’s commitment to policies
that promote sustainable management of natural resources (as required by MCC
authorizing legislation) culminated in the November 2006 adoption of two new
indicators to be used as supplemental information in determining FY2007 MCA
eligibility. The Natural Resources Management index is a composite of indicators:
whether the country is protecting at least 10% of its biomes, the percentage of
population with access to sanitation and clean water, and child mortality levels. The
Land Rights and Access index looks at whether land tenure is secure and access to
land is equitable, and the number of days and cost of registering property. These
measures will be applied for FY2007 only to supplement other indicators, in the way
that the disabilities analysis of the State Department Human Rights Report and
Transparency International’s Corruption index is currently used. However, the new
indicators may be integrated into the “Investing in People” category in FY2008.
5
For a complete discussion of this issue, see Report on the Criteria Methodology for
Determining Eligibility of Candidate Countries for Millennium Challenge Account
Assistance in FY2006, at [http://www.mcc.gov], Congressional Reports.
CRS-7
In December 2006, Ambassador Danilovich announced that the MCC would
apply gender analysis to all aspects of the MCC program, including country selection
and Compact development and implementation.
Selecting Countries
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2004. On February 2, 2004, the MCC
Board issued a list of 63 “candidate” countries that would be reviewed for possible
selection as MCA participants in FY2004. These countries, according to authorizing
legislation, must be eligible for assistance from the World Bank’s International
Development Association, have a per capita income of $1,415 or less, and not be
otherwise ineligible to receive U.S. assistance. The latter condition eliminated
twelve countries — Burma, Burundi, Cambodia, Central African Republic, Cote
d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Serbia, Somalia, Sudan, Uzbekistan, and Zimbabwe
— that were statutorily barred from receiving American aid.6
Country Selection — FY2004. On May 6, the MCC Board of Directors
determined that 16 countries would be eligible for FY2004 MCA funding and invited
each to submit program proposals:
Armenia
Benin
Bolivia
Cape Verde
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Lesotho
Madagascar
Mali
Mongolia
Mozambique
Nicaragua
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Vanuatu
As expected, the selection process raised a number of questions and concerns. The
Administration had previously said that the Board would be guided by, but not
entirely bound to, the outcome of the performance indicator review process; that
Board members could apply discretion in their selection. Performance trends,
missing or old data, and recent policy actions might come into play during selection
deliberations, officials noted.
6
Various types of aid restrictions applied to these countries. For several — Burundi,
Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea-Bissau, and Sudan — U.S. aid was blocked
because an elected head of government had been deposed by a military coup. For Cambodia
and Uzbekistan, legislation banned FY2004 assistance to the central governments of these
countries. Aid restrictions imposed on nations not cooperating in counter-narcotics efforts
(Burma), that are on the terrorist list (Sudan), or in arrears on debt owed the United States
(Liberia, Somalia, and Zimbabwe) also applied. Serbia could not receive aid in FY2004
unless the President issued a determination stating, among other things, that the government
was cooperating with the International Criminal Tribunal. Notwithstanding these
restrictions, each country remained eligible for humanitarian assistance from the United
States.
CRS-8
The final selection reflected decisions that both strictly followed the
performance indicator outcomes and applied Board discretion to take into account
other factors. Ten of the countries complied with the stated criteria: performing
above the median in relation to their peers on at least half of the indicators in each
of the three policy “baskets” and performing above the median on corruption. The
Board also examined whether a country performed substantially below average on
8
For a complete discussion of this issue, see Report on the Criteria Methodology for
Determining Eligibility of Candidate Countries for Millennium Challenge Account
Assistance in FY2006, at [http://www.mcc.gov], Congressional Reports.
9
See remarks of John Danilovich at conference held by the American Enterprise Institute
on January 23, 2006. Available at
http://www.mcc.gov/public_affairs/events/012306_2nd_anniversary_AEI_trans.shtml
CRS-9
any single indicator and whether their selection was supported by supplemental
information. Each of the ten countries also passed these additional tests.
For ten other countries, however, some discretion was applied by the Board. In
three cases, countries which met the criteria but fell significantly below average on
one indicator were still selected by the Board due to recent policy changes or positive
trend lines. Cape Verde, for example, scored poorly on the Trade Policy indicator,
but the Board took into account the country’s progress towards joining the World
Trade Organization and implementing a value added tax that will reduce reliance on
import tariffs. Lesotho did not score well on the measurement for Days to Start a
Business. The MCC Board, however, took note of Lesotho’s creation of a central
office to facilitate new business formation and saw positive performance on other
factors related to business start-ups. Sri Lanka scored far below the median on Fiscal
Policy, but the most recent trends suggested that the government was making
progress in reducing its budget deficit.
For three other countries — Bolivia, Georgia, and Mozambique — the Board
deviated from a strict application of the selection criteria because of evidence that the
governments were taking corrective actions in the deficient areas. Bolivia fell at the
median (as opposed to above the median) on the corruption indicator, something that
would eliminate it from consideration. The Board, however, noted that President
Mesa, who took office in October 2003, had created a cabinet position to coordinate
anti-corruption activities and an office to investigate police corruption. Georgia, with
a newly elected government that had created an anti-corruption bureau and taken
other steps to fight corruption, was also selected despite scoring below the median
on corruption and three other “ruling justly” indicators. Mozambique, which failed
on corruption and each of the four “investing in people” indicators, was chosen based
on supplemental data that was more current than information available from the
primary data sources. This evidence, the Board felt, demonstrated Mozambique’s
commitment to fighting corruption and improving its performance on health and
education.
On the other hand, the MCC Board chose not to select four countries that
technically met the performance criteria but fell substantially below the median on
one or more indicator. In each of these cases, the Board did not believe that the
government was taking any action to improve its performance. Although Bhutan,
Mauritania, and Vietnam passed the corruption hurdle and half of the “ruling justly”
indicators, they scored very low on the measurements for Political Rights and Civil
Liberties, and in Vietnam’s case, on the Voice and Accountability indicator. A fourth
CRS-9
country — Guyana — was also not selected despite passing the necessary hurdles.
It scored particularly low on the Fiscal Policy measurement.107
It has been long assumed by MCC officials and close observers of the MCA
initiative that when the country selections were announced, there would be
disagreements and possible surprises in the final list, especially if the Board exercised
10
For a complete statement regarding the Board’s rationale, see Report on the Selection of
MCA Eligible Countries for FY2004, found at [http://www.mcc.gov], “Congressional
Reports.”
CRS-10
its discretionary authority as it did for FY2004 participants. Representative Lowey,
for example, expressed her view at a May 13, 2004 House Appropriations Committee
hearing that East Timor, which failed to pass the “economic freedom” hurdle in part
due to missing data on two of the indicators, should have been selected. CEO
Applegarth responded that East Timor is a new nation and that it was premature to
conclude that it was a “high-performing” country. He acknowledged, however, that
East Timor should be given close consideration in the future if the current trend lines
continue.
Besides East Timor, some suggested that Kenya should have been included
because of its new government’s commitment to education and anti-corruption
efforts. USAID Administrator Natsios acknowledged at the May 13 hearing that
Albania was a “close call,” failing because it scored slightly below the median on
corruption. Like Albania, Malawi and Moldova would have qualified on the basis
of performance if not for slightly failing scores on corruption. Several small island
states, including Kiribati, Sao Tome, and Tonga, were not selected even though the
absence of data for several categories may have played a role.118
Despite these questions over specific country eligibility, the selection process
appeared to have satisfied two major concerns that have been consistently expressed
over the past year. Based on earlier analysis, some argued that Africa would be
under-represented in the final selection process, with perhaps as few as three regional
states participating. In fact, eight, or half of the first year qualifying nations are from
Africa.
Selection of countries that would give the appearance of geostrategic
considerations was an additional concern of many who view the absence of securityrelated factors from MCA decision-making as one of the most attractive features of
the initiative. For the most past, the Board appeared to have avoided this concern.
Had the Board used its discretionary powers to select Indonesia, for example, some
critics would have likely charged that the decision stemmed more from Jakarta’s role
in the war on terrorism than on strict policy performance. Indonesia passed all
necessary hurdles except for corruption. Some, nevertheless, have questioned
whether Georgia’s selection was driven by broad U.S. foreign policy objectives of
assisting a smooth political transition in the country rather than a choice based on
performance.12 Likewise, Bolivia, a country in which the United States maintains
strong counter-narcotics goals, had been experiencing a period of instability despite
strong performance prior to October 2003. Both Georgia and Bolivia were selected
despite not strictly meeting the MCA performance criteria.
11
7
For a complete statement regarding the Board’s rationale, see Report on the Selection of
MCA Eligible Countries for FY2004, found at [http://www.mcc.gov], “Congressional
Reports.”
8
As noted below, East Timor, Albania, and Sao Tome were subsequently selected as three
of the first seven “threshold” countries that will receive assistance to help the country meet the
MCA requirements.
12
See Steve Radelet, A Note on the MCC Selection Process for 2005, September 23, 2004,
found at [http://www.cgdev.org].
CRS-11
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2005
On July 20, 2004, the MCC Board of Directors launched the initial step in the
FY2005 selection process by naming 70 candidate countries, 7 more than were
reviewed for FY2004. After adjusting the per capita income upward to $1,46513 and
dropping the requirement that a country must be an IDA-eligible borrower from the
World Bank, 11 new countries were added to the list: China, Egypt, Equatorial
Guinea, Iraq, Morocco, Paraguay, Philippines, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, and
Ukraine. Four countries fell off the FY2005 list that had qualified in FY2004 —
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Cape Verde, and Tonga — because their per
capita income grew beyond the $1,465 cutoff. Thirteen other nations were excluded
because they were ineligible for other U.S. economic assistance.14
Country Selection — FY2005
Meeting on November 8, the MCC Board of Directors made its selection of
the MCA requirements.
CRS-10
performance.9 Likewise, Bolivia, a country in which the United States maintains
strong counter-narcotics goals, had been experiencing a period of instability despite
strong performance prior to October 2003. Both Georgia and Bolivia were selected
despite not strictly meeting the MCA performance criteria.
