U.S. Aluminum Manufacturing:
October 26, 2022
Industry Trends and Sustainability
Christopher D. Watson
Aluminum—a lightweight, ductile, malleable, and corrosion-resistant metal—is a major
Analyst in Industrial
component used in a wide range of consumer, industrial, and technological goods, including
Organization and Business
aircraft, building materials, motor vehicles, and several types of defense and military equipment.

The aluminum industry comprises three segments: upstream, secondary or recycled, and
downstream. The upstream sector consists of mining bauxite, refining it to produce alumina, and

smelting it to yield primary aluminum. Secondary aluminum is derived from recycled scrap
metal. The downstream sector uses both primary and secondary aluminum to produce a variety of aluminum pro ducts.
Through 2000, the United States ranked as the world’s largest producer of primary aluminum. In 2021, the United States
accounted for less than 2% of global primary aluminum production and ranked as the ninth-largest primary aluminum
producing country. Primary aluminum smelting is highly energy-intensive, with electricity estimated to account for up to
40% of production costs. Consequently, a major reason for the decline in U.S. primary aluminum production is that the
United States is a relatively high-cost producer. The world’s leading producers of primary aluminum are generally countries
with comparatively low energy costs, including Canada, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates. By contrast, the United States
is a major producer of secondary aluminum. In 2021, more than 75% of domestic supply came from secondary smelters.
Secondary aluminum production is often more economically tenable than primary production, as it is approximately 95% less
energy-intensive than primary smelting.
Secondary aluminum often has significant impurities , as it is derived from recycled products or scrap. Thus, manufacturers of
components used in electronics and aerospace manufacturing often favor primary aluminum meeting specified purity
standards. Many defense-related products must comply with particularly high purity standards. At present, the United States
has one active smelter that produces aluminum of sufficient purity for use in military aircraft, as well as lightweight armor
plating found in many defense ground and weapon systems. The greatest aluminum-related security concern regarding
defense requirements appears to be the domestic availability of specific high-purity aluminum alloys, which can be derived
from primary aluminum.
The U.S. and Canadian aluminum industries are highly integrated, as each market is a major trading partner of the other
across the aluminum value chain. In 2021, more than 75% of Canadian production went to the United States, while roughly
half of U.S. downstream products were exported to Canada. U.S. primary aluminum s melters operated at 55% of the
industry’s rated production capacity in 2021, compared with 95% in Canada and 88% globally. Over half of global primary
aluminum smelting capacity is in China, which has become the world’s leading producer in most segments of the aluminum
value chain over the past two decades.
Excess capacity in the aluminum sector has been a growing concern for domestic producers . The Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development found that the global aluminum industry received up to $70 billion in government support
between 2013 and 2017, with the large majority of support concentrated in China and countries of the Gulf Cooperation
Council.
In addition to being an energy-intensive process, aluminum manufacturing contributes approximately 2% to global
greenhouse gases (GHG), equivalent to roughly 1.1 billion tons of carbon dioxide. More than half of GHG emissions related
to aluminum manufacturing come from the generation of electricity used in primary aluminum smelting. A transition to
carbon-neutral aluminum is likely to require significant capital investment in decarbonizing the electrical grid and in specific
technologies used in primary smelting and recycling. P.L. 117-169 (commonly referred to as the Inflation Reduction Act of
2022), signed into law on August 16, 2022, established the Advanced Industrial Facilities Deployment Program in which the
Department of Energy is expected to provide financial assistance to producers and production facilities of a variety of heavy
manufacturing industries, including aluminum, that use advance technologies in manufacturing processes that effectively
reduce GHG emissions. This could incentivize producers to invest further in decarbonizing specific production assets in
aluminum manufacturing.

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Introduction
Congress has long been concerned with the health of the U.S. manufacturing base. One
component of this base is aluminum—a lightweight, ductile, mal eable, and corrosion-resistant
metal. Aluminum is used in a wide range of consumer, industrial, and technological goods,
including aircraft, building materials, motor vehicles, and many types of defense and military
equipment.
This report provides an overview of factors affecting aluminum production in the United States,
including energy costs, trade and regulatory issues, and demand. It also examines national
security concerns tied to aluminum production and efforts to reduce the industry’s greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions. The report concludes with a discussion of selected issues that may be of
interest to Congress.
The Aluminum Manufacturing Process
The aluminum sector comprises three segments:
 The upstream sector, which includes the mining of bauxite, the refining of
bauxite into alumina (aluminum oxide), and the smelting of alumina to yield
primary aluminum. The molten aluminum is cast into ingots, bil ets, or slabs,
collectively referred to as unwrought aluminum.
 Secondary aluminum is derived from recycled scrap metal. Secondary production
involves smelting both old scrap recovered from finished products, such as cans
and auto parts, and new scrap, material left over from processing aluminum into
consumer or industrial products. Similar to primary aluminum, secondary
aluminum typical y is cast into unwrought shapes.
 The downstream sector uses primary or secondary aluminum to make aluminum
products, which may then be used in the manufacture of motor vehicles,
construction materials, consumer durables, and other products.
Wrought aluminum consists of downstream products that are worked in solid form by rolling,
drawing, extruding, forging, or other mechanical processing. These are known commonly as
semi-finished or mil products. Wrought aluminum can be resmelted and combined with al oying
elements, such as copper, silicon, and zinc, to create metals with unique properties that may be
necessary for specific applications. Figure 1 depicts aluminum sources and their uses.
General y, primary aluminum production is undertaken by vertical y integrated holding
companies that control bauxite mines, alumina refineries, smelting facilities, and in some
instances, rolling and processing mil s. This model affords producers insulation from price
fluctuations and helps secure raw material supply. The secondary aluminum segment consists of
smelting facilities and attached rolling mil s that produce finished aluminum products from semi-
finished aluminum. The downstream segment represents the largest component of the domestic
aluminum industry, consisting of dozens of firms that produce flat-rol ed and extruded products.1

1 Jameson Ayers, Aluminum Manufacturing in the US, IBISWorld, October 2022, p. 25.
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Figure 1. Aluminum Sources and Uses

Source: CRS, adapted from NERA Economic Consulting, Impacts of Potential Aluminum Tariffs on the U.S.
Economy, June 2017, p. 1.
Domestic Production
Primary Aluminum
The U.S. and Canadian aluminum industries are highly integrated. The two markets are major
trading partners with one another across the aluminum value chain. The large majority of
Canadian unwrought aluminum goes to the United States. Roughly half of U.S. semi-finished
aluminum products are exported to Canada. In the context of domestic production, the linkage
between the two countries’ industries is significant, specifical y regarding the production of
primary aluminum and downstream fabrication.
In 2021, the United States produced 908,000 metric tons of primary aluminum, significantly
below peak domestic output of 5.1 mil ion metric tons in 1980.2 Through 2000, the United States
ranked as the world’s top producer of primary aluminum, but it had slipped to the ninth-largest by
2021, accounting for less than 2% of global primary aluminum production. Canada is the world’s
fourth-largest primary aluminum producing country, accounting for 5% of global output in 2021.
Combined U.S.-Canadian primary aluminum production declined 33% between 2000 and 2016
but has been relatively stable since 2016 (Figure 2).
U.S. primary aluminum smelting capacity was 1.64 mil ion metric tons in 2021. Domestic
primary smelters operated at 55% of rated production capacity. Canadian smelters, by contrast,
used nearly al of their 3.27 mil ion metric tons of capacity in 2021. One domestic producer,
Alcoa Corp., has three primary smelters in Canada and is estimated to account for almost one-
third of that country’s total primary smelting capacity.3 Global y, primary aluminum smelters
operated at 88% of rated capacity in 2021.

