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Updated December 16, 2022
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
Background
Servicemembers who are eligible for retired pay may
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
continue to receive such pay while employed as an
instructor. By law (10 U.S.C. §2031), military departments
Department of Defense (DOD)-funded program of
may subsidize instructor positions by reimbursing the host
instruction for high school-aged students administrated by
institution for a portion of the salary. DOD financial
the military departments (Army, Navy, and Air Force). A
regulations refer to the salary that a school must pay the
key purpose of JROTC, according to 10 U.S.C. §2031 is “to
instructor as the Minimum Instructor Pay (MIP). The MIP
instill in students in United States secondary educational
is the difference between the (1) active duty pay and
institutions the values of citizenship, service to the United
allowances the instructor would receive if recalled to active
States (including an introduction to service opportunities in
duty and (2) instructor’s retired pay entitlement. Sample
military, national, and public service), and personal
salary calculations are found in DOD Instruction 1205.13.
responsibility and a sense of accomplishment.” Congress
established JROTC as an Army program in the National
Curriculum
Defense Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-85) and in 1964 expanded it
JROTC courses are taught over a three- or four-year period
to the Navy and Air Force. Congress later authorized Coast
on topics such as leadership, ethics, civics, history, and
Guard JROTC units at two schools: the Maritime and
health and wellness. The FY2020 NDAA (P.L. 116-92) also
Science Technology Academy in Miami, FL, in 1989 (P.L.
authorized instruction in science, technology, engineering,
101-225), and Camden County High School, NC, in 2005
and mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also includes
(P.L. 109-241).
service-specific courses such as Aerospace Science or
In fiscal year (FY) 2022, the military departments reported
Seamanship and Navigation. In addition, units offer
funding 3,486 JROTC units operating in every state and in
extracurricular activities such as color guard/drill team,
DOD schools overseas (see Table 1). Eighth-grade students
marksmanship, and field trips to military installations.
may participate in JROTC if physically co-located with 9th-
12th grade students. Home-schooled students may also
Establishing a JROTC Program
participate. In FY2022, 10 Air Force units were converted
Congressional offices may be approached by local
to Space Force units.
educational authorities (LEAs) in their district with
questions about how to establish a new JROTC unit.
Table 1. Estimated Size of JROTC Program in FY2022 Schools interested in hosting a unit must apply to the
Number of
Estimated
respective military department. By law, host schools are
Service
units
enrollment
required to maintain participation levels of 10% of the
Army
student body, or 100 students, whichever is less. The
1,701
302,500
military departments establish criteria for unit placement.
Navy
654
93,100
For example, the Army maintains an Order of Merit List,
with a point system awarding credit to institutions for
Marine Corps
256
32,790
categories such as Title I status under the Elementary and
Air Force
865
110,000
Secondary Education Act (P.L. 89-10, as amended), local
indicators of need (e.g., high unemployment or illiteracy),
Space Force
10
1,300
student enrollment, school financial solvency, and fair and
Total
3,486
539,690
equitable distribution of JROTC programs among states.
Source: DOD Comptrol er, FY2023 budget justification documents.
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
Notes: Navy figures include 71 National Defense Cadet Corps
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
(NNDCC) units and 5,100 NNDCC cadets.
per 10 U.S.C. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
JROTC Instructors
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
Most JROTC instructors are retired or reserve officers and
responsibility of the host institution and are not subsidized
enlisted noncommissioned officers (NCOs) who are hired
by the government. Schools may seek to convert an existing
as employees of the school district. Service-level policies
unit to an unfunded NDCC if enrolment figures fall under
require JROTC schools to have a minimum of one officer
the statutory threshold.
(Senior Military Instructor) and one NCO (Junior Military
Federal Funding
Instructor) on staff. Eligibility criteria to serve as a JROTC
instructor (e.g., education, certification) are specified in law
Congress annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of
DOD’s Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military
(10 U.S.C. §2033). Instructors are required to abide by
standards set by their parent service, as well as the policies
Personnel (MILPERS) budget (see Table 2). Beyond
set by their host institution.
instructor salaries, the military departments also fund
uniforms, cadet travel, training aids, text books, educational
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
materials, and other unit operating expenses. Host
required a DOD study to, among other things, examine the
institutions provide classroom space, facilities, and
relationship between JROTC and propensity to join the
administrative support for the unit.
military.