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2005. On July 20, 2004, the MCC
Board of Directors launched the initial step in the FY2005 selection process by
naming 70 candidate countries, 7 more than were reviewed for FY2004. After
adjusting the per capita income upward to $1,46510 and dropping the requirement that
a country must be an IDA-eligible borrower from the World Bank, 11 new countries
were added to the list: China, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Iraq, Morocco, Paraguay,
Philippines, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, and Ukraine. Four countries fell off
the FY2005 list that had qualified in FY2004 — Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Cape Verde, and Tonga — because their per capita income grew beyond the $1,465
cutoff. Thirteen other nations were excluded because they were ineligible for other
U.S. economic assistance.11
Country Selection — FY2005. Meeting on November 8, the MCC Board
of Directors made its selection of FY2005 eligible countries:
Armenia
Benin
Bolivia
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Lesotho
Madagascar
Mali
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Nicaragua
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Vanuatu
The Board chose one new country for FY2005 — Morocco — while 15 of the 16
nations included for FY2004 were determined eligible again for FY2005. Cape
Verde was not selected due to the fact that its per capita GNI exceeded the $1,465
ceiling. Cape Verde, however, remained eligible for MCA support using FY2004
funds. Board selections represented both a high degree of continuity between
FY2004 decisions as well as a sharp difference in the degree to which it applied its
discretionary authority for qualifying or denying countries for FY2005.
13
9
See Steve Radelet, A Note on the MCC Selection Process for 2005, September 23, 2004,
found at [http://www.cgdev.org].
10
The MCC plans to adjust the per capita income threshold each year to correspond to the
per capita income cutoff of the “historic ceiling” of IDA lending, a calculation made by the
World Bank. In future years After 2006,when all lower middle-income countries will bebecame eligible to
compete, the MCC also will adjustadjusted that threshold — which grew from $2,975 in 2003 to
$3,035 in 2004 and to $3,255 in 2005$3,465 in 2007 — in the consideration
of determining candidate
countries.
14
11
Eleven of these countries were also excluded in FY2004. Serbia, which was barred from
consideration for FY2004, exceeded the per capita income limit for FY2005 so was not
under consideration. Syria and Cuba, which became potential candidate countries beginning
in FY2005, were excluded because of a ban on direct aid to the countries. See Footnote 5,
above, for a complete list of countries and aid restrictions.
CRS-1211
FY2004 decisions as well as a sharp difference in the degree to which it applied its
discretionary authority for qualifying or denying countries for FY2005.
Continuity in the FY2005 Selection Round. The fact that each country
(except Cape Verde) selected for FY2004 MCA participation was also declared
eligible for FY2005 should not be surprising, given the nature of the MCA concept.
The Board identified in May 2004 what it determined to be the 16 “best performers”
based on the assumption that these countries had, and would continue to express, a
strong commitment to the types of economic, governance, and social policy reforms
measured by the MCC. Absent a substantial negative development since May, there
was a presumed expectation that these same countries would score well in a
subsequent performance comparison with their income peers. Moreover, except in
some extreme situations, evidence of a slide in policy performance as measured
through the various data sources would likely lag behind the actual policy shift and
not be reflected in the immediate data updates.
In addition, two other factors that may not apply in future years seem to have
affected the outcome for FY2005. First, with the selection dates for FY2004 and
FY2005 coming only six months apart — rather than one year, as should be the case
in the future — it was likely that the data would indicate less change than might be
the case if the comparisons occurred over a longer period. Between May and
November, several of the data sources upon which the 16 performance indicators are
based did not update or revise their figures.1512 As a result, the review of countries for
FY2005 was based on much of the same data and rankings as had been the case for
the FY2004 selection.
Moreover, the addition of 13 new countries for consideration in the FY2005
round had the effect for at least six of the indicators of lowering the median against
which countries were compared. Because of this, if a country scored well — above
the median — in the FY2004 selection decision, it was likely that it would score the
same or better in the review for FY2005 where medians declined. For example, in
May, Bolivia fell exactly at the median on the corruption indicator. But, in
November,
when the median for corruption dropped somewhat after new countries
were added,
Bolivia scored above the median even though Bolivia’s score on
corruption did not
change. This phenomena is unlikely to be repeated again to the
same extent since
countries in the low-income group will be added or subtracted only
if their economy
grows beyond the per capita income ceiling or U.S. foreign aid
sanctions are applied
or lifted since the last review. The net effect is that the core set
of low-income
countries competing for MCA selection is unlikely to change as much
as it did in
FY2005, thereby reducing the extent to which the median will be altered simply
simply because of the addition of new countries.
Excluding More Countries that Qualified. Despite the degree of
continuity between FY2004 and FY2005 in the selection of eligible countries, the
MCC Board departed somewhat from the previous round by not selecting a large
15
12
This is not true for the performance indicators of Inflation and Primary Girls Graduation
Rate, which were modified for the FY2005 selection, or for the indicators measuring Days
to Start a Business, Civil Liberties, and Political Freedom which were updated in 2004. For
some of the other economic and social investment indicators where data were drawn from
national sources, revised figures were used in the FY2005 selection, but only where
available. World Bank data for six governance-related indicators and the Trade Policy
measurement, however, were not revised between May and November 2004.
CRS-1312
Excluding More Countries that Qualified. Despite the degree of
continuity between FY2004 and FY2005 in the selection of eligible countries, the
MCC Board departed somewhat from the previous round by not selecting a large
number of countries that technically met the MCA performance criteria. Many
observers raised questions over the FY2005 selections regarding the countries that
were not selected rather than those that were.
As noted above, in May 2004, the Board chose not to select four countries —
Bhutan, Guyana, Mauritania, and Vietnam — although each passed the minimum
number of indicators. The Board decided to exclude these four because they scored
“substantially below” the median on one or more measurements, although without
defining precisely what represented a mark “substantially below”the median.
For FY2005, the Board did not select 10 countries that met the criteria,
including three of the four left out of the FY2004 round (Mauritania did not meet the
minimum qualifications). In addition, for FY2005 Burkina Faso, China, Djibouti,
Egypt, Nepal, the Philippines, and Swaziland met the minimum standards but were
not selected. The Corporation offered little explanation as to why these countries
were not chosen.1613 It appears, however, that scoring “substantially below” — perhaps
in the lowest 25th percentile — has become a de-facto criteria for exclusion. For
example, the Corporation’s CEO Paul Applegarth commented that the Philippines,
a country that passed 13 of the 16 indicators, did not qualify because Manilla scored
“substantially below” the median on tests for health expenditures and fiscal policy,
and that more recent trends indicated the fiscal policy situation was deteriorating
further.1714 Each of the other nine nations that met the minimum qualifications but
were not selected also had one score in the 25th percentile, although the Corporation
has not commented on whether this was the reason for not choosing them.
Another possible reason for limiting the number of qualifying countries in the
FY2005 round might be due to funding reductions that were anticipated in early
November. The Administration had requested combined FY2004/FY2005
appropriations of $3.8 billion, but was more likely, at the time of selection, to have
available 25%-35% less, depending on the outcome of congressional debate on the
FY2005 budget. Corporation officials have said that reduced funding would lead to
fewer countries assisted and/or smaller grants per country, a situation that would be
complicated further by qualifying additional nations.
Instead, the Board of Directors invited three of these 10 countries — Burkina
Faso, Guyana, and the Philippines — to participate in the Threshold Program,
intended to help “near-miss” nations take steps to strengthen areas that would help
them qualify for full MCA assistance in the future. Burkina Faso became the first to
sign a Threshold Agreement on July 22, 2005.
16
13
The MCC’s authorizing legislation (section 608(d)) requires the Corporation’s CEO to
provide justification to Congress regarding only those countries declared as eligible for
MCA assistance and for those selected for Compact negotiation. Otherwise, there is no
statutory requirement for the MCC to comment on its decision-making process, including
the rationale for not selecting specific countries.
1714
Comments by Paul Applegarth at a State Department Foreign Press Center Briefing,
November 9, 2004.
CRS-1413
them qualify for full MCA assistance in the future. Burkina Faso became the first to
sign a Threshold Agreement on July 22, 2005.
Another Board departure in the FY2005 selection process was to avoid using its
discretionary authority to qualify countries that did not meet the minimum
performance indicators. In May, the Board chose three nations — Bolivia, Georgia,
and Mozambique — that did not pass the so-called “hard-hurdle” of corruption. The
latter two again qualified despite falling below the median on corruption, while
Bolivia did not require an exemption after the median dropped below its score with
the addition of new countries. For FY2005, five nations — Malawi, Moldova,
Paraguay, Tanzania, and Ukraine — passed the required number of performance
indicators, except corruption. Although Malawi, Paraguay, and Tanzania are
Threshold Countries, none of the five were chosen for full MCA status.
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2006
. On August 5, 2005, the MCC
released a list of 69 low-income countries and 29
lower middle-income nations that
were evaluated for MCA grants in FY2006. The
number of low-income nations —
those with a per capita GNI of less than $1,575 —
was one less than the previous
year (Equatorial Guinea was dropped) while all of the
lower middle-income group,
with per capita GNI between $1,575 and $3,255, were
new to the MCA selection
process.1815 Fifteen nations were excluded from the FY2006
candidate country list
because they are ineligible under existing law to receive U.S.
economic aid. Most
had been barred in prior years as well.19
16
Country Selection — FY2006
. On November 8, 2005, the MCC Board of
Directors made its selection of
FY2006 eligible countries, and, for the first time,
selected participants in both the
low-income and lower middle-income groups:
18.
All 17 countries previously selected in FY2004 or FY2005, or both years, again
qualified in FY2006. Four new low-income countries were added for FY2006 —
Burkina Faso, East Timor, The Gambia, and Tanzania — plus two new lower
middle-income nations — El Salvador and Namibia.17 None of the four low-income
15
Each year, the MCC adjusts the low-income country per capita income threshold to
correspond to the per capita income cutoff of the “historic ceiling” of IDA lending, a
calculation made by the World Bank. The range of per capita GNI for the lower middleincome group is also drawn from the World Bank.