2 T he Aluminum Association, Industry Statistics, North American Primary Aluminum Production; and U.S. Bureau of
Mines, Mineral Yearbook: Metals and Minerals 1980 (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1981).
3 Alcoa Corporation, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, p. 6; and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),
Mineral Com m odity Sum maries, “ Aluminum Statistics and Information,” January 2022.
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Figure 2. U.S. and Canadian Primary Aluminum Production

Sources: The Aluminum Association, Industry Statistics, North American Primary Aluminum Production; and U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS), “Aluminum Statistics and Information.”
Bauxite—the raw material used by primary smelters—is largely sourced overseas. Bauxite
reserves are heavily concentrated in Australia, Guinea, and Vietnam. In 2021, the United States
imported 3.6 mil ion metric tons of bauxite; about 70% was refined into alumina used by primary
smelters, while the remainder was used in products such as abrasives, cement, and chemicals.4
Import sources for both mined bauxite and alumina include Australia, Brazil, and Jamaica.
A major reason for the decline in U.S. primary aluminum production capacity is that the United
States is a relatively high-cost producer. Primary aluminum smelting is highly energy-intensive,
with electricity estimated to account for up to 40% of the cost.5 In 2021, Alcoa reported that
electric power represented approximately 31% of the company’s primary aluminum production
costs. 6 Century Aluminum Company—chiefly a domestic producer—cites electricity as the
company’s single largest operating cost.7 General y, the world’s leading producers are countries
with lower energy costs, including Canada, Russia, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
According to the World Bank, one kilowatt-hour of electricity cost, on average, $0.163 in the
United States in 2019 compared with $0.123 in Canada, $0.081 in Russia, and $0.109 in the
UAE.8
In 2000, 12 companies operated 23 primary smelting facilities in the United States; by the close
of 2021, six primary smelters were operated by three firms—Alcoa, Century Aluminum, and
Magnitude 7 Metals LLC (Figure 3).9 In April 2020, Alcoa announced that it would curtail
indefinitely its Intalco smelting facility in Ferndale, WA, reducing industry production capacity

4 USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, “Bauxite and Alumina Statistics and Information,” January 2022.
5 T he Aluminum Association, Primary Production 101, at https://www.aluminum.org/primary-production-101.
6 Alcoa Corporation, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, pp. 7, 14, and 67.
7 Century Aluminum Company, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, pp. 22, 51, and 58; and Century
Aluminum Company, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2019, p. 40.
8 World Bank, “GovData360, Getting electricity: Price of electricity,” at https://govdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/
h6779690b?country=BRA&indicator=42573&viz=line_chart&years=2014,2019.
9 USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” January 2001 and January 2022.
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by 230,000 metric tons.10 In July 2022, Alcoa announced that it would partial y curtail its Warrick
smelter in Evansvil e, IN, by 54,000 metric tons citing operational chal enges.11 Alcoa had
announced the permanent closure of the Warrick smelter in March 2016 citing similar reasons; it
restarted three of the five smelting potlines12 there in 2018, representing approximately 60% of
the facility’s production capacity.13
Figure 3. U.S. Primary Aluminum Smelters, 2021
Annual production capacity in metric tons (MT)

Sources: CRS using location of smelters obtained from Homeland Infrastructure Foundation-Level Data,
Nonferrous Metal Processing Plants. Data for smelter production capacities are based on Alcoa Corporation,
Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, pp. 6-7; Century Aluminum Company, Form 10-K for the
year ending December 31, 2021, pp. 2-3; and USGS, “Aluminum Statistics and Information.”
Note: Alaska and Hawai are not shown on the map and no primary smelters are located in either state.
Much of the U.S. aluminum industry developed in areas where two federal y owned utilities, the
Bonnevil e Power Administration and the Tennessee Val ey Authority, furnished electricity at low
cost. As those entities have raised electricity prices over time, most of the aluminum smelters
have closed, and imports now meet a large share of domestic demand. In addition to Alcoa’s three
primary smelters in Canada, it has one in Iceland and two in Norway, while Century Aluminum
has one smelter in Iceland; in each case, the smelter has access to relatively inexpensive
hydroelectric or geothermal power. Canadian imports meet a large share of U.S. demand for

10 Alcoa Corporation, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, p. 80.
11 Alcoa Corporation, “Alcoa Announces Partial Curtailment at Warrick Smelter in Indiana,” press release, July 1,
2022, at https://news.alcoa.com/press-releases/press-release-details/2022/Alcoa-Announces-Partial-Curtailment-at-
Warrick-Smelter-in-Indiana/default.aspx.
12 Smelting potlines are comprised of an interconnected row of electrolytic reduction pots used to smelt alumina into
aluminum.
13 Alcoa Corporation, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2016, p. 17; and Alcoa Corporation Form 10 -K for
the year ending December 31, 2018, p. 13.
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unwrought aluminum. By contrast, smelters in both Iceland and Norway almost exclusively sel
to customers in Europe.14
U.S. primary smelters use older and less energy-efficient technologies than newer facilities
abroad. The newest U.S. primary aluminum facility is Century Aluminum’s Mt. Holly, SC, plant,
which opened in 1980.15 Primary smelting requires relatively large capital investments. A new
smelter, for example, may represent at least a $1 bil ion investment while taking a minimum of
three years to build and bring online.16 Some domestic producers have chosen to invest in
countries with lower energy costs: no new primary smelters are under construction in the United
States. However, Alcoa is in negotiations to sel its closed Intalco primary smelter in Ferndale,
WA, to Blue Wolf Equity Partners, which expects to spend roughly $175 mil ion in modernizing
the plant with new technology to produce 240,000 metric tons of aluminum annual y.17 The
transaction may depend on Blue Wolf’s ability to reach a power supply agreement with the
Bonnevil e Power Administration.
Secondary and Downstream Aluminum
The United States is a major producer of secondary aluminum. Since the early 2000s, aluminum
derived from scrap has represented an increasing share of total U.S. aluminum output. Secondary
aluminum accounted for 78% of the 4.1 mil ion metric tons of aluminum produced by U.S.
smelters in 2021. Of that secondary production, 53% came from new scrap—material left over
from primary smelting—and 47% from old scrap.
Secondary aluminum producers face a different cost structure from primary producers. Secondary
production is roughly 95% less energy-intensive than primary production,18 and the capital cost of
a secondary smelter is comparatively low. Unlike primary production, secondary aluminum
production in the United States has general y increased over time and is over twice the level of
the early 1980s. In May 2022, Novelis Inc., the U.S. subsidiary of an India-based secondary and
downstream producer, announced an investment of $2.5 bil ion in a new secondary smelter with
an attached rolling mil in Bay Minette, AL, with the ability to produce 600,000 tons annual y.19
Over the past decade, the aluminum industry has invested more than $6.5 bil ion in new facilities
and expansions, with the vast majority of such investments directed toward secondary smelting
and the downstream segment.20

