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Updated January 19, 2024
Defense Primer: Senior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Background
standardization. The National Defense Act of 1916 (P.L.
The Senior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (SROTC)—
65-84) abolished the land-grant system for military
more commonly referred to as the Reserve Officers’
education and created an ROTC structure to standardize and
Training Corps (ROTC)—is an officer training and
enhance military training for the Army. In 1925, under P.L
scholarship program for postsecondary students authorized
68-611, the Navy was allowed to participate in ROTC.
under Chapter 103 of Title 10 of the United States Code. By
Congress added a naval scholarship program in 1946 (P.L
enrolling in ROTC, students can pursue an undergraduate
79-729).
degree while also training to become U.S. military officers.
In 1964, following a decline in ROTC enrollment, Congress
The military departments—Army, Air Force, and Navy—
passed the ROTC Vitalization Act (P.L. 88-647). The act
manage their own ROTC programs, which are hosted at
standardized the program across the Army, Navy, and Air
civilian universities and colleges. The Navy ROTC program
Force, and authorized the department secretaries to pay for
includes a Marine Corps option and the Air Force program
participants’ educational expenses. The military lifted
allows for commissions to the Space Force. The military
restrictions on participation by women in ROTC programs
departments provide scholarships and other forms of
in 1969 (Air Force) and 1972 (Army and Navy).
financial assistance to participating students. In return,
students commit to accept an appointment as an officer in
Past Controversies
the U.S. military upon graduation
Historically, ROTC programs have been seen by military
The Coast Guard, part of the Department of Homeland
and civilian stakeholders as an opportunity to augment
Security, does not have an ROTC program, but offers the
force structure and foster civilian-military relations. At
College Student Pre-Commissioning Initiative (CSPI, 14
times, however, the presence of ROTC units and students
U.S.C. §2131) that awards scholarships to students at
on campus has been contentious. During the Vietnam War
minority-serving institutions and subsequent placement in
era, student antiwar protests were widespread, and several
the Coast Guard Officer Candidate School upon graduation.
universities downgraded ROTC to an extracurricular
activity, disallowed academic credit for ROTC coursework,
The ROTC program is the largest single source of
or denied access to on-campus facilities and support. As a
commissioned officers, producing more than 8,500 officers
result, the military departments shuttered the ROTC
annually. Other major commissioning sources include
programs at several of these universities.
military service academies; Officer Candidate/Training
Schools; and direct appointment. Approximately 75% of
In the 1990s, controversy around the ROTC program arose
officers commissioned through ROTC are men, and the
due to the Department of Defense’s (DOD) policy toward
racial and ethnic background is shown in Table 1.
gay individuals. This policy, known as Don’t Ask, Don’t
Tell (DADT), became law in 1993 as part of the FY1994
Table 1. Officers Commissioned through ROTC by
National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 103-160, §571).
Race and Ethnicity; Academic Year 2021
Some faculty members and students criticized DADT for
being discriminatory and some universities barred ROTC
Army
Navy
Air Force
programs from their campuses.
White
64.8%
73.3%
67.5%
In 1996, as part of the FY1996 NDAA (P.L. 104-106,
Black
11.9%
4.0%
5.5%
§541), Congress passed legislation that denied certain
federal funding to any higher education institution that
Hispanic
12.5%
8.0%
11.3%
prohibited or prevented the operation of ROTC units,
recruiting activity, or student participation in ROTC on its
Asian
7.0%
6.6%
6.4%
campus. In 2010, DADT was repealed (P.L. 111-321), and
Source: Government Accountability Office (GAO), GAO-23-
several universities began to re-introduce ROTC programs.
105857, Table 2, p. 15.
Notes: Other racial/ethnic categories are omitted as they
Establishing ROTC Units
constituted less than 5% of the overall population.
According to DOD policy, ROTC programs may be
Legislative History
affiliated with schools in one of four ways
During the Civil War, Congress passed the Land Grant Act
• Host Unit: all activities are located on that school’s
of 1862 (P.L. 37-130; also called the Morrill Act) to address
campus.
a shortage of trained military officers. The act provided
• Extension Unit: students are affiliated with another
funding and land to establish public colleges in each state.
school’s host unit but participate in activities and classes
In turn, these colleges were to teach military tactics to
at their own institution.
future officers. However, the implementation and quality of
military instruction across these schools lacked
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link to page 2 Defense Primer: Senior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
• Cross-Town Unit: students can enroll in courses at a
pay and benefits based on their rank and grade and are not
host unit at another university.
included in the above figures.