1916
For several — Burundi, Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, and Sudan — U.S. aid
is blocked because an elected head of government has been deposed by a military coup. For
Cambodia and Uzbekistan, legislation bans FY2005 assistance to the central governments
of these countries. Aid restrictions imposed on nations not cooperating in counter-narcotics
efforts (Burma), that are on the terrorist list (Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria),
not complying with minimum trafficking in persons standards (Burma and Sudan), or in
arrears on debt owed the United States ( Somalia, and Zimbabwe), also apply. Serbia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina are not eligible for aid in FY2005 unless the President issues a
determination stating, among other things, that the governments are cooperating with the
International Criminal Tribunal.
CRS-15
Low-Income Countries
Armenia
Benin
Bolivia
Burkina Faso*
East Timor*
The Gambia*
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Losotho
Madagascar
Mali
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Nicaragua
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Tanzania*
Vanuatu
Lower Middle-Income Countries
Cape Verde
El Salvador*
Namibia
* New for FY2006.
All 17 countries previously selected in FY2004 or FY2005, or both years, again
qualified in FY2006. Four new low-income countries were added for FY2006 —
Burkina Faso, East Timor, The Gambia, and Tanzania — plus two new lower
middle-income nations — El Salvador and Namibia.20 None of the four low-income
17
Cape Verde was also selected in the new lower middle-income country grouping. Cape
(continued...)
CRS-14
nations were surprising. Three — Burkina Faso, East Timor, and Tanzania — were
chosen last year as Threshold countries, meaning they were “near-misses” in
FY2005. The Gambia improved its scores significantly between FY2005 and
FY2006, including those for inflation, fiscal policy, controlling corruption, and other
governance indicators. The rationale for selecting any lower middle-income
countries, on the other hand, and El Salvador and Namibia in particular, is less clear,
as discussed below.
Low-Income Countries
Armenia
Benin
Bolivia
Burkina Faso*
East Timor*
The Gambia*
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Losotho
Madagascar
Mali
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Nicaragua
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Tanzania*
Vanuatu
Lower Middle-Income Countries
Cape Verde
El Salvador*
Namibia
* New for FY2006.
Although selected only seven months previously, The Gambia’s eligibility for
MCA assistance was suspended by the MCC Board on June 16, 2006, due to “a
disturbing pattern of deteriorating conditions” in half of the 16 conditions that are
used to determine candidate countries. Among the problems cited in this case were
human rights abuses, restrictions on civil liberties and press freedom, and worsened
anti-corruption efforts.
Greater Board Selectivity?. Given the likelihood that the MCC would have
substantially less appropriated funds for FY2006 than it had requested, a number of
observers argued that now was not the time to expand the list of eligible countries to
a great extent, especially for cases where Board discretion would be necessary to
qualify a country that did not pass a sufficient number of indicators. Instead, many
asserted, the Board should be more selective, keeping the number of new participants
20
Cape Verde was also selected in the new lower middle-income country grouping. Cape
to a few so that future Compacts could be larger and emphasize “transformational”
development opportunities as the MCA program envisioned.
17
(...continued)
Verde, however, had been previously chosen in FY2004 when its income placed it in the
low-income grouping, and signed an MCA Compact on July 4, 2005.
CRS-16
to a few so that future Compacts could be larger and emphasize “transformational”
development opportunities as the MCA program envisioned.15
The Board seemed to heed this advice for the low-income group by not choosing
eight countries that qualified and not using its discretionary powers to select any new
nations that failed to meet the minimum requirements.2118 Bhutan, China, and Vietnam
passed enough hurdles but did not qualify, as was the case the past two years, based
on very low scores on political rights, and civil liberties. Kiribati, the Philippines, and
India were not selected most likely because some of their scores were substantially
below the median, which has become a marker used by the Board previously. India
also presents a challenging case for the Board in that, despite qualifying, it is a
country with a significantly large poor population which would require a sizable
MCA Compact in order to produce a reasonable degree of impact on poverty
reduction. It is also a nation with the means to attract capital and investment from
other sources. Egypt, also not selected, falls into a somewhat different category as the
second largest recipient of annual U.S. assistance based on a strategic rationale. The
reason for not selecting Uganda, despite having passed 12 of the 16 indicators and
not falling significantly below the median on the other 4, is less obvious.
Selection of Lower Middle-Income Countries was Less Clear.
Whether to include relatively more wealthy nations — in FY2006 those with a per-capitapercapita income
higher than $1,575 — in the MCA program has been debated since the
launch of the
initiative. A number of analysts have argued that especially given the less-thananticipated
less-than-anticipated budget available to the MCC, the Board should refrain from
selecting any
lower middle-income countries (LMICs), at least in the FY2006
round.2219
Of the eight LMICs (out of 32 total) that passed sufficient performance hurdles,
the Board chose two to participate in FY2006. In addition, the Board also selected
Cape Verde, a country that passed only two of the six economic performance
indicators and therefore, did not technically qualify.2320 It appears, however, that the
Board could have decided to select none of the lower middle-income nations by using
criteria it had applied consistently in the two previous rounds. Moreover, it was not
clear why the Board chose the two that did qualify and excludeexcluded others.
All eight LMICs that passed the performance indicator test fell significantly
below the median on at least one of the indicators. El Salvador and Namibia, the two
that were selected, both had low scores on fiscal policy. El Salvador also scored well
below the median on the costs of starting a business, while Namibia also did poorly
on days to start a business and immunization rates. The other six that were not
21chosen — Brazil, Bulgaria, Jordan, Samoa, Thailand, and Tunisia — also performed
substantially below the median in at least one area, although Jordan was selected to
18
Georgia and Senegal were selected despite not passing the necessary hurdles, but both had
been chosen in FY2004 and FY2005.
2219
See, for example, Steve Radelet, Kaysie Brown, and Bilal Siddiqi, “Round Three of the
MCA: Which Countries are Most Likely to Qualify in FY 2006?” Center for Global
Development, October 27, 2005.
2320
Cape Verde had been classified as an eligible low-income country in FY2004 and signed
a Compact in July 2005. The Cape Verde case, however, also points out a limitation in
using the system of 16 performance indicators. For two of the economic categories, no data
are available for Cape Verde, resulting in a failing score on those hurdles.
CRS-17
chosen — Brazil, Bulgaria, Jordan, Samoa, Thailand, and Tunisia — also performed
substantially below the median in at least one area, although Jordan was selected to
participate in the Threshold program. What separated these latter six from El
Salvador and Namibia, however, was not explained by the Board16
participate in the Threshold program. What separated these latter six from El
Salvador and Namibia, however, was not explained by the Board.
Naming Candidate Countries — FY2007. On August 11, 2006, the MCC
released a list of 69 low-income and 29 lower middle-income countries to be
candidates for MCA grant eligibility. The number of low-income countries — those
with per capita GNI of less than $1,675 — and lower middle-income countries —
those with per capita GNI of $1,675 to $3,465 — was the same as the previous year.
However, China and Morocco have been dropped from the low-income group — the
former is restricted by human rights concerns and the latter has moved to the lower
middle-income list, and replaced by Burundi and Central African Republic, both no
longer restricted by military coup prohibitions. Thailand has been removed from
lower middle-income list due to its coup and Romania has moved up to the ranks of
upper middle-income countries. New entries are Montenegro and Morocco. Fifteen
countries were excluded from the FY2007 candidate country list because they are
ineligible under existing law to receive U.S. economic aid. Most had been barred in
prior years as well.
Country Selection — FY2007. On November 8, 2006, the MCC Board
added three new countries to the list of those eligible for MCA grants — Moldova,
Jordan, and Ukraine.
Low-Income Countries
Armenia
Benin
Bolivia
Burkina Faso
East Timor
Georgia
Ghana
Honduras
Losotho
Madagascar
Mali
Moldova*
Mongolia
Morocco
Mozambique
Nicaragua
Senegal
Sri Lanka
Tanzania
Ukraine*
Vanuatu
Lower Middle-Income Countries
Cape Verde
El Salvador
Jordan*
Namibia
* New for FY2007.
Even prior to the selection, the possible choice of Jordan had come in for severe
criticism. Freedom House, the organization whose annual Index of Freedom is
drawn upon for two of the “Ruling Justly” indicators, had urged the MCC Board to
bypass countries that had low scores on political rights and civil liberties. It argued
that countries like Jordan that fall below 4 out of a possible 7 on its index should be
automatically disqualified. Jordan, however, did well on three of the six other
indicators in this category. Several development analysts further argued that Jordan
CRS-17
should not be selected, because the MCA is not an appropriate funding source. They
assert that Jordan already is one of the largest recipients of U.S. aid, has access to
private sector capital, and is not a democracy.21 In selecting Jordan, the MCC Board
appears not to have been swayed by these arguments.
Another concern expressed by observers regarding the FY2007 selection process
is that four of eleven current Compact countries — Ghana, Benin, Madagascar, and
Cape Verde — would fail if measured under FY2007 indicators. While it was not
expected that existing Compact funding would be withdrawn as it is based on
eligibility in previous years, some had hoped the Board would send a signal of
disapproval of such lapses. However, the MCC Board did not address this issue at
the November candidate selection meeting.
MCA Compacts and Program Proposals
Once declared as eligible, countries may prepare and negotiate program
proposals with the MCC. The proposals are referred to as MCA Compacts. Only
those Compacts that demonstrate a strong relationship between the program proposal
and economic growth and poverty reduction will receive funding. Not all qualified
MCA countries may submit successful Compacts.