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC, FY2022
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
(Enacted total funding, in millions of dol ars)
as an officer may receive some benefits at the time of entry
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
into service. For example, per DOD policy (DODI
1205.13), a student successfully completing at least two
Army
190,948
33,992
224,940
academic years of the JROTC program is entitled to
Navy
62,323
15,891
78,214
advanced promotion to the grade of no less than E-2 upon
initial enlistment. The military departments may award the
Marine Corps
29,065
3,889
32,954
grade of E-3 for successful completion of three academic
Air Force
70,931
18,783
89,714
years. The secretaries of the military departments may also
nominate up to 20 honor graduates from JROTC units
Total
353,267
72,555
425,822
designated by the secretaries as honor schools for
Source: DOD Comptrol er, FY2023 budget justification documents.
appointment to one of the three military service academies.
Space Force funding is included in Air Force figures.
Is the distribution of units equitable?
Considerations for Congress
A continued consideration by Congress has been the
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing JROTC
equitable distribution of JROTC units across various
, there
demographic, socioeconomic, and geographic indicators.
are several questions for consideration.
Language in the Senate report to accompany the FY2015
How many JROTC units should Congress fund?
DOD Appropriations Bill (S.Rept. 113-211) called for a
In determining the number of JROTC units to support,
DOD report on “plans to ensure adequate representation of
Congress may consider defense budget priorities, program
all regions in the United States to ensure the capabilities of
benefits, and host school and constituent concerns.
the Armed Forces to recruit from a diverse background.” A
Congress had gradually increased statutory limits on the
2017 RAND Corporation report in response to
number of JROTC units over time; however, in 2001,
congressional interest found that JROTC is generally
Congress repealed all prior enacted limitations (P.L. 107-
underrepresented in rural and remote areas and tend to be
107 §537). Subsequent legislation in 2006 (P.L. 109-364
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states relative to the
§541) and 2008 (P.L. 110-417 §548) directed the
national average. The report also found that public high
Secretaries of the military departments to expand the
schools with larger-than-average minority populations and
program to additional schools with a ceiling of 3,700 units
in schools serving economically disadvantaged populations
by September 30, 2020. In 2020, the National Commission
are also overrepresented as JROTC host schools. Higher
on Military, National, and Public Service recommended
representation in economically disadvantaged and larger,
expanding the number of JROTC units to 6,000 by 2031.
more urban schools has largely been a function of service-
level policy decisions that award preference for Title I
What are some of the program benefits?
schools and other structural program requirements (e.g.,
The JROTC program may have some benefits for students
minimum student participation, availability of instructors).
and host schools. Several studies have found positive
While advocates for JROTC point to positive outcomes for
correlations between JROTC participation and student
high-risk youth, some critics have argued that it unfairly
outcomes, including school attendance and graduation rates,
targets low-income and minority communities for military
improved test performance, higher self-esteem for female
recruiting.
students, and lower rates of disciplinary action. For schools,
Other JROTC Oversight Matters
the prospect of federal funding for instructors, STEM
Additional oversight matters related to JROTC include:
program grants (P.L. 116-283 §512), and other activities
may create incentives to host and maintain units. Some
Quality and accuracy of curriculum and instruction
critics maintain that these incentives may lead schools to
materials, and
pressure students into enrolling in JROTC to maintain the
Accountability for JROTC instructor performance and
unit sizes required for continued funding.
behavior (see for example, House Committee on
How does JROTC participation affect recruiting?
Oversight and Reform, Subcommittee on National
Some parents and observers have expressed concerns about
Security, JROTC: Protecting Cadets from Sexual Abuse
military influence in high schools. Participation in JROTC
and Instructor Misconduct, 117th Cong., 2nd sess.,
does not incur any military obligation and military
November 16, 2022.)
recruitment is not a stated objective in statute or policy.
Nevertheless, the military services seek to provide
Relevant Statute
favorable exposure to military careers through JROTC and
Chapter 102, Title 10, United States Code: Junior Reserve
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
Officers’ Training Corps
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
correlation between JROTC participation and enlistment,
while others have found that the impact of participation on
military enlistment is negligible when accounting for self-
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
selection into JROTC. The FY2021 NDAA (P.L. 116-283)
IF11313
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
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