14 International T rade Centre, “Trade Map—T rade statistics for international business development,” exports of
unwrought aluminum (HS 7601) for Iceland and Norway. For the underlying data, see https://www.trademap.org/
Index.aspx.
15 Century Aluminum Company, “Mt. Holly, SC,” at https://centuryaluminum.com/products-and-plants/mt-holly-sc/
default.aspx; and Century Aluminum Company, Form 10 -K for the year ending December 31, 2021, p. 3.
16 Kirk Maltais, “US aluminium industry ponders case for building new smelter,” Fastmarkets MB, April 3, 2018, at
https://www.metalbulletin.com/Article/3798442/US-aluminium-industry-ponders-case-for-building-new-smelter.html.
17 Joshua Partlow and Steven Mufson, “A factory wants to reopen making ‘green’ aluminum. Now it just needs clean
energy,” Washington Post, June 7, 2022, at https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2022/06/07/
aluminum-smelter-alcoa-intalco/.
18 T he Aluminum Association, Secondary Production 101, at https://www.aluminum.org/secondary-production-101.
19 Novelis, Inc., “Novelis to Build $2.5 Billion Low-Carbon Aluminum Recycling and Rolling Plant,” press release,
May 11, 2022, at https://investors.novelis.com/2022-05-11-Novelis-to-Build-2-5-Billion-Low-Carbon-Aluminum-
Recycling-and-Rolling-Plant .
20 T he Aluminum Association, “$2.5 Billion Low Carbon Recycling & Rolling Plant Investment Meets Growing U.S.
Aluminum Demand,” press release, May 11, 2022, at https://www.aluminum.org/25-billion-low-carbon-recycling-
rolling-plant -invest ment-meets-growing-us-aluminum-demand.
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The downstream sector is by far the largest segment of the U.S. aluminum industry. Downstream
producers accounted for over 75% of the industry’s $31.5 bil ion earnings in 2020.21 There are
dozens of downstream production facilities scattered across the United States, largely
concentrated in the Midwest and Southeast. The largest downstream producers in the United
States include Arconic Corp., Constel ium SE, Kaiser Aluminum Corp., Novelis, and Sapa
Extrusions.
Most major downstream producers rely on a combination of primary and secondary aluminum in
their manufacturing operations. The amount of primary versus secondary aluminum used varies
according to the performance requirements of the final product. Aluminum producers often must
manage the properties of the aluminum al oy precisely to meet customer specifications, and this
often favors the use of primary aluminum.
The Aluminum Market
Demand for aluminum is cyclical and largely depends on the health of the manufacturing sector,
particularly pertaining to aviation products, motor vehicles, electrical equipment and machinery,
packaging, and construction materials. In 2021, demand for aluminum in the United States totaled
4.3 mil ion metric tons, up 8% from 2020—even as the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)
pandemic contributed to curtailments and reduced production at facilities of aluminum-
consuming industries. Domestic consumption remains below the recent peak of 5.7 mil ion metric
tons in 2017 (Figure 4). The three largest domestic end markets for aluminum in 2021 were
transportation equipment, packaging, and building and construction. These end markets
accounted for a combined 74% of U.S. aluminum consumption.22
Since the mid-2010s, U.S. aluminum demand has been general y flat. However, CRU
International, a consulting company, forecasts that demand for aluminum in North America wil
expand by 5.1 mil ion metric tons, or 45%, between 2020 and 2030. CRU estimates that roughly
half of this growth wil occur in the transportation sector as North America becomes a major
electric vehicle production location.23 Demand for packaging and construction combined is
expected to increase by 27%. The Aluminum Association—the domestic industry’s largest trade
group—reported that North American (U.S. and Canadian) aluminum demand grew by 6.6%
through the first half of 2022, driven by packaging among other segments.24

21 Bureau of the Census, “Annual Survey of Manufacturers,” at https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=
AM1831BASIC&n=3313%3A331313%3A331314%3A331315%3A331318.
22 USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” January 2022.
23 CRU International, Opportunities for aluminum in a post-Covid economy, January 28, 2022, p. 20, at
https://international-aluminium.org/resource/opportunities-for-aluminium-in-a-post-covid-economy/.
24 T he Aluminum Association, “North American Aluminum Demand Up 6.6% T hrough First Half of 2022,” press
release, August 30, 2022, at https://www.aluminum.org/north-american-aluminum-demand-66-through-first-half-2022.
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Figure 4. U.S. Aluminum Production and Consumption

Sources: The Aluminum Association, Industry Statistics, U.S. Primary Aluminum Production; and USGS, “Aluminum
Statistics and Information.”
Note: Production includes primary and secondary aluminum.
As discussed above, the U.S. and Canadian aluminum industries are heavily interconnected. In
2021, imports supplied 44% of the U.S. aluminum market, up from 39% in 2020.25 More than
half of U.S. aluminum imports in 2021 came from Canada. Canadian output of primary aluminum
reached an estimated 3.13 mil ion metric tons in 2021, more than three times that of the United
States, with 81% of that production exported to the United States.26 Mexico is not a major
producer of aluminum but consumes large volumes of North American aluminum. Through the
first half of 2022, the United States exported 219,000 metric tons of semi-finished aluminum
products, with 59% going to Canada and 33% to Mexico. During the same period, U.S. imports
of unwrought aluminum amounted to 2.14 mil ion metric tons, with more than 60% coming from
Canada.27
Over the past decade, 58%-69% of domestic supply of aluminum was exported each year. An
important reason for the imbalance between production and consumption is that the United States
is a major exporter of aluminum scrap, which represented 72% of total export volume in 2021.
Mexico, Malaysia, and Canada were the three largest export markets, in that order, accounting for
over half of total aluminum export volume from U.S. mil s.28 Canada and Mexico import the vast
majority of U.S. non-scrap aluminum exports, including semi-finished products as wel as smal
volumes of unwrought aluminum and al oys.
Global demand for semi-finished aluminum products is expected to increase up to 80% by 2050.29
This could be significant for the prospects of U.S. producers, particularly for exports of aluminum

25 USGS, Mineral Commodity Summaries, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” January 2022.
26 T he Aluminum Association, Industry Statistics, North American Primary Aluminum Production; and U.S.
Department of Commerce, “U.S. Aluminum Import Monitor,” accessed July 28, 2022.
27 USGS, Mineral Industry Surveys, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” Table 8, June 2022.
28 USGS, Mineral Industry Surveys, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” Table 9, December 2021.
29 “World aluminium industry must cut emissions by 77% by 2050 -IAI,” Reuters, March 16, 2021, at
https://www.reuters.com/world/china/world-aluminium-industry-must-cut-emissions-by-77-by-2050-iai-2021-03-16/
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scrap and for semi-finished products. Moreover, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement
(USMCA), in effect since July 2020, requires 70% North American aluminum content for
automobiles and auto parts to qualify for duty-free trade. This could increase demand for U.S. and
Canadian aluminum over time.30
Employment and Wages
Direct employment in U.S. aluminum manufacturing has declined 38%, from 91,388 workers in
2001 to 56,515 workers in 2021.31 However, that decline occurred largely between 2001 and
2008; employment in the industry as a whole has been general y flat in recent years (Figure 5). In
2021, fewer than one in four workers in aluminum manufacturing were employed in primary or
secondary aluminum smelting. The majority of jobs in aluminum manufacturing are at
downstream sector facilities that make plate, sheet, extruded, and rolled products. The U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) projects employment in aluminum manufacturing to shrink
approximately 6% between 2021 and 2031.32
Figure 5. U.S. Aluminum Manufacturing Employment

