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Updated June 13, 2024
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Background
servicemembers and certain honorably discharged veterans.
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
These instructors are hired as employees of the school
district, but also have oversight from the military services.
federally funded program of instruction for high school-
Instructors are required to abide by standards set by their
aged students administered by the armed forces. The
parent service, as well as the policies set by their host
purpose of JROTC, according to 10 U.S.C. §2031 is “to
institution. Generally, schools with JROTC units employ a
instill in students in United States secondary educational
minimum of one officer (Senior Military Instructor) and
institutions the values of citizenship, service to the United
one NCO (Junior Military Instructor) on staff. Eligibility
States (including an introduction to service opportunities in
criteria for JROTC instructors (e.g., education, certification,
military, national, and public service), and personal
training) are specified in law (10 U.S.C. §2033).
responsibility and a sense of accomplishment.”
Servicemembers who are eligible for retired pay may
Congress established JROTC as an Army program in the
continue to receive such pay while employed as an
National Defense Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-85) and in 1964
instructor. Military departments subsidize instructor
expanded it to the Navy and Air Force. Congress later
positions with appropriated funds by reimbursing the host
authorized U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) JROTC units at two
institution for a portion of the salary using the JROTC
schools: one in Miami, FL in 1989 (P.L. 101-225), and
Standardized Instructor Pay Scale.
another in Camden County, NC in 2005 (P.L. 109-241).
Section 11247 of the James M. Inhofe National Defense
Curriculum
Authorization Act for fiscal year (FY) 2023 (P.L. 117-263)
JROTC courses are taught over a three- or four-year period
required the USCG to establish and maintain at least one
on topics such as leadership, ethics, civics, history, and
JROTC Unit in every Coast Guard district by December 31,
health and wellness. The FY2020 NDAA (P.L. 116-92)
2025.
authorized instruction in science, technology, engineering,
In FY2024, the military services reported 3,507 JROTC
and mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also includes
units, with programs in all 50 states and at DOD schools
service-specific courses such as Aerospace Science or
overseas (see Table 1). Eighth-grade students may
Seamanship and Navigation. In addition, units offer
participate in JROTC if physically co-located with 9th-12th
extracurricular activities such as color guard/drill team,
grade students. Home-schooled students may also
marksmanship, and field trips to military installations.
participate. In FY2022, 10 Air Force units were converted
Establishing a JROTC Program
to Space Force units.
Congressional offices may be approached by local
Table 1. Estimated Size of JROTC Program in FY2024 educational authorities (LEAs) in their districts with
questions about how to establish a new JROTC unit.
Number
Estimated
Service
Schools interested in hosting a unit must apply to the
of units
enrollment
respective military department. Host schools are required to
Army
1,734
280,050
maintain participation levels of 10% of the student body, or
100 students, whichever is less. The military departments
Navy
658
78,044
establish criteria for unit placement, including Title I status
Marine Corps
252
32,000
under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (P.L.
89-10, as amended), local indicators of need (e.g., high
Air Force
853
98,000
unemployment or illiteracy), student enrollment, school
Space Force
17
2000
financial solvency, and fair and equitable distribution of
JROTC programs among states.
Total
3,514
490, 094
Source: DOD Comptrol er, FY2025 military department budget
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
justification documents.
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
Notes: Navy figures include 75 National Defense Cadet Corps
per 10 U.S.C. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
(NNDCC) units and 5,050 NNDCC cadets. Table does not include
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
ten USCG units.
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
responsibility of the host institution and are not subsidized
JROTC Instructors
by the federal government. Schools may seek to convert an
JROTC instructors are typically retired or reserve officers
existing unit to an unfunded NDCC if enrollment figures
and enlisted noncommissioned officers (NCOs); 10 U.S.C.
fall under the statutory threshold.
§2031(d)(1) also authorizes employment of active duty
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link to page 2 Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Federal Funding
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
Congress annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
DOD’s Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military
correlation between JROTC participation and propensity to
Personnel (MILPERS) budget (see Table 2). Beyond
enlist, while others have found that the impact of
instructor salaries, the military departments also fund
participation on military enlistment is negligible when
uniforms, cadet travel, training aids, text books, educational
accounting for self-selection into JROTC. JROTC
materials, and other unit operating expenses. Host
participation has been linked with positive outcomes for
institutions provide classroom space, facilities, and
those who do go on to enlist in the military. Some effects
administrative support for the unit.
vary by gender and racial/ethnic groups.
