Order Code RS21049
Updated June 30September 16, 2006
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
Latin America: Terrorism Issues
Mark P. Sullivan
Specialist in Latin American Affairs
Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division
Summary
In the aftermath of the September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and
Washington, DC, U.S. attention to terrorism in Latin America intensified, with an
increase in bilateral and regional cooperation. Latin American nations strongly
condemned the attacks, and took action through the Organization of American States
(OAS) to strengthen hemispheric cooperation. In June 2002, OAS members signed an
Inter-American Convention Against Terrorism. President Bush submitted the
Convention to the Senate in November 2002. On October 7, 2005, the Senate agreed
to the resolution of advice and consent on the Convention, and the United States
deposited its instruments of ratification for the Convention on November 15, 2005. In
its 2005 report on global terrorism, issued in April 2006, the State Department
highlighted threats in Colombia, Peru, and the tri-border area of Argentina, Brazil, and
Paraguay, but noted that there were no known operational cells of Islamic terrorists in
the hemisphere. Cuba has been on the State Department’s list of state sponsors of
terrorism since 1982 pursuant to Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979,
which triggers a number of foreign aid sanctions. In May 2006, the Department of State,
pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export Control Act, prohibited the sale or license
of defense articles and services to Venezuela because of its lack of cooperation on
antiterrorism efforts.
Terrorism in Latin America: U.S. Concerns
Over the years, the United States has been concerned about threats to Latin American
and Caribbean nations from various terrorist or insurgent groups that have attempted to
influence or overthrow elected governments. Although Latin America has not been the
focal point in the war on terrorism, countries in the region have struggled with domestic
terrorism for decades and international terrorist groups have at times used the region as
a battleground to advance their causes. The State Department’s annual Country Reports
on Terrorism highlights U.S. concerns about terrorist threats around the world, including
in Latin America. The 2005 report, issued in April 2006, notes that the international
terrorist threat in the Western Hemisphere remained low in 2005 and that, overall,
governments in the region took modest steps to improve their counterterrorism
capabilities and tighten border security. At the same time, the report maintained that
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress
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corruption, weak government institutions, ineffective or lacking interagency cooperation,
weak or non-existent legislation, and reluctance to allocate sufficient resources limited
the progress of many countries. The report asserted that terrorism in the region was
“primarily perpetrated by narcoterrorist organizations based in Colombia and by the
remnants of radical leftist Andean groups.” Although the tri-border area (TBA) of
Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay has been a regional hub for Hizballah and Hamas
fundraising activities, the State Department report maintains that there is no corroborated
information that Islamic extremist groups have an operational presence in the TBA or
elsewhere in Latin America. The report also examines activity by Cuba, which has been
designated by the State Department as a state sponsor of terrorism since 1982, and asserts
that Venezuela has virtually ceased its cooperation in the global war on terror.
Colombia. Colombia remains of paramount concern to the United States because
of the threat posed by three groups that have been designated by the Secretary of State as
Foreign Terrorist Organizations (FTOs): two leftist guerrilla groups, the Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the National Liberation Army (ELN), and a
rightist paramilitary group, the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia (AUC). The
Colombian government has made significant progress in regaining control of national
territory, promoting desertion and reintegration of former illegal armed militants, and
demobilizing the AUC. Nevertheless, according to the 2005 terrorism report, the three
groups continued to murder, kidnap, and terrorize Colombians from all walks of life.
Despite the government’s military campaign against it, the FARC continued terrorist and
narcotrafficking activities, which included targeting rural outposts, infrastructure, and
political adversaries. The ELN began talks with the Colombian government in Cuba but
has not yet agreed to begin a formal peace process. The AUC agreed to demobilize its
combatants, and some 23,000 have been demobilized. Although the overall level of AUC
violence decreased, according to the State Department report, cease-fire violations have
included mass killings, kidnappings, assassinations, illegal evictions, robberies, and
impressment of children. In February 2003, a U.S. civilian contractor and a Colombian
national were murdered by the FARC after their plane crashed. The FARC continues to
hold hostage three U.S. contractors from that plane crash. All three Colombian FTOs
reportedly exploit the Venezuelan side of the border with Colombia as a safe area to
transship arms and drugs, rest, secure logistical supplies, and commit kidnappings. The
State Department report indicates that “it is unclear and to what extent the Government
of Venezuela provided material support to Colombian terrorists and at what level.” (For
more on Colombia, see CRS Report RL32250, Colombia: Issues for Congress.)