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, North American Industry
Classification System (NAICS) codes 331313—Alumina Refining and Primary Aluminum Production; 331314—
Secondary Smelting and Al oying of Aluminum; 331315—Aluminum Sheet, Plate, and Foil Manufacturing; and
331318—Other Aluminum Rol ing, Drawing, and Extruding.
In 2021, workers in primary aluminum smelting and manufacturing of plate, sheet, and foil were
among the aluminum sectors’ highest earners, with annual average wages of $84,164 and

#:~:text=LONDON%2C%20March%2016%20 (Reuters),Aluminium%20Institute%20said%20on%20Tuesday .
30 Office of the U.S. T rade Representative (UST R), The United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement Fact Sheet:
Autom obiles and Autom otive Parts, accessed June 21, 2022, at https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/Press/fs/USMCA/
USMCA-Autos_and_Auto_Parts.pdf.
31 Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, North American Industry
Classification System (NAICS) 3313—Alumina and Aluminum Production and Processing, at
http://www.bls.gov/qcew.
32 BLS, Employment and Output by Industry, T able 2.11, accessed September 8, 2022, at https://www.bls.gov/emp/
tables/industry-employment -and-output.htm.
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$88,136, respectively.33 The secondary aluminum sector paid an annual average wage of $69,319,
while workers involved in aluminum rolling and extruding were paid an average of $63,639
annual y.34 As a whole, the aluminum industry’s annual average pay was $74,149, 3% lower than
the annual average of $76,580 for al manufacturing.
Trade Measures, Regulatory Support, and Global Excess Capacity
Since the early 2010s, the United States has imposed or negotiated restraints on imports of a
variety of downstream aluminum products in response to complaints by aluminum producers and
industry associations that the U.S. industry was injured or threatened with injury by imports sold
below fair market value (“dumped”), subsidized, or otherwise supported by unfair trade practices.
In addition, the U.S. Department of Commerce has self-initiated some trade remedy proceedings
involving aluminum.
The most recent round of trade actions began in March 2018 when the Trump Administration
imposed a 10% tariff on certain aluminum products from virtual y al countries under Section 232
of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962,35 which al ows restrictions, such as tariffs or import quotas,
on imports that have been found to harm national security.36 The Trump Administration’s stated
objective was to reduce import volumes to a level that would enable the domestic industry to
operate at an average of 80% or more of production capacity.37 An additional aim was to raise the
price of imported aluminum to encourage domestic producers to restart idled capacity and expand
employment.38 In October 2021, the United States and the European Union (EU) reached an
agreement under which the Section 232 tariffs on imports from EU countries were replaced with
a tariff-rate quota al owing a specified quantity of aluminum imported from the EU to enter the
United States duty-free each year.39 The United States reached a similar agreement with the
United Kingdom in March 2022.40

33 BLS, Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, NAICS 331313—Alumina Refining and Primary Aluminum
Production, and 331315—Aluminum Sheet, Plate, and Foil Manufacturing.
34 BLS, Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages, NAICS 331314—Secondary Smelting and Alloying of
Aluminum, and 331318—Other Aluminum Rolling, Drawing, and Extruding.
35 19 U.S.C. §1862, as amended.
36 At the same time, Section 232 tariffs were applied to steel imports at a 25% rate. In May 2019, Canada and Mexico
were exempted permanently from the Section 232 tariffs. Australia is not subject to any import restrictions; Argentina
is subject to an annualized quota in lieu of the tariffs as are individual product imports that receive a product exclusion
from the U.S. Department of Commerce.
37 Bureau of Industry and Security, The Effect of Imports of Aluminum on the National Security, 2018, p. 107.
38 Ibid., p. 104.
39 Under the agreement, the United States will exempt up to 18,000 metric tons (MT ) of unwrought aluminum under
two product categories and 366,000 MT of semi-finished (wrought) aluminum under 14 product categories imported
from the European Union from Section 232 tariffs each year. If imports exceed this quantity, then the Section 232
duties would be reimposed for the remainder of the calendar year. UST R, “Joint US-EU Statement on T rade in Steel
and Aluminum,” press release, October 31, 2021, at https://ustr.gov/sites/default/files/files/Statements/
US%20232%20EU%20Statement.pdf.
40 T he agreement with the United Kingdom allows 900 MT of unwrought aluminum under two product categories and
11,400 MT of semi-finished (wrought) aluminum, other than foil (Harmonized System Heading 7607), under 12
product categories to enter the United States duty -free each year, effective June 1, 2022. For aluminum foil (7607), the
agreement allows 9.3 T MT (thousand metric tons) under two product categories to enter duty -free each year. UST R,
“Announcement of Action on UK Imports Under Section 232,” March 22, 2022, at https://www.commerce.gov/sites/
default/files/2022-03/UK232-US-Statement.pdf.
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Separately, there are numerous antidumping (AD) and countervailing duty (CVD) orders
imposing punitive duties on aluminum and aluminum products. Most of these orders were put
into place after the Trump Administration’s imposition of Section 232 duties. AD or CVD duties
may be imposed when imports are found to have been sold below cost in the U.S. market or
subsidized and threaten to injure a domestic industry.41 As of September 2022, 34 AD or CVD
orders concerning aluminum were in force, including many on semi-finished aluminum products
imposed under the Biden Administration in 2021.42 In June 2021, the International Trade
Administration in the Department of Commerce implemented the aluminum import monitoring
and analysis system to track imports of aluminum products and provide an early warning of
import surges.43
The Section 232 restrictions are intended to raise domestic prices of the covered products, leaving
downstream manufacturers that use those products to face higher input costs. Consequently, some
U.S. manufacturers claimed to have difficulty competing with imported finished or derivative
products and sought AD/CVD protection as wel —a development some economists have referred
to as “cascading protection.”44 A report from the Economic Policy Institute estimates that Section
232 measures have provided relief to domestic aluminum producers through improved output,
employment, and capital investments while creating no adverse effects for aluminum-consuming
industries, such as motor vehicle parts, construction goods, and canned beverages.45 By contrast,
research from HARBOR Aluminum on behalf of the Beer Institute estimates that between March
2018 and February 2022, Section 232 aluminum tariffs cost the U.S. beverage industry $1.4
bil ion, while amounting to $463 mil ion in 2021.46 Data from BLS show little change in
employment at secondary smelters and at aluminum sheet, plate, and foil mil s since 2018, while
employment in primary aluminum production and at rolling, drawing, and extrusion plants has
declined. On balance, the net effect on employment within the aluminum industry seems to be
relatively minor.
The global aluminum sector has seen major changes over the last two decades with China’s rise
to be the leading producer in most segments of the aluminum value chain. Global output of
primary aluminum has more than doubled, from 23,900 mil ion metric tons in 2000 to 68,000
mil ion metric tons in 2021. The majority of global smelting capacity is in China, which
accounted for 57% of global primary aluminum output in 2021; combined, the United States and
Canada represented 6% (Figure 6).