While acknowledging that Compact contents likely will vary, the Corporation
expects each to discuss certain matters:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
a country’s strategy for economic growth and poverty reduction,
impediments to the strategy, how MCA aid will overcome the
impediments, and the goals expected to be achieved during
implementation of the Compact.;
why the proposed program is a high priority for economic
development and poverty reduction and why it will succeed; the
process through which a public/private dialogue took place in
developing the proposal;
how the program will be managed, monitored, and sustained after
the Compact expires;
the relationship of other donor activities in the priority area;
examples of projects, where appropriate;
a multi-year financial plan; and
a country’s commitment to future progress on MCA performance
indicators.
MCA Compacts.24 The Corporation did not set hard deadlines for Compact
submissions in order
to allow countries adequate time to conduct a national dialogue
over the contents of the program proposal.25 By December 1, 2004, the MCC had
received proposals and “concept papers” from 15 of the 16 FY2004 eligible
countries, and began the next phase — negotiating formal Compacts — with several
countries. The MCC signed its first Compact, with Madagascar, on April 18, 2005,
an event that was followed by four other signings in 2005 — with Honduras (June
13), Cape Verde (July 4), Nicaragua (July 14), and Georgia (September 12). In 2006,
three more agreements were signed: Benin (February 22), Vanuatu (March 2), and
24
Details on each of the negotiated Compacts can be found at the MCA website:
[http://www.mcc.gov].
25
H.R. 4014, introduced on October 7, 2005, expresses the sense of Congress that the MCC
should encourage countries to submit Compact proposals within one year of being declared
eligible, enter into a Compact within two years, and to consider removing countries from the
status of eligibility if they do not comply with these guidelines in a timely and good faith
manner.
CRS-18
Armenia (March 27), and one with Ghana was approved by the MCC Board on July
12.
21
Freedom House, “Millennium Challenge Corporation Should Hold Countries to Higher
Standards of Democratic Governance,” November 2, 2006, [http://www.freedomhouse.org];
Sheila Herrling, Steve Radelet, and Sarah Rose, “Will Politics Encroach in the MCA
FY2007 Selection Round? The Cases of Jordan and Indonesia,” Center for Global
Development, October 30, 2006, [http://www.dgdev.org].
CRS-18
the program proposal.22 By December 1, 2004, the MCC had received proposals and
“concept papers” from 15 of the 16 FY2004 eligible countries, and began the next
phase — negotiating formal Compacts — with several countries. The MCC signed
its first Compact, with Madagascar, on April 18, 2005, an event that was followed
by four other signings in 2005 — with Honduras (June 13), Cape Verde (July 4),
Nicaragua (July 14), and Georgia (September 12). In 2006, five more agreements
were signed: Benin (February 22), Vanuatu (March 2), Armenia (March 27), Ghana
(August 1), Mali (November 13) and one with El Salvador was approved by the
MCC Board on November 8.23
Two features of the first series of Compacts have drawn particular attention.
First, most of the Compacts include a similar sector concentration, focusing on
agriculture and transportation infrastructure projects. While these activities are well
justified, the similarity across Compacts is somewhat surprising. Given the wide
diversity of conditions in each of the countries, plus the Corporation’s willingness
to support all types of programs, many observers had expected to see a greater degree
of variation among the Compacts. Some believe that social sectors, including those
in health and education, should be receiving greater attention in Compact design.
Others had expected greater variety in aid delivery mechanisms, and are concerned
that the MCC is reluctant to approve sector grants and other types of budget support
assistance. While there can be greater accountability risks associated with this kind
of aid, countries that qualify for MCA support are selected because they have already
demonstrated stronger performance in managing resources and fighting corruption.2624
As subsequent Compacts are signed, the issue of sector focus is likely to be closely
watched.
A second closely examined characteristic of the early Compacts has been the
dollar size of the grants; or more specifically, the lower-than-anticipated funding
level for the first several Compacts. While Administration officials have said
repeatedly that Compacts will be funded at various levels depending on the nature
and potential impact of the proposal, the presumption has been that the MCA grant
would represent a sizable increase in U.S. assistance to the eligible country. In order
to realize its potential as a “transformational” aid program and to provide sufficient
incentives to countries requesting “breakthrough” projects, the MCC says that the
size of its grants must place MCA assistance among the top aid donors in a country.27
Some had estimated that once the Corporation’s budget reached $5 billion, each
Compact would be supported with annual resources in the $150-$200 million range.2825
Some had estimated that once the Corporation’s budget reached $5 billion, each
22
H.R. 4014, introduced on October 7, 2005, expresses the sense of Congress that the MCC
should encourage countries to submit Compact proposals within one year of being declared
eligible, enter into a Compact within two years, and to consider removing countries from the
status of eligibility if they do not comply with these guidelines in a timely and good faith
manner.
23
Details on each of the negotiated Compacts can be found at the MCA website:
[http://www.mcc.gov].
24
James Fox and Lex Rieffel, The Millennium Challenge Account: Moving Toward Smarter
Aid. The Brookings Institution, July 14, 2005, p. 24.
25
See, for example, Millennium Challenge Corporation FY2005 Budget Justification, p. 7.
Found at [http://www.mcc.gov/about/reports/congressional/budgetjustifications/budget_
justification_fy05.pdf].
CRS-19
Compact would be supported with annual resources in the $150-$200 million range.26
These levels could vary up or down depending on many factors, such as the number
of people living in poverty, the size of the economy, and the scope of the proposed
projects.
Most of the first several Compacts, however, do not appear to meet the
anticipated financial allocation thresholds. Madagascar’s four-year, $110 million
Compact roughly doubles U.S. assistance to the country, but does not place MCA
assistance among the top donors. France is the largest bilateral donor, disbursing on
average $189 million per year, 2001-2004. The European Commission’s aid
program, 2001-2004, averaged $82 million per year, while the World Bank’s
International Development Association has been Madagascar’s largest source of
26
James Fox and Lex Rieffel, The Millennium Challenge Account: Moving Toward Smarter
Aid. The Brookings Institution, July 14, 2005, p. 24.
27
See, for example, Millennium Challenge Corporation FY2005 Budget Justification, p. 7.
Found at [http://www.mcc.gov/about_us/key_documents/index.shtml].
28
Prepared statement of Steve Radelet, Senior Fellow at the Center for Global Development,
before a hearing of the House International Relations Committee, April 27, 2005.
CRS-19
concessional assistance of about $209 million lent in each of 2001 through 2004.2927
The $110 million Compact for Madagascar is also not very large relative to the
country’s population. Of the 16 qualified countries for FY2004, Madagascar has the
fourth largest population (16.4 million), and might have been expected to receive one
of the larger MCA grants given its population size and its per capita income ($230,
second lowest among the 16 MCA countries).
For Honduras (a $215 million MCA program over five years), Georgia ($295
million over five years), and Armenia ($236 million over five years), the United
States has been the top bilateral donor in recent years without the MCA program, and
will likely remain in that position once the MCA grants begin to disburse. But the
MCA Compact for Honduras calls for only a slightly higher annual amount than
current U.S. economic assistance provides, while Georgia’s Compact will average
only about three-fourths and the Armenia Compact only about two-thirds of the
annual level of present American aid. While these are not insignificant amounts of
new resources, they are far less than Administration officials had suggested
previously.3028
In contrast, the foursix five-year Compacts with Cape Verde ($110 million), Benin
($307 million), Vanuatu ($66 million), and Ghana ($547 million) represents a
, Mali ($461 million),
and El Salvador ($461 million) represent a substantial investment by the United
States, relative to the current size of American
aid and the size of their economies.
USAID, which last provided direct bilateral
assistance to Cape Verde in the mid-1990smid1990s, does not maintain a mission presence,
allocating small amounts of aid through
regional programs. The Compact’s $22
million annual average will place the United
States second to Portugal, Cape Verde’s
former colonial power, as the leading donor,
and represent more than a quarter of
total bilateral development aid grants from all
sources compared with figures for
2003 and 2004. Likewise, the United States does
not maintain a bilateral program
with Vanuatu, limiting direct aid through the Peace Corps. The $13 million annual
average of the Vanuatu program will place the United States as the country’s top aid
donor, along with Australia. In Benin, USAID manages an annual bilateral economic
aid program of about $15 million, compared with the $61 million annual size of the
MCC Compact. The Compact appears likely to place the MCC as the top aid donor,
together with France, for Benin.31
26
Prepared statement of Steve Radelet, Senior Fellow at the Center for Global Development,
before a hearing of the House International Relations Committee, April 27, 2005.
27
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Geographical
Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients, 2000/2004: 2006 edition.
28
For example, USAID Administrator Natsios remarked in an October 22, 2002 speech at
the American Embassy in London that “we estimate in most countries the MCA will provide
funding 5 to 10 times higher than existing levels” of U.S. assistance.
CRS-20
Corps. The $13 million annual average of the Vanuatu program will place the United
States as the country’s top aid donor, along with Australia. In Benin, USAID
manages an annual bilateral economic aid program of about $15 million, compared
with the $61 million annual size of the MCC Compact. The Compact appears likely
to place the MCC as the top aid donor, together with France, for Benin.29
This issue has been a priority of Ambassador Danilovich since his September
27, 2005 confirmation hearing to be the MCC’s new CEO. He noted that the MCC
was “meant to create transformative programs,” and to do so he said that “future
Compacts will generally need to be larger than those signed thus far.” Ambassador
Danilovich cautioned, however, that with limited resources but larger Compacts,
29
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Geographical
Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients, 2000/2004: 2006 edition.
30
For example, USAID Administrator Natsios remarked in an October 22, 2002 speech at
the American Embassy in London that “we estimate in most countries the MCA will provide
funding 5 to 10 times higher than existing levels” of U.S. assistance.
31
Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients, 2000/2004: 2006
edition.
CRS-20
fewer countries will receive funding if MCC is to achieve its transformational goal.3230
His record since assuming the CEO position appears to be moving towards larger
Compacts and placing the MCC as the largest donor in recipient countries.
Madagascar CompactCompact Descriptions. The eleven Compacts agreed up to this point are
described below.
Madagascar. The Madagascar Compact is a four year, $110
million program,
focusing on rural agriculture development and poverty reduction.