Peru. The brutal Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso or SL) insurgency, which the
Department of State has designated as an FTO, was significantly weakened in the 1990s
with the capture of its leader Abimael Guzman. According to the State Department
terrorism report, SL has about 200 armed members that receive funding from involvement
in the drug trade. Eleven Peruvian law enforcement officials were killed by SL forces in
2005. The group is also reportedly attempting to rebuild support in the universities where
it had considerable influence in the 1980s.
Tri-Border Area. In recent years, U.S. concerns have increased over activities of
the radical Lebanon-based Islamic group Hizballah (Party of God) and the Sunni Muslim
Palestinian group Hamas (Islamic Resistance Movement) in the tri-border area of
Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay, which has a large Muslim population. The TBA has
long been used for arms and drug trafficking, contraband smuggling, document and
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currency fraud, money laundering, and the manufacture and movement of pirated goods.
The 2005 terrorism report maintains that the United States remains concerned that
Hizballah and Hamas were raising funds among the sizable Muslim communities in the
region but stated that there was no corroborated information that these or other Islamic
extremist groups had an operational presence in the area.
Allegations have linked Hizballah to two bombings in Argentina: the 1992 bombing
of the Israeli Embassy in Buenos Aires that killed 30 people and the 1994 bombing of the
Argentine-Israeli Mutual Association (AMIA) in Buenos Aires that killed 85 people. As
noted in the 2005 terrorism report, the AMIA investigation has been plagued with
problems, but a new prosecutor has reinvigorated the investigation of the case.
Nevertheless, the case was dealt a setback in September 2005 when Interpol cancelled the
international capture orders for 12 Iranian nationals wanted by Argentina for involvement
in the bombing. (For additional information on Argentina, see CRS Report RS21113,
Argentina: Political Conditions and U.S. Relations.)
Cuba. The Department of State, pursuant to Section 6(j) of the Export
Administration Act of 1979, includes Cuba among its list of sixfive states sponsoring
terrorism (the other five states are Iran, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria). Cuba was
added to
the list in 1982. The Communist government led by Fidel Castro had a history
of of
supporting revolutionary movements and governments in Latin America and Africa,
but but
in 1992, Castro said that his country’s support for insurgents abroad was a thing of the
past. Most analysts accept that Cuba’s policy generally did change, largely because the
breakup of the Soviet Union resulted in the loss of billions in subsidies.
The State Department’s 2005 terrorism report maintains that Cuba continues to
actively oppose the global war on terrorism and has publicly condemned various U.S.
policies and actions. It also noted that Cuba maintains close relationships with other state
sponsors of terrorism, such as Iran and North Korea, and has provided safe haven for
members of several FTOs. The report maintained that Cuba provides safe haven to
various Basque ETA members from Spain and to members of two Colombian insurgent
groups, the FARC and the ELN, although the report also maintained that there is no
information concerning terrorist activities of these or other organizations in Cuba. The
State Department’s 2002 and 2003 Patterns of Global Terrorism reports acknowledged
that Colombia acquiesced to this arrangement and that Colombia publicly said that it
wanted Cuba’s continued mediation with the ELN in Cuba. In December 2005, a group
of international facilitators representing Cuba, Norway, Spain, and Switzerland oversaw
exploratory talks between the Colombian government and the ELN in Havana. In April
2006, Colombia and the ELN held four days of talks in Cuba and reiterated their
commitment to continue meeting after Colombia’s May 28, 2006, elections. The 2005
report also maintained that Cuba permits U.S. fugitives from justice to live legally in
Cuba. Many are accused of hijacking or committing violent actions in the United States,
including Joanne Chesimard, who is wanted for the murder of a New Jersey State Trooper
in 1973. The State Department report noted that most of the fugitives entered Cuba in the
1970s and that Cuba has stated that it will no longer provide safe haven to new fugitives
who may enter Cuba.
In general, those who support keeping Cuba on the terrorism list argue that there is
ample evidence that Cuba supports terrorism. They point to the government’s history of
supporting terrorist acts and armed insurgencies in Latin America and Africa. They point
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to the government’s continued hosting of members of foreign terrorist organizations and
U.S. fugitives from justice. Critics of retaining Cuba on the terrorism list maintain that
it is a holdover of the Cold War. They argue that domestic political considerations keep
Cuba on the terrorism list and maintain that Cuba’s presence on the list diverts U.S.
attention from struggles against serious terrorist threats. (For further information, see
CRS Report RL32251, Cuba and the State Sponsors of Terrorism List, and CRS Report
RL32730, Cuba: Issues for the 109th Congress.)