41 For more information on antidumping (AD) and countervailing duty (CVD) orders, see CRS Report R46296, Trade
Rem edies: Antidum ping, by Christopher A. Casey; and CRS Report R46882, Trade Rem edies: Countervailing Duties,
by Christopher A. Casey and Liana Wong.
42 Of the 34 AD/CVD orders covering aluminum, 26 were introduced in 2021, affecting imports from Armenia,
Bahrain, Brazil, China, Croatia, Egypt, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Oman, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia,
South Africa, Spain, T aiwan, and T urkey. U.S. Department of Commerce, “ AD/CVD Proceedings,” accessed
September 6, 2022, at https://www.trade.gov/data-visualization/adcvd-proceedings.
43 For information about the Aluminum Import Monitoring and Analysis (AIM) system, see International T rade
Administration, “Industry Import Monitoring and Analysis,” at https://www.trade.gov/aluminum.
44 Chad P. Bown, “ T rump’s steel and aluminum tariffs are cascading out of control,” Peterson Institute for International
Economics, February 4, 2020, at https://www.piie.com/blogs/trade-and-investment -policy-watch/trumps-steel-and-
aluminum-tariffs-are-cascading-out-control.
45 Adam S. Hersh and Robert E. Scott, “ Aluminum producing and consuming industries have thrived under U.S.
Section 232 import measures,” Economic P olicy Institute, May 25, 2021, at https://www.epi.org/publication/aluminum-
producing-and-consuming-industries-have-thrived-under-u-s-section-232-import-measures/.
46 Beer Institute, “New Research Shows the T ariffs on Aluminum Have Cost the U.S. Beverage Industry $1.4 Billion,”
press release, April 14, 2022, at https://www.beerinstitute.org/press-releases/new-research-shows-the-tariffs-on-
aluminum-have-cost -the-u-s-beverage-industry-1-4-billion/.
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Figure 6. Global Primary Aluminum Production, 2021
Top 10 producing countries

Source: USGS, “Aluminum Statistics and Information.”
Note: USGS estimates that in 2021, global primary aluminum smelting capacity was 77,000 mil ion metric tons.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) estimates that primary
smelting capacity in China amounted to roughly 48.7 mil ion tons in 2018.47 The OECD reports
that excess capacity in the aluminum sector is hard to measure, as reliable capacity information
may not be available for producers that are not publicly listed on stock exchanges. The Chinese
government has acknowledged that its aluminum sector, which is in part state-owned, suffers
from excess capacity and indicated as of 2019 that continued efforts to reduce inventory, cut
overcapacity, and achieve a balance in supply and demand remain priorities.48
In addition, OECD economists found that subsidies and other market-distorting practices,
particularly in China and the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), contribute to
excess capacity and impact global competition in the aluminum sector.49 The research looked at
17 of the industry’s largest firms, representing more than half of global smelting capacity, which
the OECD estimates received up to $70 bil ion in total government support between 2013 and
2017. Although al 17 firms received some form of support, five recipients, al Chinese, received
85% of al support. U.S.-based Alcoa was one of the 17 firms, having received approximately
$1.5 bil ion in the form of nonfinancial support, chiefly through energy subsidies coming
overwhelmingly from Canada and a GCC country (likely Saudi Arabia, where it has a joint
venture).50 A recent analysis by several international organizations, including the OECD,
estimated that from 2014 to 2018, global aluminum firms benefited from subsidized intermediate

47 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), “Measuring distortions in international
markets: the aluminium value chain,” OECD Trade Policy Papers, no. 218, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2019, p. 53, at
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/c82911ab-en.
48 Ibid., p. 51.
49 T he Gulf Cooperation Council includes Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Oman.
Ibid., pp. 6, 9.
50 Ibid., pp. 13-14.
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inputs, including energy, valued at $2.5 bil ion and from below-market borrowings of $8 bil ion
per year.51
In April 2021, the Aluminum Association unveiled a policy document, A Trade Policy
Framework for the U.S. Aluminum Industry. The framework expresses the association’s view of
global excess capacity as a significant chal enge, urging the Biden Administration to engage in
multilateral efforts to address market-distorting industrial policies with an emphasis on China.52
Unlike the steel sector, no OECD or other multinational forum has been established exclusively to
monitor global excess capacity in the aluminum sector.
Price Determination
Aluminum is a global y traded commodity, and its price is effectively determined by the price of
futures contracts traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME). Regional and value-added
premiums, such as the Midwest Premium, typical y are added to LME prices to establish the base
price of aluminum in the United States. This price is usual y higher than the LME price, reflecting
the cost of delivery to LME-approved warehouses in the United States, as wel as U.S. demand
conditions. Through the first half of 2022, for example, the average U.S. price for aluminum was
$3,507 per metric ton, above the LME price, which averaged $2,789 per metric ton during the
same period.53 At that time, the LME price was at its highest level since 2008. According to S&P
Global, aluminum prices were at record highs due to limited supply resulting from production
curtailments, modification of Section 232 tariffs, demand growth in China, reduced Chinese
exports of primary semi-finished aluminum, and economic sanctions on Russia.54
Reliance on LME price benchmarks has been blamed for unreasonably high U.S. aluminum
prices. In 2014, the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations examined al egations that
certain financial institutions, notably investment bank Goldman Sachs, had acquired LME-
approved warehouses and used their control to delay delivery of metal to buyers, thereby creating
artificial supply shortages that inflated aluminum prices.55
Between 2010 and 2014, the average queue time to receive aluminum from an LME-approved
warehouse in the United States went from roughly 40 days to over 600 days; during the same
period, the Midwest Premium rose from approximately $134 per metric ton of aluminum to
slightly above $450 per metric ton.56 The subcommittee’s investigation found a broad consensus
that the longer queue times had led to a wider gap between LME prices and U.S. prices, but there