Specifically, the
project has three objectives: 1) to increase land titling and land
security ($36 million);
2) to expand the financial sector and increase competition
($36 million); and 3) to
improve agricultural production technologies and market
capacity in rural areas ($17
million). According to the MCC, the Compact is
designed to assist Madagascar’s
rural poor, which account for 80% of the nation’s
impoverished population, and
generate income by expanding opportunities to own
land, to access credit, and to gain
technical training in agriculture and market
identification.
Elements of the design, negotiation, and completion of the Madagascar Compact
met several of the key criteria of the MCA process. For example, discussions
regarding the scope and purpose of the MCA grant occurred at the regional and
national level in Madagascar that included broad representation of civil society.
Management and oversight of the Compact will be handled by a new entity, MCAMadagascar, whose Steering Committee will include government and nongovernment officials. Both of these steps underscore the “country-ownership” and
broad participatory nature of MCA programs. The Compact also includes fiscal
accountability requirements concerning audits, monitoring, and evaluation that
support the transparency concept of the MCA. While the $110 million MCA grant
will be fully obligated when the Compact enters into force, resources will be
transferred periodically following a determination that performance continues
satisfactorily. This funding plan emphasizes the MCA principles of accountability
and results.
29
Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients, 2000/2004: 2006
edition.
30
Prepared statement of John J. Danilovich, before the Senate Committee on Foreign
Relations, September 27, 2005.
CRS-21
Honduras
Honduras Compact. The five-year, $215 million MCA Compact with
Honduras focuses
on two objectives — rural development and transportation. The
rural development
project, representing $72.2 million of the Compact, will assist
small and medium-size
farmers enhance their business skills and to transition from
the production of basic
grains to horticultural crops, such as cucumbers, peppers, and
tomatoes. According
to the MCC, these vegetable crops will generate about $2,000
to $4,000 in annual
income per hectare, compared with roughly $500 for basic grains.
The project
intends to provide farmers with the appropriate infrastructure and
necessary training
for producing and marketing these different crops. The
transportation project,
totaling $125.7 million of the Compact, will improve the
major highway linking
Honduran Atlantic and Pacific ports, and major production
centers in Honduras, El
Salvador, and Nicaragua. Rural roads will also be upgraded,
helping farmers
transport their goods to markets at a lower cost. Specific results
sought in the
Compact are:
!
32
!
!
!
double productivity in 15,000 hectares in rural areas
Prepared statement of John J. Danilovich, before the Senate Committee on Foreign
Relations, September 27, 2005.
CRS-21
!
!
!
expand access to credit for farmers by over 20%
upgrade the major road that links Honduras with commercial centers
upgrade about 1,500 kilometers of rural roads
Cape Verde Compact. The MCC and Cape Verde have signed a five-year,
$110 million
Compact focused largely on improving the country’s investment
climate,
transportation networks, and agriculture productivity. The program’s goal
is to
increase the annual income in Cape Verde by at least $10 million. The Compact
evolves around three projects:
!
Private Sector Development — with $7.2 million and additional
participation with the International Finance Corporation, the project
aims to remove constraints to private sector investment.
!
Infrastructure — the project will invest $78.7 million in road and
bridge construction to help link the nine inhabited islands and
improve transportation links to social services, employment
opportunities, local markets, and ports and airports.
!
Watershed Management and Agriculture Support — by investing
$10.8 million to increase the collection, storage, and distribution of
rainfall water, the project hopes to increase agricultural production
and double the household income of farmers.
Nicaragua Compact. The five-year, $175 million Compact with Nicaragua
will focus
on the promoting economic growth primarily in the northwestern region
of the
country where potential opportunities exist due to the area’s fertile land and
nearby nearby
markets in Honduras and El Salvador. The Compact has three components:
1) to
strengthen property registration ($26.5 million); 2) to upgrade primary and
secondary secondary
roads between Managua and Leon and to provide technical assistance to
the Ministry
of Transportation ($92.8 million); and 3) to promote higher-profit
agriculture agriculture
activities, especially for poor farmers, and to improve water supply in
support of
higher-value sustainable agriculture.
CRS-22
Georgia Compact. The $295 million, five-year agreement with Georgia
focuses on
reducing poverty and promoting economic growth in areas outside of the
capital capital
where over half the population lives in poverty. The Compact is divided into
two two
projects. The first and the largest component ($211.7 million) concentrates on
infrastructure rehabilitation, including roads, the north-south gas pipeline, water
supply networks, and solid waste facilities. The Enterprise Development Project
($47.5 million) will finance an investment fund aimed at providing risk capital and
technical assistance to small and medium-sized businesses, and support farmers and
agribusinesses that produce commodities for the domestic market. The program
expects to:
!
!
!
!
reduce in the incidence of poverty by 12% in the Samtskhi-Javakheti
region;
provide direct benefits to 500,000 people and indirectly benefit over
25% of Georgia’s population;
CRS-22
!
!
reduce the travel time by 43% to Tbilisi, the capital, from regional
areas, thereby cutting transportation costs for farmers, businesses,
and individuals needing health and other social services; and
lower the risk of a major gas pipeline accident and improve the
reliability of heat and electricity to over one million Georgians.
Armenia Compact. The five-year, $236 million Compact concentrates on the
agricultural sector, investing in the rehabilitation of rural roads ($67 million) and
improving irrigation ($146 million). The program anticipates that it will benefit
about 750,000 people, 75% of Armenia’s rural population, by improving 943
kilometers of rural roads and increasing the amount of land under irrigation by 40%.
In signing the Compact, however, the MCC issued a cautionary note, signaling
Armenia that it must maintain its commitment to the performance indicators on
which the country was selected, or risk suspension or termination of the Compact.
In September 2005, the MCC expressed concerns with Armenian officials regarding
slippage on two of the governance indicators and matters raised by international
groups concerning political rights, political freedom, and an independent media in
the country. Moreover, the MCC Board delayed final approval following the
November 27 constitutional referendum after allegations of fraud, mismanagement,
limited access by the press, and abuse of individuals were raised.3331
Vanuatu Compact. The $65.7 million, five-year Compact targets
improvements broadly
in multiple types of infrastructure, including roads, wharfs,
an airstrip, and
warehouses. The objective is to increase the average per capita
income by 15%, by
helping rural agricultural producers and providers of tourismrelatedtourism-related goods and
services. The Compact further aims to help strengthen Vanuatu’s
Public Works
Department in order to enhance capacity to maintain the country’s
entire transport network.
Benin Compact
network.
31
See letter of John Danilovich to Armenia President Robert Kocharyan on December 16,
2005.
CRS-23
Benin. Benin, one of the world’s poorest countries with the lowest
Human Human
Development Index ranking of any MCC Compact nation, has been approved
for a
$307 million, five year program focused on four sectors:
!
!
!
!
Land rights, reducing the time and cost of obtaining property title;
Financial services, helping micro, small, and medium-sized
businesses;
Justice reform, assisting the judicial systems capacity to resolve
business and investment claims; and
Market access, improving the Port of Cotonou.
The Compact’s goal is to benefit five million people, bringing 250,000 of the
population out of poverty by 2015.
Ghana Compact. The five-year $547 million Compact focuses on agriculture
and rural
development. Poverty rates in the three targeted geographic areas are above
33
See letter of John Danilovich to Armenia President Robert Kocharyan on December 16,
2005.
CRS-23
40%.
The agriculture component ($241 million) will provide training for farmerbased farmer-based
organizations, improve irrigation, provide greater access to credit, and
rehabilitate rehabilitate
local roads. The transport component ($143 million) will seek to reduce
transport transport
costs to farmers by improving key roads, such as the one between the
capital and the
airport, and an important ferry service. Rural development programs
($101 million)
will construct and rehabilitate education, water, and electric facilities,
among other activities.
“Threshold” Countries and U.S. Assistance
In order to encourage non-qualifying countries to improve in weak areas, the
United States will help governments that are committed to reform to strengthen
performance so that they would be more competitive for MCA funding in future
years. Congress provided in authorizing legislation that not more than 10% of MCA
appropriations ($99.4 million in FY2004) could be used for such purposes, stating
that the funding could be made available through USAID. The MCC set aside up to
$40 million for countries that just missed qualifying for FY2004 funding and projects
an additional $90 million for FY2005, subject to the quality of submitted proposals.34
Of the 18 countries selected to participate as Threshold Countries, the
Corporation has approved six programs for Albania, Burkina Faso, Malawi,
Paraguay, Tanzania, and Zambia. According to the Threshold Program Policy
guidance issued by the Corporation,35 the program will assist countries make policy
reforms and institutional changes in areas where they failed to meet the MCA
performance criteria. In order to qualify, countries must submit concept papers
identifying:
!
where and why the country failed to pass specific indicators;
!
proposals for policy, regulatory, or institutional reforms that would
improve the country’s performance on these indicators; and
!
types of assistance, over a two-year maximum period, required to
implement these reforms.
34
Initially, assistance for Threshold countries was authorized only for FY2004. The
FY2005 Foreign Operations Appropriations (Division D of P.L. 108-447, the Consolidated
Appropriations Act for FY2005, makes 10%, or $149 million of the new appropriation
available Threshold assistance. H.R. 4014, as introduced on October 7, 2005, would make
the 10% set-aside for threshold programs permanent.
35
Found at [http://www.MCC.gov].
CRS-24
Table 1. Status of MCA Compacts
Country
Armenia
Compact
Signed
Mar. 27, 2006
GNI
per capita
Population
Living Below
$2 p/day (%)
Human
Development
Index Ranking1
FY06 US
Econ. Aid
(millions)
$1,060
49.0%
83
activities.
Mali. The five-year $461 million Compact emphasizes an increase in
agricultural production and expansion of trade. About half the funds ($234.6
million) will support a major irrigation project, including modernization of
infrastructure and improvements in land tenure. Improvements in the airport ($89.6
million) will target both passenger and freight operations. An industrial park project
located at the airport ($94.6 million) will assist agro-processing and other industry.