Venezuela. According to the State Department’s 2005 terrorism report, Venezuela
has virtually ceased its cooperation in the global war on terror, tolerated terrorist in its
territory, and sought close relations with Cuba and Iran, both state sponsors of terrorism.
As noted above, Colombian terrorist groups use Venezuela territory for safehaven,
although it is unclear whether and to what extent the government of President Hugo
Chávez provides material support to these terrorist groups and at what level. According
to the State Department report, Venezuelan citizenship, identity, and travel documents are
easy to obtain, making the country a potentially attractive way-station for terrorists. In
mid-May 2006, the Department of State, pursuant to Section 40A of the Arms Export
Control Act, prohibited the sale or license of defense article and services to Venezuela
because of its lack of cooperation on antiterrorism efforts. Other countries on the Section
40A list include Cuba, Iran, North Korea, and Syria, not to be confused with the “state
sponsors of terrorism” list under Section 6(j) of the Export Administration Act of 1979,
which includes Cuba, Iran, Libya, North Korea, Sudan, and Syria..
(For further information, see CRS Report RL32488, Venezuela: Political Conditions and
U.S. Policy.)
U.S. Policy
As in other parts of the world, the United States has assisted Latin American and
Caribbean nations over the years in their struggle against terrorist or insurgent groups
indigenous to the region. For example, in the 1980s, the United States supported the
government of El Salvador with significant economic and military assistance in its
struggle against a leftist guerrilla insurgency. In recent years, the United States has
employed various policy tools to combat terrorism in the Latin America and Caribbean
region, including sanctions, anti-terrorism assistance and training, law enforcement
cooperation, and multilateral cooperation through the OAS. Moreover, given the nexus
between terrorism and drug trafficking, one can argue that assistance aimed at combating
drug trafficking organizations in the region has also been a means of combating terrorism
by cutting off a source of revenue for terrorist organizations. The same argument can be
made regarding efforts to combat money laundering in the region.
Although terrorism was not the main focus of U.S. policy toward the region in recent
years, attention increased in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on New York and
Washington. Anti-terrorism assistance has increased along with bilateral and regional
cooperation against terrorism. In 2002, Congress approved the Bush Administration’s
request to expand the scope of U.S. assistance to Colombia beyond a counternarcotics
focus to also include counter-terrorism assistance to the government in its military efforts
against drug-financed leftist guerrillas and rightist paramilitaries.
As noted above, the United States has imposed sanctions on three groups in
Colombia (ELN, FARC, and AUC) and one group in Peru (SL) designated by the
Department of State as FTOs. Official designation of such groups as FTOs triggers a
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number of sanctions, including visa restrictions and the blocking of any funds of these
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groups in U.S. financial institutions. The designation also has the effect of increasing
public awareness about these terrorist organizations and the concerns that the United
States has about them.
Through the Department of State (Diplomatic Security Office, Office of
Antiterrorism Assistance), the United States provides Anti-Terrorism Assistance (ATA)
training and equipment to Latin American countries to help improve their capabilities in
such areas as airport security management, hostage negotiations, bomb detection and
deactivation, and countering terrorism financing. Such training was expanded to
Argentina in the aftermath of the two bombings in 1992 and 1994. Assistance was also
stepped up in 1997 to Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay in light of increased U.S. concern
over illicit activities in the tri-border area of those countries.
ATA funding is generally provided through the annual foreign operations
appropriations measure under the Nonproliferation, Anti-terrorism, Demining, and
Related Programs (NADR) account. For FY2005, $7.9 million in ATA was provided for
the Western Hemisphere, with $5.1 million for training anti-kidnapping units in Colombia
and $0.5 million for the tri-border area of Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. For FY2006,
an estimated $12.3 million in ATA will be provided for the Western Hemisphere, with
$5.3 million for Colombia and $1.5 million for the Bahamas. The FY2007 Western
Hemisphere request is $11.9 million, with $3.1 million for Colombia, $2.8 million for
Trinidad and Tobago, and $1.4 million for Jamaica.
The United States also works closely with the governments of the tri-border region
— Argentina, Brazil, and Paraguay — through the “3+1 regional cooperation
mechanism,” which serves as a forum for counterterrorism cooperation and prevention
among all four countries.
