Turkey (Türkiye): Possible U.S. Sale of F-16
March 31, 2023
Aircraft
Jim Zanotti
In February 2023, Secretary of State Antony Blinken publicly confirmed that the Biden
Specialist in Middle
Administration supports a possible sale of F-16 fighter aircraft to Turkey (Türkiye), and has
Eastern Affairs
engaged Congress on the issue. According to January 2023 media reports citing unnamed U.S.
officials, the Administration informally notified Congress of its intent to sell 40 new F-16s in the
Clayton Thomas
Block 70/72 Viper configuration (F-16Vs) and Viper upgrade packages for 79 existing fighters,
Specialist in Middle
along with 900 air-to-air missiles and 800 bombs, at an estimated total value of $20 billion. Since
Eastern Affairs
Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, U.S.-Turkey cooperation
on some issues and differences on others have shaped the two countries’ relationship. Some
Members of Congress who have input on a proposed F-16 sale to Turkey have indicated that they
Patrick Parrish
expect certain actions from Turkey before they will consider supporting the transaction.
National Defense Fellow
Congressional legislation and oversight have shaped U.S.-Turkey defense cooperation for
decades, and Turkey has relied consistently on U.S. imports for complex platforms such as
aircraft and helicopters. A number of previously proposed U.S. arms transactions with Turkey
(such as for armed drones, air defense systems, and F-16 information sharing and safety upgrades) either have stalled or faced
reported congressional holds—perhaps stemming partly from bilateral differences on technology sharing, and partly from
tensions over Russia and Syria.
Turkish air capabilities after S-400 controversy. A U.S. F-16 sale to Turkey would likely extend the service life of much
of Turkey’s fleet—and ensure its continued interoperability within NATO—while Turkey tries to acquire or design a stealth
fighter. The United States was planning to sell up to 100 F-35s to Turkey until its 2019 acquisition of a Russian S-400
surface-to-air defense system led to a U.S. cancellation of the F-35 transfers. The F-16V could be an interim solution for
Turkey, though it lacks the stealth features of the F-35 and may be subject to production backlogs of three years or more.
NATO security considerations and the Swedish and Finnish accession process. After Russia’s 2022 invasion of Ukraine,
Turkey’s potential to boost NATO militarily amid a European security crisis may have increased the Administration’s
interest in an F-16 transaction. Turkey’s geographic location at the southeastern flank of the alliance gives it a critical role in
regional security. It has NATO’s second-largest military and the world’s third-largest F-16 fleet, hosts important allied assets
and personnel, and partners in other ways within the alliance, including by contributing to missions that aid Baltic and
Mediterranean security. At the same time, several Members of Congress have argued that Turkish delays in approving NATO
accession for Sweden and Finland have threatened alliance unity in countering Russia. Turkey’s approval of both countries’
accession may be necessary before many Members of Congress would consider backing an F-16 sale. While Turkey
approved Finland’s NATO membership in March 2023, it might not take action regarding Sweden’s accession before closely
contested Turkish presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for May.
Congressional review process and other key issues. The Administration may consider whether and when to move forward
with a formal notification of a proposed F-16 sale to Turkey, possibly in the face of enduring congressional concerns. Within
15 days after formal notification, Congress could block the sale via a joint resolution of disapproval under the Arms Export
Control Act. Congress also can take action at any time, up to the point of final delivery, via the regular legislative process.
Some factors that could affect congressional review of a possible F-16 sale—beyond the NATO-related issues described
above—include Turkey’s rivalry with NATO ally Greece, Turkey’s role in Syria, and the potential for questions about
Turkish domestic governance to undermine NATO decision-making. Reportedly, the Administration informally notified a
possible sale of up to 40 F-35s to Greece at the same time as the Turkey/F-16 informal notification. For the FY2023 National
Defense Authorization Act, the House voted to condition potential F-16 transfers to Turkey on steps discouraging overflights
of Greek territory (Section 1271 of H.R. 7900), but the final version (P.L. 117-263) did not include the condition.
Turkish alternatives to F-16s? If unable to upgrade their F-16 fleet, Turkish officials might consider Western European
alternatives such as Eurofighter Typhoons. However, Turkey may face the following challenges to a Typhoon sale: hesitancy
from consortium partner Germany, higher per unit costs, difficulties in transitioning its air force away from its U.S.-origin
fleet, and/or potential congressional notification requirements (if it includes U.S.-origin components). Obstacles to both U.S.
and European options could lead Turkey to confront a capability gap in fighter aircraft. A 2022 State Department strategy
document argued that “Turkey may be forced to turn to Russia or China” to fill such capability gaps in national defense.