51 IMF et al., Subsidies, Trade, and International Cooperation, OECD Publishing, Paris, 2022, pp. 14-16, at
https://doi.org/10.1787/a4f01ddb-en.
52 T he Aluminum Association, A Trade Policy Framework for the U.S. Aluminum Industry, at
https://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/T AA_T rade%20Framework-FINAL.pdf.
53 USGS, Mineral Industry Surveys, “Aluminum Statistics and Information,” Table 6, June 2022.
54 S&P Global Commodity Insights, “Aluminum prices hit 13-year high on supply tightness, concerns,” February 10,
2022, at https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/market -insights/latest-news/metals/021022-feature-
aluminum-prices-hit-13-year-high-on-supply-tightness-concerns.
55 David Kocieniewski, “A Shuffle of Aluminum, but to Banks, Pure Gold,” New York Times, July 20, 2013, at
https://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/21/business/a-shuffle-of-aluminum-but-to-banks-pure-gold.html.
56 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, Permanent Subcommittee on
Investigations, Wall Street Bank Involvem ent with Physical Com m odities, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., November 21, 2014,
pp. 173, 178-179.
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was disagreement as to whether the longer queue times resulted in a higher absolute level of
aluminum prices for U.S. buyers.57
Litigation over claims that financial firms violated antitrust laws by manipulating aluminum
prices has persisted into this decade. In February 2021, a New York district court ruled in favor of
defendants Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase, and Glencore—stating that many aluminum
purchasers bought aluminum overwhelmingly from smelters such as Alcoa and Rio Tinto rather
than directly from the defendants; therefore the purchasers did not qualify as efficient enforcers of
antitrust laws and lacked standing to sue.58 Another case was decided in favor of Goldman Sachs
and several others in June 2022 on similar grounds.59
National Security Concerns
As secondary aluminum is derived from recycled products or scrap, it often contains significant
impurities. This makes it unsuitable for uses that require high and consistent quality.
Manufacturers of components used in electronics and aerospace manufacturing often favor
primary aluminum that meets specified purity standards. Many defense-related products must
comply with particularly high purity standards. Specialty al oys and materials used in wrought
aluminum products often have enhanced mechanical properties, such as heighted electrical
conductivity and corrosion resistance, which are greatly preferred for aerospace and defense
applications. However, military demand alone is insufficient to support domestic production of
high-purity primary aluminum al oys. According to the Department of Defense (DOD), U.S.
military requirements for aluminum represent approximately 3% of annual domestic production.60
The greatest aluminum-related security concern regarding defense requirements appears to be the
availability of specific high-purity aluminum al oys, which can be derived from primary
aluminum. The supply of high-purity aluminum is important to the production of high-
performance aluminum al oys used in aerospace and defense products. In addition, aluminum
al oys are one of several energetic materials used in missile and munition systems, according to
DOD.61
One active U.S. smelter produces aluminum of sufficient purity for use in military aircraft, as
wel as in the lightweight armor plating found in many defense ground and weapon systems.62
Century’s Hawesvil e, KY (Figure 3), smelter produces primary aluminum with a purity of
99.9% compared with standard-purity aluminum of 99.7%. Standard ingots can undergo further

57 Ibid., p. 180.
58 In re Aluminum Warehousing Antitrust Litig., 520 F. Supp. 3d 455 (S.D.N.Y. 2021).
59 Reynolds Consumer Prod. LLC v. Glencore AG, No. 16 -cv-0595 (S.D.N.Y. June 3, 2022) (order granting joint
stipulation of dismissal with prejudice).
60 Letter from James N. Mattis, Secretary of Defense, to Wilbur L. Ross Jr., Secretary of Commerce, Memorandum for
the Secretary of Commerce: Response to Steel and Aluminum Policy Recommendations, 2018, at
https://www.commerce.gov/sites/default/files/
department_of_defense_memo_response_to_steel_and_aluminum_ policy_recommendations.pdf.
61 Department of Defense, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Industrial Base Policy, Industrial Capabilities Report to
Congress, 2020 Annual Report, January 2021, pp. 85-87, at https://media.defense.gov/2021/Jan/14/2002565311/-1/-1/
0/FY20-INDUST RIAL-CAPABILIT IES-REPORT .PDF.
62 Bureau of Industry and Security, T he Effect of Imports of Aluminum on the National Security, 2018, p. 3; and Adam
S. Hersh and Robert E. Scott, Aluminum producing and consuming industries have thrived under U.S. Section 232
import measures, Economic Policy Institute, May 25, 2021, at https://www.epi.org/publication/aluminum-producing-
and-consuming-industries-have-thrived-under-u-s-section-232-import-measures/.
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electrolysis processing, known as the Hoopes process, to reach an “ultra” purity grade of up to
99.99%.63 Century’s Hawesvil e smelter produced 172,000 tons of primary aluminum in 2021,64
with the large majority going to the commercial aerospace and electrical conductor markets. With
respect to defense requirements, this smelter is a major supplier of high-purity aluminum to
downstream producers, including Arconic, Constel ium, and Kaiser. These firms use high-purity
al oys and materials to produce aluminum products for an array of advanced aerospace and
defense applications. In June 2022, Century announced that it would temporarily idle its high-
purity smelter for up to a year due to rising energy prices.65
Downstream producer Arconic has the capability to produce high-purity aluminum from a
standard ingot using a specific fractionalization crystal ization process.66 Canadian downstream
producer Nature Alu manufactures aluminum ingots with an ultra-purity grade of 99.99% through
a proprietary technology. The company states that it is the only North American manufacturer of
high-purity aluminum that supplies the international market.67 It is unclear whether the United
States imports materials from this firm for use in military applications.
The Department of Homeland Security has designated 16 critical infrastructure sectors in the
United States. One of these, “critical manufacturing,” encompasses domestic production of
primary metals, including aluminum, among other materials.68 The Trump Administration’s
Section 232 aluminum report asserted that nearly al of the designated critical infrastructure
sectors rely on aluminum products to accomplish their principal missions.69 Separately, the
aluminum industry’s broadest trade group has pushed for the designation of the aluminum
industry as an “essential industry” to al ow continuation of operations in the event of a federal
emergency, such as was declared during the COVID-19 pandemic.70
Decarbonizing Aluminum Manufacturing
The aluminum sector contributes approximately 2% to global GHGs, equivalent to roughly 1.1
bil ion tons of carbon dioxide.71 As global demand for aluminum is expected to increase up to
80% by 2050, the aluminum industry is facing pressure to develop low-carbon or carbon-neutral
manufacturing processes.72 Aluminum producers, like firms in other industries, face increasing

63 Danilo C. Curtolo et al., “High- and Ultra-High-Purity Aluminum, a Review on T echnical Production
Methodologies,” Metals, vol. 11, no. 1407 (September 6, 2021), p. 4, at https://www.mdpi.com/2075-4701/11/9/1407/
htm.
64 Century Aluminum Company, Form 10-K for the year ending December 31, 2021, p. 3.
65 Century Aluminum, “Century Aluminum to T emporarily Idle Its Hawesville Smelter Due to Soaring Energy Prices;
Issues WARN Notice to Employees,” press release, June 22, 2022, at https://centuryaluminum.com/investors/press-
releases/press-release-details/2022/Century-Aluminum-to-T emporarily-Idle-Its-Hawesville-Smelter-Due-to-Soaring-
Energy-Prices-Issues-WARN-Notice-to-Employees/default.aspx.
66 Bureau of Industry and Security, The Effect of Imports of Alum inum on the National Security, 2018, p. 30.
67 See Nature Alu website, at https://www.naturealu.com/index.
68 Department of Homeland Security, Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency, “Critical Manufac turing
Sector,” at https://www.cisa.gov/critical-manufacturing-sector.
69 Bureau of Industry and Security, The Effect of Imports of Aluminum on the National Security, 2018, p. 36.
70 GlobalNewsWire, “American Aluminum an Essential Industry in a Moment of National Emergency,” press release,
March 19, 2020, at https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/03/19/2003425/0/en/American-Aluminum-an-
Essential-Industry-in-a-Moment-of-National-Emergency.html.
71 International Aluminium Institute, Aluminium Sector Greenhouse Gas Pathways to 2050, September 2021, at
https://international-aluminium.org/resource/aluminium-sector-greenhouse-gas-pathways-to-2050-2021/.
72 International Aluminium Institute, IAI releases aluminium sector’s decarbonisation dataset in line with the
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demands from customers and investors that they publicly disclose the GHG emissions throughout
their supply chains and seek to reduce those emissions levels, potential y placing producers with
comparatively high emissions—namely primary aluminum smelters—at a competitive
disadvantage.73
Primary aluminum smelting generates direct emissions from the electrolysis of alumina using a
carbon anode during smelting and from fuel combustion to produce heat and steam used in
casting and fabrication. Direct emissions account for roughly 30% of total emissions from
aluminum manufacturing.74 More than 60% of indirect GHG emissions related to aluminum
manufacturing come from the generation of electricity used to refine bauxite ore into alumina and
to smelt the alumina into aluminum.75 The emissions attributable to a particular producer may
depend heavily on the power source.
About 90% of Canadian aluminum is produced from hydroelectric power in Quebec,76 resulting
in comparatively low GHG emissions per metric ton, whereas China, which relies predominantly
on coal-fired electric generating plants, has much higher emissions per metric ton.77 The United
States stands in the middle in terms of sectoral GHG emissions per ton.78 Secondary aluminum’s
rising share of total domestic supply is chiefly responsible for the U.S. decline in average
emissions per ton. U.S. producers have also introduced process and technology improvements in
aluminum smelting. The Aluminum Association asserts that the domestic industry reduced its
GHG emissions by 59% between 2005 and 2018.79 However, annual domestic production of
primary aluminum fel sharply during this period, from 2.48 mil ion metric tons in 2005 to
897,000 metric tons in 2018, a decline of 64%. Given that over 90% of emissions from aluminum
manufacturing comes from primary smelting,80 reduced primary smelting activity is likely to have
been a major cause of decline in the sector’s emissions. Secondary aluminum uses just 5% of the
energy required for primary production,81 so to the extent that greater availability of secondary
aluminum reduces demand for primary aluminum, the industry’s emissions per metric ton could
be expected to fal , even in the absence of changes to production methods.