El Salvador. The five-year $461 million Compact will address economic
growth and poverty reduction concerns in El Salvador’s northern region where more
than half the population lives below the poverty line. Education as well as water and
sanitation, and electricity supply ($95.1 million); support for poor farmers and small
and medium-sized business ($87.5 million); and transportation, including roads
($233.6 million) are the chief elements of program.
CRS-24
Table 1. Status of MCA Compacts
Country
Armenia
Compact Signed
Mar. 27, 2006
GNI
per capita
$1,470
Population
Living Below $2
p/day (%)
31.1%
Human
Development
Index Rankinga
80
FY06 US
Econ. Aid
(millions)
Compact
Size
(millions)
Compact Focus
$76.0
$236
5 years
-Agriculture/irrigation
-Rural roads
-Land and property
-Financial services
-Judicial improvement
-Port rehabilitation
Benin
Feb. 22, 2006
$450
NA
162510
73.7%
163
$15.1
$307
5 years
Cape Verde
July 4, 2005
$1,720870
NA
105106
$1.8
$110
5 years
- Agriculture
- Transport/roads
- Private sector
- Infrastructure/gas
- Transport/roads
- Agriculture/business
Georgia
Sept. 12, 2005
$1,060
15.7%
100
$68.1
$295
5 years
Honduras
June 13, 2005
$1,040
44.0%
116
$35.3
$215
5 years
-Agriculture
-Transport/roads
Madagascar
April 18, 2005
$290
85.1%
146
$23.8
$110
4 years
- Land titling
- Financial sector
- Agriculture
Nicaragua
July 14, 2005
$830
$33.3
$461
5 years
-Education
-Transport/roads
-Small business/farm
development
- Infrastructure/gas
- Transport/roads
- Agriculture/business
El Salvador
November 29,
2006
$2,630
40.5%
101
Georgia
Sept. 12, 2005
$1,350
25.3%
97
$68.1
$295
5 years
Ghana
August 1, 2006
$450
78.5%
136
$46.7
$547
5 years
-Agriculture
-Transport
-Rural Development
Honduras
June 13, 2005
$1,190
44.0%
117
$35.3
$215
5 years
-Agriculture
-Transport/roads
CRS-25
Country
Compact Signed
GNI
per capita
Population
Living Below $2
p/day (%)
Human
Development
Index Rankinga
FY06 US
Econ. Aid
(millions)
Compact
Size
(millions)
Compact Focus
Madagascar
April 18, 2005
$290
85.1%
143
$23.8
$110
4 years
- Land titling
- Financial sector
- Agriculture
Mali
November 13,
2006
$380
90.6%
175
$34.9
$460.8
5 years
-Irrigation
-Transport/airport
-Industrial park
Nicaragua
July 14, 2005
$910
79.9%
112
$34.5
$175
5 years
- Land titling
- Transport/roads
- Agriculture
Vanuatu
March 2, 2006
$1,390600
NA
118119
$2.2
$66
5 years
-Transport rehab
-Public Works Dept.
CRS-25
Sources:
Population Living Below $2 Per Day — data from the World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2005Report, 2007; Gross National Income per capita — 20042005 data
from the World Bank, World
Development Indicators, 2005Report, 2007. Human Development Index Rank — from UNDP, Human Development Report, 20052006.
U.S. Economic Aid — Department of State. MCA Compact information — Millennium Challenge Corporation.
1a. The Human Development Index (HDI) is compiled by the U.N. Development Program and is published annually in the UNDP Human Development
Report. It is a composite index
that measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy
life, as measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge,
as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined gross enrolment ratio for primary, secondary
and tertiary schools; and a decent standard of living, as measured by GDP
per capita in purchasing power parity (PPP) USU.S. dollars. The most recent report
(2005 (2006) evaluates 177 countries, with number 1 having the best HDI and number 177 scoring the worst in the Index.
CRS-26
If the Corporation, in consultation with USAID, determines that the concept
paper shows sufficient commitment to reform and a promise of success, the country
will prepare a Threshold Country Plan that specifically establishes a program
schedule, the means to measure progress, and financing requirements, among other
considerations. USAID is charged with overseeing the implementation of Threshold
Country Plans, including working with countries to identify appropriate
implementing partners such as local, U.S., and international firms; NGOs; U.S.
government agencies; and international organizations. Like regular MCA Compacts,
funding is not guaranteed for each country selected for the Threshold Program, but
will be based on the quality of the Country Plan.
The MCC signed the first Threshold Agreement with Burkina Faso on July 22,
2005. The $12.9 million plan is designed to improve girls’ primary education,
targeting areas of the country with the lowest primary completion rates. Although
Burkina Faso “passed” enough performance indicators to qualify for a regular MCA
program in FY2005, the Corporation’s Board did not select the country, presumably
because its scores on girls’ primary education completion and days to start a business
fell significantly below the median level. Subsequently, the MCC has signed seven
other Threshold programs — with Malawi (September 23, 2005), Tanzania (February
1, 2006), Albania (February 8, 2006), Paraguay (February 16, 2006), Zambia (April
18, 2006), Philippines (June 16, 2006), and Ukraine (June 16, 2006) — each aimed
at curbing corruption.
the worst in the Index.
CRS-26
“Threshold” Countries
In order to encourage non-qualifying countries to improve in weak areas, the
United States will help governments that are committed to reform to strengthen
performance so that they would be more competitive for MCA funding in future
years. Congress provided in authorizing legislation that not more than 10% of MCA
appropriations could be used for such purposes, stating that the funding could be
made available through USAID. Subsequent foreign operations appropriations have
made 10% of new MCA appropriations available for this Threshold assistance.32
According to the Threshold Program Policy guidance issued by the
Corporation,33 the program will assist countries make policy reforms and institutional
changes in areas where they failed to meet the MCA performance criteria. In order
to qualify, countries must submit concept papers identifying:
!
where and why the country failed to pass specific indicators;
!
proposals for policy, regulatory, or institutional reforms that would
improve the country’s performance on these indicators; and
!
types of assistance, over a two-year maximum period, required to
implement these reforms.
If the Corporation, in consultation with USAID, determines that the concept
paper shows sufficient commitment to reform and a promise of success, the country
will prepare a Threshold Country Plan that specifically establishes a program
schedule, the means to measure progress, and financing requirements, among other
considerations. USAID is charged with overseeing the implementation of Threshold
Country Plans, including working with countries to identify appropriate
implementing partners such as local, U.S., and international firms; NGOs; U.S.
government agencies; and international organizations. Like regular MCA Compacts,
funding is not guaranteed for each country selected for the Threshold Program, but
will be based on the quality of the Country Plan.
Twenty countries are currently eligible for threshold assistance. An additional
country, Yemen, was suspended in November 2005 following a significant decline
in meeting the eligibility criteria. To date, the threshold programs of eleven countries
totaling $286 million have been approved by the MCC Board — Albania, Tanzania,
32
Initially, assistance for Threshold countries was authorized only for FY2004. The MCC
Authorization bill, H.R. 4014, as reported by the House International Relations Committee,
would make the 10% set-aside for threshold programs permanent.
33
Found at [http://www.MCC.gov].
CRS-27
Burkina Faso, Malawi, Moldova, Philippines, Zambia, Jordan, Indonesia, Ukraine,
and Paraguay.34
Nine of the eleven programs seek to improve country scores on the corruption
indicator. Several countries have multiple objectives. Indonesia, for example, targets
corruption and immunization indicators. Albania focuses on corruption and
improvements in its business environment. The Burkina Faso program is designed
to improve girls’ primary education, targeting areas of the country with the lowest
primary completion rates.
Select Issues
Role of USAID and the Future of Agency Programs in MCA
Countries
As noted above, how USAID would participate in the MCA initiative has been
a continuing concern of Congress and various policy analysts. Legislation
authorizing the MCC requires the Corporation’s CEO to coordinate with USAID and
directs the Agency to ensure that its programs play a primary role in helping
candidate countries prepare for MCA consideration. Corporation and USAID
officials have said there will be close collaboration between the two entities, although
the precise nature of the relationship has yet to be made public. USAID maintains
missions in 1720 of the 2325 eligible countries and might be expected to support MCC
programs, through contracting, procurement, and monitoring tasks.
Another question is how USAID will adjust its own programs in MCA
countries, especially where the Agency maintains relatively small activities in
relation to other donors. Since the goal is to provide resources that will make MCA
programs among the largest aid operations in a country, it was anticipated that
USAID spending would fall well below amounts provided through MCC Compacts.
For example, in Mongolia, where U.S. aid programs have totaled $10-$12 million
annually in recent years, the United States was the fourth largest bilateral donor in
2002, representing less than a quarter of the size of Japan’s economic aid
disbursements. In Ghana, Senegal, and Sri Lanka, USAID maintains larger programs
but spends far less than other countries and multilateral agencies. But in the case of
the first Compacts for Madagascar, Honduras, and Nicaragua, the MCA grants are
only somewhat larger on a per-year average ($28 million for Madagascar, $43 million
for Honduras, and $35 million for Nicaragua) than USAID’s “core” economic aid
CRS-27
programs (about $24 million for Madagascar, $35 million for Honduras, and $34
million for Nicaragua). For Georgia, the Compact’s average level of $59 million is
below USAID’s $68 million allocation for FY2006.
Like other issues involving USAID, this question remains under review.
USAID Administrator Natsios told the House Appropriations Committee on May 9,
34
Countries that are eligible but have not yet been awarded threshold program support are
Guyana, Kenya, Krygyz Republic, East Timor, Sao Tome and Principe, Uganda, Niger,
Peru, and Rwanda. The latter three were added on November 8, 2006.
CRS-28
2004 that the Agency would not withdraw from or cut programs in MCA countries,
but would not increase spending either. He said, however, that USAID would work
to ensure that its programs operate in an integrated way with MCA-funded activities.
