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Updated December 15, 2021
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
(JROTC)
Overview and Mission
Retired servicemembers who are eligible for retired pay
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
may continue to receive such pay while employed as an
instructor. By law (10 U.S.C. §2031), military departments
voluntary high school program of instruction administrated
may subsidize instructor positions by reimbursing the host
by the Department of Defense (DOD) through the military
institution for a portion of the salary. DOD financial
departments. A key purpose of JROTC, according to 10
regulations refer to the salary that a school must pay the
U.S.C. §2031 (as amended by P.L. 116-283), is “to instill in
instructor as the Minimum Instructor Pay (MIP). The MIP
students in United States secondary educational institutions
is the difference between (1) the active duty pay and
the values of citizenship, service to the United States
allowances the instructor would receive if recalled to active
(including an introduction to service opportunities in
duty and (2) the instructor’s retired pay entitlement. For
military, national, and public service), and personal
example, if annual military retired pay is $24,000 and total
responsibility and a sense of accomplishment.” JROTC was
active duty pay and allowances is $52,000 the institution
established as an Army program by the National Defense
would pay the instructor the difference of $28,000. The
Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-85) and in 1964 expanded to the Navy
military may reimburse the institution $14,000 (one-half of
and Air Force. Congress authorized Coast Guard JROTC
$28,000). Additional sample salary calculations can be
units at two schools: the Maritime and Science Technology
found in DOD Instruction 1205.13.
Academy in Miami, FL, in 1989 (P.L. 101-225), and
Camden County High School, NC, in 2005 (P.L. 109-241).
Curriculum
JROTC courses are taught over a three- or four-year period
In FY2021, there were about 3,500 JROTC units operating
with academic coursework on topics such as leadership and
in every state and in DOD schools overseas (see Table 1).
ethics, civics, history, and health and wellness. The FY2020
Eighth-grade students are allowed to participate in JROTC
NDAA authorizes instruction in science, technology,
if physically co-located with 9th-12th grade students. Home-
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also
schooled students may also participate.
includes service-specific courses such as Aerospace Science
Table 1. Estimated Size of JROTC Program
or Seamanship and Navigation. In addition, units offer
extracurricular activities such as color guard/drill team,
Number of
Estimated
marksmanship, and field trips to military installations.
Service
units
enrollment
Establishing a JROTC Program
Army
1,727
305,000
Educational institutions interested in hosting a unit must
Navy
643
92,700
apply to the respective military department. By law,
participating host schools are required to maintain
Marine Corps
256
30,990
participation levels of 10% of the student body, or 100
Air Force
students, whichever is less. The military departments
875
110,000
establish criteria for unit placement. For example, the Army
Total
3,501
538,690
maintains an Order of Merit List, based on a point system
that awards credit to institutions for categories such as Title
Source: DOD Comptroller, FY2022 budget justification documents.
I status under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Notes: Navy figures include 583 JROTC units and 88,000 JROTC
(P.L. 89-10, as amended), local indicators of need (e.g.,
cadets, in addition to 60 National Defense Cadet Corps (NNDCC)
high unemployment or illiteracy), student enrollment,
units and 4,700 NNDCC cadets.
school financial solvency, and fair and equitable
JROTC Instructors
distribution of JROTC programs among states.
Most JROTC instructors are retired or reserve officers and
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
enlisted noncommissioned officers (NCOs) who serve as
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
employees of the school district. Service-level policies
per 10 U.S.C. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
require JROTC schools to have a minimum of one officer
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
(Senior Military Instructor) and one NCO (Junior Military
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
Instructor) on staff. Requirements to qualify as a JROTC
responsibility of the host institution and not subsidized by
instructor (e.g., education, certification) are specified in law
the government.
(10 U.S.C. §2033). Instructors are also required to abide by
standards set by their parent service, as well as the policies
set by their host institution.