Money laundering in the region has been a major U.S. concern for some 20 years,
largely because of its association with drug traffickers, but terrorist organizations may
also be involved in money laundering as a means of hiding their financial assets. The
United States works through the Financial Action Task Force (FATF), a multilateral antimoney laundering body, to help develop and promote policies to combat money
laundering worldwide. According to the Department of State’s March 2006 International
Narcotics Control Strategy Report, 16 nations in the region are jurisdictions of primary
concern to the United States because of their vulnerability to money laundering. These
are Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Brazil, Cayman Islands, Colombia, Costa
Rica, Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Haiti, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, St. Kitts and
Nevis, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Increased Regional Cooperation Since 9/11. Latin American nations
strongly condemned the September 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington
and took the United States and took
action through the OAS and the Rio Treaty to strengthen hemispheric
cooperation against
terrorism. The OAS, which happened to be meeting in Peru at the
time, swiftly
condemned the attacks, reiterated the need to strengthen hemispheric
cooperation to
combat terrorism, and expressed full solidarity with the United States. At
a special
session on September 19, 2001, OAS members invoked the 1947 Inter-American
Treaty Treaty
of Reciprocal Assistance, also known as the Rio Treaty, which obligates
signatories to the
treaty to come to one another’s defense in case of outside attack.
Another resolution
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approved on September 21, 2001, called on Rio Treaty signatories to
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“use all legally
available measures to pursue, capture, extradite, and punish those
individuals” involved
in the attacks and to “render additional assistance and support to
the United States, as
appropriate, to address the September 11 attacks, and also to prevent
future terrorist acts.”
In another resolution, the OAS called on the Inter-American Committee on
Terrorism (CICTE) to identify urgent actions aimed at strengthening inter-American
cooperation in order to combat and eliminate terrorism in the hemisphere. The CICTE
was was
reinvigorated in the aftermath of 9/11, and has cooperated on border security
mechanisms,
controls to prevent funding of terrorist organizationsfunding, and law enforcement
and counterterrorism
intelligence and information. At a January 2003 CICTE meeting in
El Salvador, OAS members issued
the Declaration of San Salvador, which condemned
terrorism and pledged to strengthen
hemispheric cooperation through a variety of border,
customs, and financial control
measures. At the conference, the United States pledged
$1 million to the OAS to help
the growth of CICTE “as a technical body devoted to
increasing counterterrorism
expertise in the Americas.”1 At the February 2005 CICTE
session held in Trinidad and
Tobago, OAS members reaffirmed their commitment to
deepen cooperation in the fight against terrorism, and expanded their work by addressing
against
terrorism and addressed threats to aviation, seaport, and cyber security.
In June 2002, OAS members signed a newly completedthe Inter-American Convention
Against Terrorism in June
2002. Signing the treaty for the United States, Secretary of State Powell said
that the
OAS had “produced the first new international treaty since September 11 targeted
at at
improving our ability to combat terrorism.”2 The Convention, among other measures,
would improve regional cooperation against terrorism, commit parties to sign and ratify
U.N. anti-terrorism instruments and take actions against the financing of terrorism, and
deny safe haven to suspected terrorists.
President Bush submitted the Convention to the
Senate on November 12, 2002, for
its advice and consent, and the treaty was referred to
the Senate Foreign Relations
Committee (Treaty Doc. 107-18). The committee held a
public hearing on the treaty on
June 17, 2004. In the 109th Congress, the committee
formally reported the treaty on July
28, 2005 (Senate Exec. Rept. 109-3), and on October
7, 2005, the Senate agreed to the
resolution of advice and consent. The United States
deposited its instruments of
ratification for the Convention on November 15, 2005. ratification for the Convention on November 15, 2005.
Also in the 109th Congress, the House approved H.Con.Res. 338 on June 12, 2006,
which expresses the sense of Congress regarding the activities of Islamic terrorist
organizations in the Western Hemisphere. The resolution “recognizes the potential threat
that sympathizers and financiers of Islamist terrorist organizations that operate in the
Western Hemisphere pose to the United States, our allies, and interests.” The resolution
also encourages the President to direct the U.S. representative to the OAS to seek support
for the creation of a special task force of the CICTE to assist governments in investigating
and combating the proliferation of Islamist terrorist organizations in the region.
1
U.S. Department of State, International Information Programs, “U.S. Donates $1 Million to
Combat Terrorism in Western Hemisphere,” Washington File, January 22, 2003.
2
U.S. Department of State, International Information Programs, “Transcript: Powell Stresses
Security at OAS General Assembly,” Washington File, June 3, 2002.