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC, FY2024
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
(Enacted total funding, in thousands of dol ars)
as an officer may benefit at the time of entry into service.
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
Per DOD policy (DODI 1205.13), a student successfully
completing at least two academic years of the JROTC
Army
204,895
24,660
229,555
program is entitled to advanced promotion to the grade of
Navy
58,970
16,534
75,504
no less than E-2 upon initial enlistment. The military
departments may award the grade of E-3 for successful
Marine Corps
29,616
4,079
33,695
completion of three academic years. The secretaries of the
Air Force
75,666
24,657
100,323
military departments may also nominate up to 20 honor
Total
369,147
69,930
439,077
graduates from JROTC units designated by the secretaries
as honor schools for appointment to one of the three
Source: DOD Comptrol er, FY2025 budget justification documents.
military service academies.
Space Force funding is included in Air Force figures.
Is the distribution of units equitable?
Considerations for Congress
In the past, Congress has considered whether the
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing JROTC, there
distribution of JROTC units across various demographic,
are several questions for consideration.
socioeconomic, and geographic indicators is equitable. The
How many JROTC units should Congress fund?
FY2024 NDAA (P.L. 118-31 §551) removed the statutory
requirement that the Secretary consider the “fair and
In determining the number of JROTC units to support,
equitable distribution” of units throughout the nation. Past
Congress may consider defense budget priorities, program
analysis from 2017 found that JROTC is generally
benefits, and host school and constituent concerns.
underrepresented in rural and remote areas and tend to be
Congress has established statutory minimum and maximum
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states (i.e., FL, GA,
limits on the number of JROTC units that have varied over
NC, SC, and LA) relative to the national average. The
time. Under 10 U.S.C. §2031, as amended in 2023 (P.L.
report also found that public high schools with larger-than-
118-31 §551), DOD is required to maintain not fewer than
average minority populations and in schools serving
3,400 and not more than 4,000 units. In 2020, the
economically disadvantaged populations are also
congressionally mandated National Commission on
overrepresented as JROTC host schools. Higher
Military, National, and Public Service recommended
representation in economically disadvantaged and larger,
expanding the number of JROTC units to 6,000 by 2031.
more urban schools has largely been a function of service-
What are some of the program benefits?
level policy decisions that award preference for Title I
schools and other structural program requirements (e.g.,
The JROTC program may have some benefits for students
minimum student participation, availability of instructors).
and host schools. Several studies have found positive
While advocates for JROTC point to positive outcomes for
correlations between JROTC participation and student
high-risk youth, some critics have argued that it unfairly
outcomes, including school attendance and graduation rates,
targets low-income and minority communities for military
improved test performance, higher self-esteem for female
recruiting.
students, and lower rates of disciplinary action. For schools,
the prospect of federal funding for instructors, STEM
Other JROTC Oversight Matters
program grants (P.L. 116-283 §512), and other activities
Additional oversight matters related to JROTC include, i)
may create incentives to host and maintain units. Some
quality and accuracy of curriculum and instruction
critics maintain that these incentives may lead schools to
materials, and ii) accountability for JROTC instructor
pressure students into enrolling in JROTC to maintain the
performance and behavior.
unit sizes required for continued funding.
How does JROTC participation affect recruiting?
Resources
Chapter 102, Title 10, United States Code: Junior Reserve
Some parents and observers have expressed concerns about
Officers’ Training Corps
military influence in high schools. Participation in JROTC
does not incur any military obligation and military
DOD Instruction 1205.13, Junior Reserve Officers’ Training
Corps’ Program.
recruitment is not a stated objective in statute or policy.
Nevertheless, the military services seek to provide
favorable exposure to military careers through JROTC and
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
IF11313
Kristy N. Kamarck, Coordinator, Specialist in Military
Manpower
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11313 · VERSION 14 · UPDATED