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June 30, 2023
Fixed Technologies Used to Deliver Broadband Service: A
Primer and Considerations for Congress
Broadband—in general—refers to technologies that are
residences (“fiber to the home”) or to a local platform that
capable of delivering high-speed internet service. Internet
serves multiple customers (“fiber to the curb” or “fiber to
service providers (ISPs) use various technologies to deploy
the neighborhood”).
broadband infrastructure, and each technology has different
speed and other performance characteristics. ISPs choose a
Satellite
certain broadband technology for a certain serviceable area
Satellite broadband is provided by satellites either in
based on various factors—for example, deployment cost
geostationary or geosynchronous orbit (GEO) or in low
and consumer demand in the area. Many consumers prefer
Earth orbit (LEO). A satellite antenna (dish), modem, and
fiber technology for their broadband service because of its
direct line of sight are required for such service. LEO
reliability and high speed (e.g., most U.S. ISPs currently
satellites for broadband—positioned at a lower altitude
offer fiber-based residential internet service with up to 1
above the Earth than GEO satellites—are a newer satellite
gigabit per second (Gbps) download speed). There is debate
broadband technology.
among Members of Congress on whether only fiber should
be supported in federal efforts to close the digital divide, or
Terrestrial Fixed Wireless
whether other technologies should be included. The digital
Using radio spectrum (licensed and/or unlicensed),
divide refers to the gap between those who have access to
broadband service through terrestrial fixed wireless
broadband services and those who do not.
technology transmits data between two fixed locations
wirelessly but still relies on fiber or other physical cables
This In Focus describes major fixed technologies capable of
for backhaul connection to the provider’s network.
delivering broadband service and discusses selected
considerations for Congress. Fixed internet service means
Table 1. Sampling of Fixed Broadband Technology
service delivered through a stationary connection. Mobile
Speed Ranges (Upload and Download)
technology (e.g., fifth-generation [5G] wireless technology)
Technology
Upload
Download
that is capable of delivering high-speed internet service is
outside the scope of this In Focus.
Cable
10-500 Mbps
5-50 Mbps
Fixed Broadband Technologies
Digital Subscriber Line
5-35 Mbps
1-10 Mbps
Fixed technologies that are capable of providing consumers
Fiber
250-1,000 Mbps
250-1,000 Mbps
with access to broadband include cable, digital subscriber
line (DSL), fiber, satellite, and terrestrial fixed wireless.
Satellite (GEO)
25 Mbps
3 Mbps
Some technologies provide consumers with a better-quality
Satellite (LEO)
25-220 Mbps
5-20 Mbps
broadband connection than others, as measured by speed,
latency (lag time), and reliability. Table 1 provides a
Terrestrial Fixed
10-25 Mbps
1 Mbps
sampling of upload and download speed ranges of these
Wireless
technologies. Table 2 provides the number of residential
Source: CenturyLink, Cable vs. DSL vs. Fiber Internet: Which is Best?,
connections (ordered from most to fewest) by technology in
October 6, 2021, at https://discover.centurylink.com/cable-vs-dsl-vs-
the United States as of December 31, 2021.
fiber-broadband-internet.html; AT&T, How Fast is AT&T Fixed Wireless
Internet?, at https://www.att.com/internet/fixed-wireless/; HughesNet,
Cable
What Comes in a HughesNet Plan?, at
Some cable service providers offer TV and broadband
https://www.hughesnetinternet.net; Starlink, Starlink Specifications, at
internet simultaneously through the same coaxial cables,
https://www.starlink.com/legal/documents/DOC-1400-28829-70.
with TV and internet provisioned on separate frequency
channels.
Note: Mbps = megabits per second.
Digital Subscriber Line
Advertised Speeds and the National Broadband
Broadband service provided through DSL—an older
Map
technology—transmits data over traditional copper-wire
The speeds provided in Table 1 are ranges advertised by a
telephone lines.
sampling of service providers. Consumers may or may not
experience these speeds—actual speeds may be higher or
Fiber
lower. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Broadband service provided through fiber transmits data via
National Broadband Map provides information on
pulses of light. Fiber is hung (aerially) on poles or buried in
broadband service availability by specific providers,
the ground and can be connected directly to individual
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link to page 2 Fixed Technologies Used to Deliver Broadband Service: A Primer and Considerations for Congress
including the type of technology and speeds that are
Technological Considerations for Projects Using
available. These data are submitted to the FCC by service
Federal Funding for Broadband Deployment
providers twice a year. Per FCC rules, they may report the
Some agency decisions about technology eligibility for
speeds they advertise, rather than actual speeds consumers
federally funded broadband deployment projects have been
are experiencing.
a source of debate. For example, some Members of
Congress have asked the National Telecommunications and
Residential Connections by Technology
Information Administration (NTIA) to revise the Notice of
According to the FCC 2022 Communications Marketplace
Funding Opportunity (NOFO) for the Broadband Equity,
Report, broadband service provided through cable has the
Access, and Deployment (BEAD) program, noting that “the
highest number of residential connections in the United
BEAD’s rules violate the technology neutral spirit of the
States (see Table 2).
Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58).”
Below are examples of technological decisions from the
Table 2. Fixed Broadband Services in the United
NTIA, the FCC, and the Department of the Treasury that
States by Technology (as of December 31, 2021)
Congress could weigh during future consideration of
Technology
Residential Connections
federal programs funding broadband.
Cable
71.802 mil ion
In its NOFO for the $42.45 billion BEAD program, NTIA
defined reliable broadband service (i.e., technologies that
Fiber
24.165 mil ion
are eligible for the program) as the following: fiber, cable,
Digital Subscriber Line
15.211 mil ion
hybrid fiber-coaxial, digital subscriber line, and terrestrial
fixed wireless utilizing licensed or a hybrid of licensed and
Terrestrial Fixed Wireless
2.672 mil ion
unlicensed spectrum. This list does not include mobile,
Satellite
1.692 mil ion
satellite, or fixed wireless over unlicensed spectrum.
Separately, but also in the BEAD NOFO, NTIA prioritizes
Source: Federal Communications Commission, 2022 Communications
end-to-end fiber projects—states cannot choose to use other
Marketplace Report, December 30, 2022, p. 10, at https://docs.fcc.gov/
eligible technologies for broadband deployment unless they
public/attachments/FCC-22-103A1.pdf.
show why a fiber project is not viable for a particular
Notes: Residential connections are ordered from most to fewest.
location.
Data as of December 31, 2021 are the most recent data. The FCC
publishes a Communications Marketplace Report every two years;
The Department of the Treasury, which administers the $10
the next version is anticipated in 2024.
billion Capital Projects Fund (CPF) under the American
Considerations for Congress
Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (P.L. 117-2), also prioritizes fiber.
According to the CPF Frequently Asked Questions, “CPF
Issues that have, or may, come to the attention of the 118th
recipients are encouraged to prioritize investments in fiber-
Congress include the potential implications of raising the
optic infrastructure where feasible, as such advanced
minimum broadband speed benchmark, as well as
technology better supports future needs.”
technological considerations by federal agencies for
broadband projects using federal funding.
Although companies that use LEO satellite technology to
Minimum Broadband Speed Benchmark
provide broadband service were eligible to bid in the
auction for Phase I of the FCC’s Rural Digital Opportunity
As set by the FCC in 2015, to be considered broadband, an
Fund, the FCC reversed its decision on usage of LEO
internet service should provide speeds of at least 25 Mbps
satellite technology for the program. Space Exploration
for download and 3 Mbps for upload (25/3 Mbps). Some
Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) originally won more
policymakers have considered raising the minimum
than $885 million to deploy Starlink. However, after legal,
broadband speed benchmark. For example, in March 2021,
technical, and policy debates, the FCC decided not to
some Members of Congress sent a bipartisan letter to the
authorize support, stating that “Starlink’s technology has
FCC advocating for an increase to 100/100 Mbps. In July
real promise … but the question before us was whether to
2022, FCC Chairwoman Jessica Rosenworcel circulated a
publicly subsidize its still developing technology for
Notice of Inquiry to fellow FCC Commissioners that
consumer broadband.”
proposed increasing the minimum broadband speed
benchmark to 100/20 Mbps. Raising the minimum
Additional CRS Resources
broadband speed benchmark would raise the number of
CRS In Focus IF12429, Broadband Equity, Access, and
households considered unserved with broadband. Federal
Deployment (BEAD) Program: Issues and Congressional
funds intended to provide service to areas currently without
Considerations, by Ling Zhu.
any broadband service might be redirected to areas that
already meet the existing 25/3 Mbps benchmark to upgrade
CRS In Focus IF11875, Raising the Minimum Fixed
those areas to meet the new benchmark. Technologies such
Broadband Speed Benchmark: Background and Selected
as DSL and GEO satellites that currently meet the 25/3
Issues, by Colby Leigh Rachfal.
Mbps benchmark may not be able to deliver the speeds
required by a higher benchmark.
CRS Report R47506, The Persistent Digital Divide:
Selected Broadband Deployment Issues and Policy
Considerations, by Colby Leigh Rachfal.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Fixed Technologies Used to Deliver Broadband Service: A Primer and Considerations for Congress
Colby Leigh Rachfal, Analyst in Telecommunications
Policy
IF12441
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