The FY2007 USAID budget request offers the first look at how funding and
sector distribution levels may be affected by MCA Compacts. For each of the six
Compact countries where USAID maintained a mission presence at the time of the
request, “core” economic assistance would be reduced under the FY2007 budget
plan. In most cases, the reductions would be taken in the sector of economic growth,
not for health or education programs. Nonetheless, some critics continue to express
concern that MCA funding is not always additive, as had been the pledge, but will
substitute for portions of previous USAID bilateral development aid programs.
Funding Issues — Previous and in the 109th Congress
As mentioned above, Congress appropriated $994 million for FY2004 MCC
programs, $1.488 billion for FY2005, and $1.75 billion for FY2006. The enacted
appropriations for FY2005 and FY2006 were well below the President’s $2.5 billion
and $3 billion requests, respectively
In each year since the MCA was established, its enacted appropriation has been
well below the President’s request. In each year, the MCC proposal was also by far the
the largest increase sought by the Administration in the Foreign Operations
appropriations bill and viewed by many observers as one of the most vulnerable
items in an increasingly difficult budget environment.
For some time, some Members of Congress have raised questions regarding
whether sufficient funds will be available to support MCC programs in every country
selected, especially if the Board continues its practice of selecting more countries
than meet the strict criteria. MCC officials point out that qualification for the
program does not mean that a government will receive funding. That decision will
be based on the quality of the Compact proposals and it is possible that the
Corporation will not finalize agreements with all eligible countries.
Table 2. MCA Appropriations: FY2004-2007
(in $ billions)
FY2004
FY2005
FY2006
FY2007
Request
1.300
2.500
3.000
3.000
Appropriation
0.994
1.488
1.750
—
MCA Request and Congressional Action for FY2007.
The
Administration seekssought a $3 billion appropriation for FY2007. The MCC estimates that
it willhad
estimated that it would exhaust all existing appropriations from FY2004-FY2006 by
the second
quarter of FY2007, leaving nine currently then-eligible countries, plus any new nations
nations selected for FY2007 to be funded out of the FY2007 appropriation. In testimony
testimony before the House Foreign Operations Appropriations Subcommittee on
March 29,
2006, CEO Danilovich argued that a funding level less than $3 billion
would require
the MCC to delay the negotiation and approval process for new
Compacts. He
further asserted that without full funding, the ability of the MCC to
leverage reforms
and provide incentives to eligible countries would be diminished.
CRS-29
Some, including Subcommittee Chairman Kolbe, questioned whether the MCC
could pick
up the pace of signing new Compacts to the degree required to utilize the
full $3
CRS-28
billion request for FY2007. Ambassador Danilovich said the Corporation has learned
learned from its first two years of operations and has accelerated several steps in the
evaluation and approval process.
Congressional Action. On June 9, 2006, the House approved the FY2007
Foreign Operations appropriations, H.R. 5522, reducing the FY2007 MCA funding
level to $2 billion. The Appropriation Committee’s report on the legislation (H.Rept.
109-486) said that the panel continued to strongly support the MCC and that the
proposed reduction stemmed solely from the constrained budget environment and the
need to allocate resources to other Presidential and congressional priorities.
On June
29, 2006, the Senate Appropriations Committee approved its version
of the FY2007
State/Foreign Operations appropriations, providing $1.9 billion for the Millennium
Millennium Challenge Corporation, $1.1 billion below the Administration request.
Like the
House, the Senate Committee report (S.Rept. 109-277) offered strong
support to the
MCC and noted that, in allocating funds, it was restricted by broader budget
budget constraints. The Committee directsdirected the Director of Foreign Assistance at
State to
submit a report no later than 15 days after the signing of a compact assessing
its place
within the context of the overall foreign aid program in a country and noting any
any possible resulting duplication of programs. It also suggestssuggested that judicial reform
should be part of MCC compacts and raisesraised a concern that education has not yet been
a major part of compacts. The Committee directsdirected that the MCC submit a report
regarding steps it is taking to address social and environmental costs resulting from
infrastructure investments. The full Senate did not take up the foreign operations
appropriations legislation.
Under the terms of a continuing resolution (H.R. 5631/P.L.109-289, Division
B as amended), FY2007 funding for the MCA is provided at the FY2006 level ($1.75
billion) or the House-passed FY2007 level ($2.0 billion), whichever is less. The
resolution expires on February 15, 2007.
Authorizing Legislation
On July 13, 2006, the House International Relations Committee reported a
measure, H.R. 4014 (H.Rept. 109-563), introduced by Representatives Hyde and
Lantos, Chairman and the ranking Member of the House International Relations
Committee, that would make a number of policy modifications to the original
legislation and to the operations of the Corporation. These include:
Authorizes Appropriations. H.R. 4014 authorizes have authorized appropriations (“such sums as may be
necessary”) for fiscal years 2007 through 2009 and made a number of policy
modifications to the original legislation and to the operations of the Corporation.
These included allowing Compacts to last up to ten years, instead of the five
currently permitted; allowing two concurrent Compacts, rather than the current one;
and requiring notification to authorizing and appropriating Committees 15 days prior
to signing a Compact (as in the procedures of reprogramming notifications under
section 634A of the Foreign Assistance Act), in place of existing language requiring
that the MCC consult with “appropriate committees” prior to negotiating a Compact.
The Committee reported H.R. 4014, upon which it was placed on the Calendar on
July 13, 2006, but received no further consideration in the 109th Congress.
CRS-30
Table 3A. MCA Low-Income Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold
Countries — FY2007
Criteria: Per capita income $1,675 and below, and not prohibited from receiving
other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold.
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Income* East Asia/Pacific Income* Latin America Income*
Angola
$1,350 East Timor (TC)
$750
$1,010
Bolivia
$510
Indonesia (TC)
$1,280
Guyana (TC)
$1,010
Benin
$400
Kiribati
$1,390
Haiti
$450
Burkina Faso
Burundi
$100
Laos
$440
$1,190
Honduras
Cameroon
$1,010 Mongolia
$690
$910
Nicaragua
Central African Rep
$350
Papua New Guinea
$660
Paraguay (TC)
$1,280
Chad
$400
Philippines (TC)
$1,300
Comoros
$640
Solomon Islands
$590
Congo, Dem Rep of
$120
$1,600
Vanuatu
Congo, Rep of
$950
Vietnam
$620
Djibouti
$1,020
Eritrea
$220
Ethiopia
$160
$290
Gambia (suspended)
$450
Ghana
Guinea
$370
South Asia
Income*
Mid-East
Income*
Guinea-Bissau
$180
Afghanistan
**
Egypt
$1,250
Kenya (TC)
$530
Bangladesh
$470
Iraq
**
$960
Bhutan
$870
Yemen
$600
Lesotho
Liberia
$130
India
$720
$290
Nepal
$270
Madagascar
Malawi (TC)
$160
Pakistan
$690
$380
$1,160
Mali
Sri Lanka
Mauritania
$560
$310
Mozambique
Eurasia
Income*
Niger (TC)
$240
$1,470
Armenia
Nigeria
$560
Azerbaijan
$1,240
Rwanda (TC)
$230
$1,350
Georgia
Sao Tome&Principe
$390
Kyrgyz Rep. (TC)
$440
(TC)
$710
$880
Senegal
Moldova (TC)
Sierra Leone
$220
Tajikistan
$330
$340
Turkmenistan
**
Tanzania
Togo
$350
$1,520
Ukraine (TC)
Uganda (TC)
$280
Zambia (TC)
$490
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2005. World Bank, World Development Indicators, On
Line, 2007.
** Precise data unavailable.
CRS-31
Table 3B. MCA Lower Middle-Income Candidate and Eligible
Countries — FY2007
Criteria: Per capita income between $1,675 and $3,465, and not prohibited from
receiving other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Cape Verde
Namibia
Swaziland
Income* East Asia/Pacific
$1,870 Fiji
$2,990 Marshall Islands
$2,280 Micronesia
Samoa
Tonga
Tuvalu
South Asia
Maldives
Income*
$3,280
$2,930
$2,300
$2,090
$2,190
**
Income*
$2,390
Latin America
Brazil
Colombia
Dominican Rep
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Jamaica
Peru (TC)
Suriname
Income*
$3,460
$2,290
$2,370
$2,630
$2,450
$2,400
$3,400
$2,610
$2,540
Mid-East
Income*
Algeria
$2,730
$2,500
Jordan (TC)
Morocco
$1,730
Tunisia
$2,890
Eurasia
Income*
Europe
Income*
Belarus
$2,760
Albania
$2,580
Kazakhstan
$2,930
Bulgaria
$2,450
Macedonia
$2,830
Montenegro
$3,280**
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2005. World Bank, World Development Indicators On
Line, 2007.
** Precise data unavailable. Montenegro figure is based on combined Serbia and Montenegro.
CRS-32
Table 4. MCC Performance Indicators for FY2007
Ruling Justly
Investing in People
Economic Freedom
Control of Corruption
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance]
Public Primary Education Spending as % of GDP
Sources: UNESCO and National governments
Inflation (must be below 15%)
Source: Multiple
Voice and Accountability
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance]
Primary Girls’ Education Completion Rate
Sources: World Bank and UNESCO
Fiscal Policy
Source: National governments and IMF World
Economic Outlook
Government Effectiveness
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance]
Public Expenditure on Health as % of GDP
Sources: World Health Organization (WHO)
Trade Policy
Source: The Heritage Foundation, Index of
Economic Freedom
[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]
Rule of Law
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance]
Immunization Rates: DPT and Measles
Sources: World Health Organization (WHO)
Regulatory Policy
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance]
Civil Liberties
Source: Freedom House
[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page
=15&year=2006]
Days to Start a Business
Source: World Bank
[http://www.doingbusiness.org]
Political Freedom
Source: Freedom House
[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page
=15&year=2006]
Cost of Starting a Business
Source: World Bank
[http://www.doingbusiness.org]
Supplemental Indicator for FY2007
Measuring Sustainable Management of Natural Resources
Natural Resources Management [Source: Columbia Center for Int’l Earth Science Info Network (CIESIN) and Yale Center for Env. Law and Policy (YCLEP)
Land Rights and Access: Access to Land [Source: International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)] and Cost of Property Registration [Source: International
Finance Corporation (IFC) for fiscal years 2007 through 2009. The initial MCA statute only
authorized appropriations through FY2005.