Congressional Research Service
link to page 5 Turkey (Türkiye): Possible U.S. Sale of F-16 Aircraft
Contents
Contacts
Author Information .......................................................................................................................... 2
Congressional Research Service
Turkey (Türkiye): Possible U.S. Sale of F-16 Aircraft
In February 2023, Secretary of State Antony Blinken publicly confirmed that the Biden Administration
supports a possible sale of F-16 fighter aircraft to Turkey (Türkiye), and has engaged Congress on the
issue. According to January 2023 media reports citing unnamed U.S. officials, the Administration
informally notified Congress of its intent to sell 40 new F-16s in the Block 70/72 Viper configuration (F-
16Vs) and Viper upgrade packages for 79 existing fighters, along with 900 air-to-air missiles and 800
bombs, at an estimated total value of $20 billion. Since Turkey joined the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1952, U.S.-Turkey cooperation on some issues and differences on others have
shaped the two countries’ relationship. Some Members of Congress who have input on a proposed F-16
sale to Turkey have indicated that they expect certain actions from Turkey before they will consider
supporting the transaction.
Congressional legislation and oversight have shaped U.S.-Turkey defense cooperation for decades, and
Turkey has relied consistently on U.S. imports for complex platforms such as aircraft and helicopters. A
number of previously proposed U.S. arms transactions with Turkey (such as for armed drones, air defense
systems, and F-16 information sharing and safety upgrades) either have stalled or faced reported
congressional holds—perhaps stemming partly from bilateral differences on technology sharing, and partly
from tensions over Russia and Syria.
Turkish air capabilities after S-400 controversy. A U.S. F-16 sale to Turkey would likely extend the
service life of much of Turkey’s fleet—and ensure its continued interoperability within NATO—while
Turkey tries to acquire or design a stealth fighter. The United States was planning to sell up to 100 F-35s to
Turkey until its 2019 acquisition of a Russian S-400 surface-to-air defense system led to a U.S. cancellation
of the F-35 transfers. The F-16V could be an interim solution for Turkey, though it lacks the stealth
features of the F-35 and may be subject to production backlogs of three years or more.
NATO security considerations and the Swedish and Finnish accession process. After Russia’s 2022
invasion of Ukraine, Turkey’s potential to boost NATO militarily amid a European security crisis may have
increased the Administration’s interest in an F-16 transaction. Turkey’s geographic location at the
southeastern flank of the alliance gives it a critical role in regional security. It has NATO’s second-largest
military and the world’s third-largest F-16 fleet, hosts important allied assets and personnel, and partners in
other ways within the alliance, including by contributing to missions that aid Baltic and Mediterranean
security. At the same time, several Members of Congress have argued that Turkish delays in approving
NATO accession for Sweden and Finland have threatened alliance unity in countering Russia. Turkey’s
approval of both countries’ accession may be necessary before many Members of Congress would consider
backing an F-16 sale. While Turkey approved Finland’s NATO membership in March 2023, it might not
take action regarding Sweden’s accession before closely contested Turkish presidential and parliamentary
elections scheduled for May.
Congressional review process and other key issues. The Administration may consider whether and when
to move forward with a formal notification of a proposed F-16 sale to Turkey, possibly in the face of
enduring congressional concerns. Within 15 days after formal notification, Congress could block the sale
via a joint resolution of disapproval under the Arms Export Control Act. Congress also can take action at
any time, up to the point of final delivery, via the regular legislative process. Some factors that could affect
congressional review of a possible F-16 sale—beyond the NATO-related issues described above—include
Turkey’s rivalry with NATO ally Greece, Turkey’s role in Syria, and the potential for questions about
Turkish domestic governance to undermine NATO decision-making. Reportedly, the Administration
informally notified a possible sale of up to 40 F-35s to Greece at the same time as the Turkey/F-16 informal
notification. For the FY2023 National Defense Authorization Act, the House voted to condition potential F-
16 transfers to Turkey on steps discouraging overflights of Greek territory (Section 1271 of H.R. 7900), but
the final version (P.L. 117-263) did not include the condition.
Turkish alternatives to F-16s? If unable to upgrade their F-16 fleet, Turkish officials might
consider Western European alternatives such as Eurofighter Typhoons. However, Turkey may
face the following challenges to a Typhoon sale: hesitancy from consortium partner Germany,
Congressional Research Service
1
Turkey (Türkiye): Possible U.S. Sale of F-16 Aircraft
higher per unit costs, difficulties in transitioning its air force away from its U.S.-origin fleet,
and/or potential congressional notification requirements (if it includes U.S.-origin components).
Obstacles to both U.S. and European options could lead Turkey to confront a capability gap in
fighter aircraft. A 2022 State Department strategy document argued that “Turkey may be forced to
turn to Russia or China” to fill such capability gaps in national defense.
Author Information
Jim Zanotti
Patrick Parrish
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
National Defense Fellow
Clayton Thomas
Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service
R47493 · VERSION 1 · NEW
2