International Energy Agency’s Beyond 2 Degrees findings, September 9, 2021, at https://international-aluminium.org/
iai-releases-aluminium-sectors-decarbonisation-dataset -in-line-with-the-international-energy-agencys-beyond-2-
degrees-findings/.
73 Primary aluminum smelting is also a major source of global perfluorocarbon (PFC) emissions, a highly potent
greenhouse gas.
74 Mission Possible Partnership, Closing the Gap for Aluminium Emissions: Technologies to Accelerate Deep
Decarbonization of Direct Em issions, December 2021, pp. 5-6, at https://missionpossiblepartnership.org/wp-content/
uploads/2021/12/Closing-the-Gap-for-Aluminium-Emissions.pdf.
75 International Aluminium Institute, Aluminium Sector Greenhouse Gas Pathways to 2050, September 2021, at
https://international-aluminium.org/resource/aluminium-sector-greenhouse-gas-pathways-to-2050-2021/.
76 Investissement Québec, The Greenest Aluminum in the World, accessed July 20, 2022, at
https://www.investquebec.com/international/en/industries/aluminum/the-greenest -aluminum-in-the-world.html.
77 Ali Hasanbeigi et al., Aluminum Climate Impact: An International Benchmarking of Energy and CO2 Intensities,
Global Efficiency Intelligence, February 2022, pp. 3, 16, and 19 at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/
5877e86f9de4bb8bce72105c/t/624d11ab5a37a4341fd85a6e/1649217981897/Aluminum+benchmarking+report-
+Feb2022+rev2.pdf.
78 Ibid., pp. 3, 15.
79 T he Aluminum Association, Aluminum Sector Snapshot: Environmental Reporting, April 2021, pp. 1, 5, at
https://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/2021-10/Aluminum%20Association_Smart%20Sector%20Report.pdf .
80 IEA, Aluminium , Paris, 2022, at https://www.iea.org/reports/aluminium.
81 World Economic Forum, The answer to the aluminium industry’s emissions issue? Aluminium’s infinite recyclability,
December 9, 2021, at https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/12/aluminium-emissions-recycling-circular-economy/.
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Challenges of Decarbonizing
A transition to carbon-neutral aluminum is likely to require significant capital investment in
decarbonizing the electrical grid and in specific technologies used in smelting and recycling. A
recent study from Mission Possible Partnership, working in collaboration with the International
Aluminium Institute,82 estimates that approximately $1 tril ion in investment is needed for the
transition to a low-carbon upstream aluminum sector, with the majority of investment used to
decarbonize electricity supplies.83 This figure does not include the cost of decarbonizing other
aspects of aluminum production. A study from the World Economic Forum estimates that low-
emission aluminum is expected to be available as early as 2030 and may command a premium of
up to 40%.84
Decarbonizing the domestic aluminum industry is likely to require changes in the U.S. energy
grid.85 At present, electricity is largely derived from nonrenewable energy sources. In 2021,
20.1% of electricity generated in the United States came from renewable sources,86 and much of
this generation is distant from smelting facilities.
In addition to decarbonizing the electricity sector, many technologies under development seek to
address direct emissions in aluminum manufacturing, specifical y targeting aluminum smelting
and thermal energy and fuels used in casting and fabrication.
 Inert Anodes. This technology could be used as an alternative to carbon anodes,
which are consumed in electrolysis during smelting—the most carbon-intensive
process in aluminum manufacturing. Most research, at present, is focused on
identifying the optimal anode material. Current materials being explored include
ceramics, metal al oys, and sintered cermet, a ceramic-metal composite.
Currently, the large majority of primary smelters use carbon anodes, which
enable the process of electrolysis, with the combustion of these anodes emitting
large quantities of carbon dioxide. In contrast, inert anodes have little to no direct
GHG emissions.87 ELYSIS, a joint venture between Alcoa, Rio Tinto, and Apple,
seeks to create inert anodes that would eliminate GHG emissions from aluminum
smelting, yielding carbon-free aluminum. The companies aim to demonstrate the
viability of the technology in 2023, make it commercial y available by 2024, and
produce larger volumes of carbon-free aluminum approximately two years later.88