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Federal Funding
levels, and asked for a DOD report on “any plans to ensure
adequate representation of all regions in the United States
Beyond instructor salaries mentioned earlier, the military
to ensure the capabilities of the Armed Forces to recruit
departments also fund uniforms, cadet travel, training aids,
from a diverse background to sustain the all-volunteer
text books, educational materials, and other unit operating
force.”
expenses. Host institutions provide classroom space,
facilities, and administrative support for the unit. Congress
A 2016 report from the RAND Corporation found that
annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of DOD’s
JROTC is generally underrepresented in rural and remote
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military Personnel
areas. In addition, JROTC units in public schools are not
(MILPERS) budget. JROTC funding for all of the Services
evenly distributed geographically and tend to be
in FY2021 was approximately $428 million, with the Army
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states relative to the
program accounting for about half of the total (see Table
national average. Public high schools with larger-than-
2).
average minority populations and in schools serving
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC, FY2021
economically disadvantaged populations are also
(Enacted base funding, in millions of dollars)
overrepresented as JROTC host schools.
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
Higher representation in economically disadvantaged and
Army
$185.120
$30.409
$215.529
larger, more urban schools has largely been a function of
service-level policy decisions that award preference for
Navy
$62.385
$15.533
$77.918
Title I schools and other structural program requirements
Marine
$31.084
$3.928
$35.012
(e.g., minimum student participation, availability of
Corps
instructors). While advocates for JROTC point to positive
outcomes for high-risk youth, some critics of JROTC have
Air Force
$81.085
$18.451
$99.536
argued that it unfairly targets low-income and minority
Total
$359.674
$68.321
$427.995
communities for military recruiting.
Source: DOD Comptroller, FY2022 budget justification document.
How does participation affect recruiting?
Participation in JROTC does not incur any military
Considerations for Congress
obligation and military recruitment is not a stated objective
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing JROTC, there
in statute or policy. Nevertheless, the military services
are several potential areas for consideration.
intend to provide favorable exposure to military careers and
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
What are some of the program benefits?
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
While research on comparable student populations has been
correlation between JROTC and enlistment while others
limited, several studies have found positive correlations
have found that the impact of JROTC participation on
between JROTC participation and student outcomes,
military enlistment is negligible when accounting for self-
including school attendance and graduation rates, improved
selection into JROTC. The FY2021 NDAA (P.L. 116-283)
test performance, higher self-esteem for female students,
requires a DOD study to, among other things, examine the
and lower rates of disciplinary action.
relationship between JROTC and propensity to join the
military.
JROTC funding may also benefit schools through support
for teaching and extracurricular activities. However, some
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
critics have questioned whether cost-sharing requirements
as an officer may receive some benefits at the time of entry
create a burden for poorer school districts.
into service. For example, per DOD policy (DODI
How many units should DOD support?
1205.13), a student successfully completing at least two
The number of JROTC units that the services can support
academic years of the JROTC program is entitled to
depends on annual budget levels, funding priorities, staffing
advanced promotion to the grade of no less than E-2 upon
resources, and host school interest. Statutory limits on the
initial enlistment in. The military departments may award
number of JROTC programs were gradually increased over
the grade of E-3 for successful completion of three
time and, in 2001, Congress repealed all limits (P.L. 107-
academic years. The secretaries of the military departments
107 §537). Subsequent legislation in 2006 (P.L. 109-364
may also nominate up to 20 honor graduates from JROTC
§541) and 2008 (P.L. 110-181 §548) directed the secretaries
units designated by the secretaries as honor schools for
of the military departments to expand the program to
appointment to one of the three military service academies
additional schools with a target of 3,700 units by September
(10 U.S.C. §8454 for Naval Academy, §7442 for U.S.
30, 2020. In 2020, the National Commission on Military,
Military Academy, and §9442 for Air Force Academy).
National, and Public Service recommended expanding the
number of JROTC units to 6,000 by 2031.
Relevant Statute
Is the distribution of units equitable?
Chapter 102, Title 10, United States Code: Junior Reserve
Officers’ Training Corps
A continued concern for Congress has been the equitable
distribution of JROTC units across various demographic,
socioeconomic, and geographic indicators. Language in the
Senate report to accompany the FY2015 DOD
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
Appropriations Bill (S.Rept. 113-211) expressed concern
IF11313
about JROTC participation at the individual and school
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
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