• Consortium: several schools partner to share resources
Table 2. ROTC Funding (in thousands of dollars)
(e.g., facilities and staff) and maximize efficiency.
FY2022
FY2023
FY2024
According to GAO, there were approximately 1,441
(actual)
(enacted)
(request)
schools with an ROTC host, cross-town, or extension unit
between 2011 and 2021.
MILPERS
Schools that wish to establish an ROTC detachment can
Army
81,804
102,255
104,684
apply to the respective military department. Per 10 U.S.C.
Navy
20,193
22,926
22,326
§2102, to be eligible for consideration a school must be
accredited, and adopt “as a part of its curriculum, a four-
Air Force
44,573
49,609
36,823
year course of military instruction or a two-year course
O&M
of advanced training of military instruction, or both.” The
school must give the senior ROTC officer on campus the
Army
549,965
555,459
551,462
academic rank of professor and grant academic credit for
ROTC courses. Once these conditions are met, the military
Navy
153,317
170,845
175,171
department decides whether to establish an ROTC program,
Air Force
108,161
134,685
137,647
which, per DOD policy, “will be based on the most efficient
Source: Military Budget Justification Books for Fiscal Year 2024
allocation of limited resources to meet the specific needs of
the Military Department concerned.”
ROTC Participation and Scholarships
Previous attempts by the military departments to close some
Postsecondary students can choose to participate in the
ROTC units have been controversial. In 2013, the Army
ROTC program in one of two ways: they can (1) formally
planned to close 13 ROTC detachments due to low
enroll in the program and attend ROTC courses, or (2)
enrolment which generated pushback from some Members
remain unenrolled but attend ROTC courses like any other
of Congress and university alumni. The Army announced it
university course. Students who formally enroll in the
would postpone the closures, and, in the Consolidated
ROTC program can be either noncontract enrollees or
Appropriations Act for FY2016 (P.L. 114-113, §8032),
contract enrollees. Noncontract enrollees are not obligated
Congress prohibited the use of funds made available by the
to serve in the Armed Forces, do not receive financial
act for the disestablishment of any existing Army ROTC
assistance (e.g., scholarships), and generally can only take
unit. This provision was included in subsequent annual
freshman- and sophomore-level ROTC courses. Contract
appropriations bills through FY2020 (P.L. 116-93, §8033).
enrollees are obligated to serve in the Armed Forces and
accept an appointment as a commissioned officer upon
ROTC Curriculum
graduation. They are required to serve a specified number
The ROTC program consists of a basic course and an
of years in the active and/or reserve component (per 10
advanced course. The basic course includes training and
U.S.C. §2107). In return for their service, the military
electives—including at least one military-related course per
departments help to cover contracted enrollees’ educational
semester—during a student’s freshman and sophomore
costs. However, if an enrollee breaks the commitment, he or
years. If a student enrolls in the basic course, there is no
she may have to reimburse the department for their
service obligation. However, if a student accepts a
educational expenses.
scholarship, then he or she incurs a service commitment.
After completing the basic course, some students continue
ROTC scholarships are merit-based, and help to cover all or
to the advanced course where they take additional electives
a portion of tuition, fees, and other expenses (e.g., books,
and participate in field training. Curriculum requirements
and living expenses) for two to four years. High school
vary, as enrollees study military department-specific topics.
seniors can compete for ROTC scholarships at the national
For instance, enrollees in the Navy ROTC program are
level. Postsecondary students enrolled in an institution with
required to take naval science courses, while Air Force
an ROTC affiliation can also compete for scholarships.
enrollees take courses in aerospace studies. Participants also
Typically, qualification for scholarships is based on GPA,
attend summer training courses.
test scores, and certain medical and fitness standards.
ROTC Funding
Congress appropriates money for the ROTC program
Relevant Statute
through two accounts: Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
Chapter 103 of Title 10, United States Code.
and Military Personnel (MILPERS). According to DOD
Other Resources
budget documents, enacted amounts for ROTC in FY2023
DOD Instruction 1215.08, Senior Reserve Officers’ Training
were $861 million in O&M and $175 million in MILPERS
Corps (ROTC) Programs.
(see Table 2). O&M funding provides for scholarships,
travel and per diem, contractual support, and other
equipment or supply needs. MILPERS funding covers cadet
and midshipman pay and allowances, uniforms, and
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
stipends. More information on ROTC entitlements can be
IF11235
found in DOD’s Financial Management Regulation,
Volume 7A, Chapter 59. ROTC military instructors receive
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Defense Primer: Senior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Disclaimer
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF11235 · VERSION 10 · UPDATED