82 Aluminum is the preferred spelling in the United States; aluminium is the preferred spelling in the United Kingdom
and many other English-speaking nations.
83 Mission Possible Partnership, Making Net-Zero Aluminium Possible, September 2022, p. 52, at
https://missionpossiblepartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Making-1.5-Aligned-Aluminium-possible.pdf.
84 World Economic Forum, The Net-Zero Industry Tracker: Aluminium Industry, July 28, 2022, at
https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-net-zero-industry-tracker/in-full/aluminium-industry/.
85 William Alan Reinsch and Emily Benson, Decarbonizing Aluminum: Rolling Out a More Sustainable Sector, Center
for Strategic and International Studies, February 25, 2022, at https://www.csis.org/analysis/decarbonizing-aluminum-
rolling-out-more-sustainable-sector.
86 U.S. Energy Information Administration, What is U.S. electricity generation by energy source?, March 4, 2022, at
https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=427&t=3.
87 Mission Possible Partnership, Closing the Gap for Aluminium Emissions: Technologies to Accelerate Deep
Decarbonization of Direct Em issions, December 2021, p. 6, at https://missionpossiblepartnership.org/wp-content/
uploads/2021/12/Closing-the-Gap-for-Aluminium-Emissions.pdf.
88 Alcoa, “Carbon free aluminium smelting a step closer: ELYSIS advances commercial demonstration and operates at
industrial scale,” press release, November 4, 2021, at https://www.alcoa.com/global/en/stories/releases?id=2021/11/
carbon-free-aluminium-smelting-a-step-closer-elysis-advances-commercial-demonstration-and-operates-at-industrial-
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 Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS).89 CCUS units could be
instal ed or retrofitted at smelting facilities to capture direct emissions resulting
from industrial processes. The gases then may be stored underground or used to
produce chemicals, such as methanol. In the aluminum industry, CCUS could be
the most viable midterm solution for smelting facilities that use fossil fuels.90
 Hydrogen. Hydrogen could be used to produce high-temperature heat to power
secondary smelters but also could be used in alumina refining. There are three
primary methods used to generate hydrogen: (1) gray hydrogen, produced using
fossil fuels by splitting natural gas into hydrogen and carbon dioxide; (2) blue
hydrogen, produced using the same process as gray hydrogen with the use of
CCUS to capture roughly 90% of emissions;91 and (3) green hydrogen, produced
via electrolyzers from electricity generated from renewable energy sources.
 Mechanical Vapor Recompression (MVR). MVR—piloted by Alcoa with
financial support from the Australian government—recovers waste heat from
steam that would otherwise be discharged during alumina refining. The steam is
captured and redirected to a compressor that raises its pressure and temperature
so the steam may be reused. Alcoa is evaluating MVR powered by renewable
energy and states that the technology could reduce carbon emissions from the
alumina refining process by up to 70%.92
Another step in encouraging sustainability in the aluminum industry is to deploy better recycling
technology to improve the quality of secondary aluminum. Sorting technologies, such as
manual eddy current separators, make it possible to sort recycling inputs by material type. A more
recent technological development in recycling involves X-ray transmission technology, which
uses sensors that determine differences in quality and material density and sorts metal products,
including aluminum, accordingly.93 After scrap has been sorted, it is usual y sent to secondary
smelters where it is processed into molten aluminum. More precise sorting enables secondary
smelters to produce higher quality aluminum and wrought al oys. As domestic aluminum capacity
shifts from primary to secondary smelting, developing and refining methodologies to increase the
usability of the declining supply of quality scrap become more important.
Considerations for Congress
U.S. primary smelters seem likely to face greater headwinds due to a slowing economy and rising
energy costs, which have led to recent production curtailments and idling of capacity. The large

scale.
89 For a discussion of the technology and policy considerations regarding carbon capture, utilization, and storage
(CCUS), see CRS Report R44902, Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) in the United States, by Angela C. Jones
and Ashley J. Lawson.
90 World Economic Forum and Accenture, Aluminium for Climate: Exploring pathways to decarbonize the aluminium
industry, November 2020, p. 15, at https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Aluminium_for_Climate_2020.pdf.
91 Michael Liebreich, Liebreich: Separating Hype from Hydrogen – Part One: The Supply Side, BloombergNEF,
October 8, 2020, at https://about.bnef.com/blog/liebreich-separating-hype-from-hydrogen-part-one-the-supply-side/.
92 Australian Renewable Energy Agency, Mechanical Vapour Recompression for Low Carbon Alumina Refining ,
October 26, 2021, at https://arena.gov.au/projects/mechanical-vapour-recompression-for-low-carbon-alumina-refining/
.; and Alcoa, “ Alcoa explores technology to reduce carbon emissions,” press release, May 20, 2021, at
https://www.alcoa.com/global/en/what -we-do/alumina/stories/releases?id=2021/05/alcoa-explores-technology-to-
reduce-carbon-emissions.
93 “Sorting technology can turn aluminum green,” recycling today, September 14, 2021, at
https://www.recyclingtoday.com/article/steinert -hoffmann-aluminum-sorting-technology-recycling/.
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amount of unused capacity in the upstream sector has been and remains an issue for domestic
smelters. The adverse impact of global excess capacity on the domestic industry also remains a
chal enge. Secondary and downstream aluminum producers, however, may experience improved
commercial success over the next few years, as demand is expected to expand over the decade,
domestic prices have registered record highs, and continued measures limiting imports remain in
effect.
Decarbonizing the aluminum sector presents obstacles for domestic producers (see the
“Chal enges of Decarbonizing” section). The majority of the investment in decarbonization is
likely to focus on improvements in the energy grid to decarbonize electricity supply; additional
investment is likely to be made in reducing carbon emissions in aluminum production.
P.L. 117-169 (commonly referred to as the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022), signed into law on
August 16, 2022, established the Advanced Industrial Facilities Deployment Program (§50161) at
the Department of Energy. This program seeks to provide federal financial assistance to a variety
of manufacturing industries, including aluminum, that introduce advanced technologies in
production processes that effectively reduce GHG emissions. The Department of Energy is to
administer this program and award approximately $5.8 bil ion in financial assistance through
September 2026. Eligible production facilities would carry out projects for “(1) the purchase and
instal ation, or implementation, of advanced industrial technology; (2) retrofits, upgrades to, or
operational improvements at an eligible facility to instal or implement advanced industrial
technology; or (3) engineering studies and other work needed to prepare an eligible facility for
activities.”94 The Secretary of Energy may provide financial assistance of up to 50% of the cost of
a project carried out by an eligible production facility. In addition, the Secretary may give priority
consideration of financial assistance to projects that demonstrate “(1) the expected GHG emission
reductions to be achieved by carrying out the project; (2) the extent to which the project would
provide the greatest benefit for the greatest number of people within the area in which the eligible
facility is located; and (3) whether the eligible entity participates or would participate in a
partnership with purchasers of the output of the eligible facility.”95
The Trade Security Act of 2021 (S. 746), introduced by Senator Rob Portman, would amend
Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 and require the Secretary of Defense to initiate
investigations regarding whether certain U.S. imports present a national security threat. In
addition, it would al ow Congress to block a presidential import adjustment through a joint
resolution. Under current law, the Department of Commerce is charged with conducting Section
232 investigations and is required to consult with DOD concerning imports under investigation.
Prior Congresses have considered legislation to address concerns that inadequate domestic
production of primary aluminum could pose a risk in a national security crisis. Section 852 of the
FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act (FY2021 NDAA; P.L. 116-283) required the
Secretary of Defense to submit a report to Congress by March 1, 2022, on how the Defense
Production Act (DPA; 50 U.S.C. §4501 et seq.) could be used to increase domestic aluminum
refining, processing, and manufacturing. It is unclear whether this report was submitted to
Congress and/or if it has been declassified for public viewing. Considering the deep integration of
the U.S. and Canadian aluminum industries, if the DPA were to be used, it may treat primary
aluminum produced by Canadian smelters as domestic content.96

94 Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-169, §50161).
95 Ibid.
96 50 U.S.C. §4552 (7).
Congressional Research Service

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U.S. Aluminum Manufacturing: Industry Trends and Sustainability

Section 829 of the House-passed version of the FY2021 NDAA sought to add aluminum and
aluminum al oys to DOD’s specialty metals provision (10 U.S.C. §4863) and apply a domestic
sourcing mandate to DOD and the Department of Transportation. Section 829 was not included in
the FY2021 NDAA.

Author Information

Christopher D. Watson

Analyst in Industrial Organization and Business

Acknowledgements
The author thanks Jamie Hutchinson, CRS Visual Information Specialist, for providing assistance with
certain figures in this report.

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Congressional Research Service
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