Annual Foreign Operations
appropriations bills routinely waive the requirement of authorization of foreign aid
programs, as the FY2006 Foreign Operations measure did in the case of currently
unauthorized foreign aid programs, including the MCA.
Allows Compacts to Cover a Longer Period. Currently, Compacts
cannot last for more than five years. H.R. 4014 would permit Compacts that cannot
be completed in that period to be approved for up to 10 years.
Permits Multiple Compacts. Under current law, a country cannot maintain
more than one Compact. H.R. 4014 would allow the Corporation to enter into two
concurrent Compacts with an eligible country, so long as the country is making
“considerable and demonstrable progress” in meeting the terms of the original
Compact. Likewise, when a country applies for a subsequent Compact, the MCC
must determine that the country has “substantially met” the goals of prior Compacts.
CRS-29
Adds New Notification Requirement. Current law requires that the MCC
consult with “appropriate committees” prior to negotiating a Compact. H.R. 4014
adds language requiring notification 15 days prior to signing a Compact. By
requiring that the process of prior notification be followed in accordance with the
procedures of reprogramming notifications under section 634A of the Foreign
Assistance Act, H.R. 4014 makes explicit the requirement that the MCC Board
notifies congressional authorizers as well as appropriators.
CRS-30
Table 2. MCA Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold Countries —
FY2004
Criteria: IDA-eligible, per capita income $1,415 and below, and not prohibited from
receiving other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold.
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Income*
East Asia/Pacific
Income*
Latin
America
Bolivia
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Nicaragua
Angola
$660
East Timor (TC)
$430
$390
Indonesia
$680
Benin
Burkina Faso
$220
Kiribati
$810
Cameroon
$560
Laos
$310
$1,290
$440
Cape Verde
Mongolia
Chad
$220
Papua New Guinea
$580
Comoros
$390
Solomon Islands
$570
Congo, Dem Rep of
$90
Tonga
$1,410
Congo, Rep of
$700
$1,080
Vanuatu
Eritrea
$160
Vietnam
$430
Ethiopia
$100
Gambia
$280
South Asia
Income*
Mid-East
$270
Afghanistan
**
Djibouti
Ghana
Guinea
$410
Bangladesh
$360
Yemen (TC)
Kenya (TC)
$360
Bhutan
$590
$470
India
$460
Lesotho
$240
Nepal
$230
Madagascar
Malawi
$160
Pakistan
$420
$240
$840
Mali
Sri Lanka
Mauritania
$340
$210
Mozambique
Eurasia
Income*
Europe
Niger
$170
$790
Albania(TC)
Armenia
Nigeria
$290
Azerbaijan
$650
Bosnia
Rwanda
$230
$720
Georgia
Sao Tome &
$290
Kyrgyz Rep.
$290
Principe (TC)
$470
Moldova
$460
Senegal
Sierra Leone
$140
Tajikistan
$180
Tanzania (TC)
$280
Togo
$270
Uganda (TC)
$240
Zambia
$330
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2002. World Bank Annual Report, 2003.
** Precise data unavailable.
Income*
$940
$840
$440
$920
**
Income*
$900
$490
Income*
$1,380
$1,270
CRS-31
Table 3. MCA Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold Countries —
FY2005
Criteria: Per capita income $1,465 and below, and not prohibited from receiving
other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold.
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Income*
East Asia/Pacific
Income*
Angola
Benin
Burkina Faso (TC)
Cameroon
Chad
Comoros
Congo, Dem Rep
Congo, Rep of
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Kenya (TC)
Lesotho
Madagascar
Malawi (TC)
Mali
Mauritania
Mozambique
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Sao Tome &
Principe (TC)
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Swaziland
Tanzania (TC)
Togo
Uganda (TC)
Zambia (TC)
$740
$440
$300
$640
$250
$450
$100
$640
**
$190
$90
$310
$320
$430
$390
$590
$290
$170
$290
$430
$210
$200
$320
$220
China
East Timor (TC)
Indonesia
Kiribati
Laos
Mongolia
Papua New Guinea
Philippines (TC)
Solomon Islands
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
Vietnam
$1,100
$430
$810
$880
$320
$480
$510
$1,080
$600
**
$1,180
$480
$320
Azerbaijan
$550
$150
$1,350
$290
$310
$240
$380
Latin
America
Bolivia
Guyana(TC)
Haiti
Honduras
Nicaragua
Paraguay(TC
Income*
$890
$900
$380
$970
$730
$1,100
South Asia
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Income*
**
$400
$660
$530
$240
$470
$930
Mid-East
Djibouti
Egypt
Iraq
Morocco
Yemen (TC)
Income*
$910
$1,390
**
$1,320
$520
Eurasia
Armenia
Income*
$950
Europe
Income*
Georgia
Kyrgyz Rep.
Moldova
Tajikistan
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
$810
$830
$330
$590
$190
$1,120
$970
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2003. World Bank Annual Report, 2004.
** Precise data unavailable.
CRS-32
Table 4A. MCA Low-Income Candidate, Eligible, and Threshold
Countries — FY2006
Criteria: Per capita income $1,575 and below, and not prohibited from receiving
other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold.
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Income* East Asia/Pacific Income* Latin America Income*
Angola
$1,030 China
$1,290
$960
Bolivia
$530
$550
Guyana (TC)
$990
Benin
East Timor
$360
Indonesia (TC)
$1,140
Haiti
$390
Burkina Faso
Cameroon
$800
Kiribati
$970
$1,030
Honduras
Chad
$260
Laos
$390
$790
Nicaragua
Comoros
$530
$590
Paraguay (TC)
$1,170
Mongolia
Congo, Dem Rep of
$120
Papua New Guinea
$580
Congo, Rep of
$770
Philippines (TC)
$1,170
Djibouti
$1,030 Solomon Islands
$550
Eritrea
$180
$1,340
Vanuatu
Ethiopia
$110
Vietnam
$550
$290
Gambia
$380
Ghana
Guinea
$460
South Asia
Income*
Mid-East
Income*
Guinea-Bissau
$160
Afghanistan
**
Egypt
$1,310
Kenya (TC)
$460
Bangladesh
$440
Iraq
**
$740
Bhutan
$760
$1,520
Lesotho
Morocco
Liberia
$110
India
$620
Yemen
$570
$300
Nepal
$260
Madagascar
Malawi (TC)
$170
Pakistan
$600
$360
$1,010
Mali
Sri Lanka
Mauritania
$420
$250
Mozambique
Eurasia
Income*
Niger
$230
$1,120
Armenia
Nigeria
$390
Azerbaijan
$950
Rwanda
$220
$1,040
Georgia
Sao Tome&Principe
$370
Kyrgyz Rep. (TC)
$400
(TC)
$670
Moldova (TC)
$710
Senegal
Sierra Leone
$200
Tajikistan
$280
$330
Turkmenistan
$1,340
Tanzania
Togo
$380
Ukraine (TC)
$1,260
Uganda (TC)
$270
Zambia (TC)
$450
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2004. World Bank, World Development Indicators, On
Line, 2005.
** Precise data unavailable.
CRS-33
Table 4B. MCA Lower Middle-Income Candidate and Eligible
Countries — FY2006
Criteria: Per capita income between $1,575 and $3,255, and not prohibited from
receiving other U.S. economic assistance.
Eligible Countries are in Bold
Threshold Countries are followed with (TC)
Africa
Cape Verde
Namibia
Swaziland
Income* East Asia/Pacific
$1,770 Fiji
$2,370 Marshall Islands
$1,660 Micronesia
Samoa
Thailand
Tonga
Tuvalu
Income*
$2,690
$2,370
$1,990
$1,860
$2,540
$1,830
**
Latin America
Brazil
Colombia
Dominican Rep
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Jamaica
Peru
Suriname
Income*
$3,090
$2,000
$2,080
$2,180
$2,350
$2,130
$2,900
$2,360
$2,250
South Asia
Maldives
Income*
$2,510
Mid-East
Algeria
Jordan (TC)
Tunisia
Income*
$2,280
$2,140
$2,630
Eurasia
Belarus
Kazakhstan
Income*
$2,120
$2,260
Europe
Income*
Albania
$2,080
Bulgaria
$2,740
Macedonia
$2,350
Romania
$2,260
* Gross National Income, dollars per capita, 2004. World Bank, World Development Indicators On
Line, 2005.
** Precise data unavailable.
CRS-34
Table 5. MCC Performance Indicators for FY2006
Ruling Justly
Investing in People
Economic Freedom
Control of Corruption
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdat
a2002/index.html]
Public Primary Education Spending as % of GDP
Sources: National governments
Inflation (must be below 15%)
Source: Multiple
Voice and Accountability
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdat
a2002/index.html]
Primary Girls’ Education Completion Rate
Sources: World Bank and UNESCO
Fiscal Policy
Source: National governments and IMF World
Economic Outlook
Government Effectiveness
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdat
a2002/index.html]
Public Expenditure on Health as % of GDP
Sources: National governments
Trade Policy
Source: The Heritage Foundation, Index of
Economic Freedom
[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]
Rule of Law
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdat
a2002/index.html]
Immunization Rates: DPT and Measles
Sources: World Health Organization
Regulatory Policy
Source: World Bank Institute
[http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdat
a2002/index.html]
Civil Liberties
Source: Freedom House
[http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/
2004/table2004.pdf]
Days to Start a Business
Source: World Bank
[http://rru.worldbank.org/DoingBusiness/ExploreT
opics/StartingBusiness/CompareAll.aspx]
Political Freedom
Source: Freedom House
[http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/
2004/table2004.pdf]
Cost of Starting a Business
Source: World Bank
[http://rru.worldbank.org/DoingBusiness/ExploreT
opics/StartingBusiness/CompareAll.aspx]