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Updated December 9, 2021
Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Overview
for a minimum of three years in the position. In 1999 (P.L.
The U.S. military service academies are tuition-free, four-
105-65§532), Congress added a requirement that the
year degree-granting institutions operated by the military
superintendent must retire from service at the end of the
departments. The academies are a major officer
appointment, although waivers are available in some cases.
commissioning source, along with the Reserve Officer
Training Corps and Officer Candidate School. The military
Admissions
service academies include the:
Admission to the service academies is competitive. In order
to be appointed to a service academy, an applicant must
U.S. Military Academy (USMA), West Point, New
meet certain eligibility requirements and be nominated by
York, under the Department of the Army;
an authorized person. Categories of nominations include
congressional, service-connected, academy superintendents
U.S. Naval Academy (USNA), Annapolis, Maryland,
and others. Allocations for nominations are governed by
under the Department of the Navy (Navy and Marine
law. The military academies use a “whole person” approach
Corps); and
to admissions by assessing candidates in three areas:
academics, physical aptitude, and leadership potential. To
U.S. Air Force Academy (USAFA), Colorado Springs,
matriculate, a nominated applicant must be a U.S. citizen,
Colorado, under the Department of the Air Force (Air
between 17 and 25 years old, unmarried, without legal
Force and Space Force).
obligation to support any dependents, and not pregnant.
There are two other federal service academies, the U.S.
Foreign National Students
Coast Guard Academy, in New London, Connecticut, under
Limited numbers of foreign national students are admitted
the Department of Homeland Security; and the U.S.
each year. By statute, a maximum of 60 may be enrolled at
Merchant Marine Academy, Kings Point, New York, under
each academy. Candidates must exhibit proficiency in
the Department of Transportation. While graduates of these
English and high marks on standardized academic tests.
service academies may also receive an officer commission
The Department of State and DOD determine eligible
upon graduation, they differ from the military service
countries, and invite these nations to nominate promising
academies in many respects (e.g., statutory authorities,
candidates. Foreign students return to their host nation
application and acceptance processes).
following graduation and may incur a service obligation
with their country’s military.
Academy Oversight and Leadership
The military academies are overseen by three entities: the
Preparatory Schools
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and
Each military department operates a preparatory school that
Readiness (OUSD/P&R), the service Secretaries, and the
offers a 10-month curriculum of instruction, in English,
Board of Visitors (BoV) of each academy. OUSD/P&R is
mathematics, science, and other academic areas, tailored to
responsible for assessing academy operations and
the student’s needs and entrance requirements for each
establishing policies and guidance for uniform oversight
academy. Individuals do not apply directly to the prep
and management of the academies. The BoV serves as an
school; they are selected from the pool of applicants to the
independent advisory body on matters related to morale,
service academies. Initially conceived as a program to help
discipline, social climate, curriculum, instruction, physical
selected enlisted soldiers and sailors prepare academically
equipment, fiscal affairs, and academic methods. By statute,
to meet the entrance standards, Congress and DOD have
the BoV for each military academy includes three Members
also considered them as an avenue to increase access to the
from both the House and Senate, and the Chairs of the
academies for historically disadvantaged demographic
Armed Services Committees or their designees. Two of the
groups.
Senate appointees must be members of the Committee on
Appropriations. The President appoints six additional
Enrollment
members to the Board.
The student limit for each academy is 4,400 and each of the
academies admits between 1,100 and 1,350 students per
All of the academies are led by a superintendent, a military
year. Women first entered the academies in 1976 and now
officer who is a general or admiral detailed (selected) to the
account for 23-30% of each academy’s student body. Table
position by the President. By law, the superintendent serves
1 shows demographics by race and ethnicity.
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Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Table 1. Service Academy and U.S. Undergraduate Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity (Fall 2020)
White
Black
Hispanic
Asian
Multi
Other/Unk.
USMA
62%
13%
12%
8%
3%
2%
USNA
61%
7%
12%
8%
10%
1%
USAFA
64%
7%
11%
7%
7%
2%
U.S. Postsecondary
52%
11%
17%
7%
4%
5%
Institutions
Source: National Center for Education Statistics, College Navigator accessible at https://nces.ed.gov/collegenavigator/.
Notes: Data for U.S. postsecondary institutions are for undergraduate enrollment at degree-granting (baccalaureate or above) institutions.
Percentages may not add to 100 due to rounding and exclusion of nonresident aliens. “Multi” includes two or more races, “Other/Unk”
includes Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islanders, and American Indian or Alaska Natives (accounting for <1% in each category).
Academic Curriculum and Student Life
ranges from $400,000 to $600,000 in current dollars.
While enrolled at the academies, students have the rank of
Congress authorizes and appropriates funding for the
midshipman (Navy) or cadet (Air Force and Army) and are
service academies through multiple appropriation titles and
considered to be on active duty (10 U.S.C. §101(d)). They
accounts of each respective service. For example, pay and
live in military barracks, wear uniforms, and participate in
allowances for military staff and cadets and midshipmen are
military training and professional development on a daily
part of the Military Personnel (MILPERS) appropriations.
basis. In addition, academy students participate in
Operations and Maintenance (O&M) funds provide for
approximately six weeks of basic training in the summer
academy programs, security, facility maintenance and
prior to their first academic year, and specialized training in
upgrades, training, and other operational expenses. Military
subsequent summers between academic years. The
Construction (MILCON) appropriations provide for
academies also have elements similar to civilian colleges
construction of academic buildings and barracks/lodging
and universities (e.g., varsity sports programs, social and
and can vary from year to year.
professional clubs and associations, and alumni-focused
Issues for Congress
programs and fundraising).
Oversight of the military service academies poses complex
The core curriculum at all academies includes professional
challenges for Congress. From a budget perspective, there
development (e.g., military leadership and ethics) and
is significant campus infrastructure to maintain and
service-specific technical courses (e.g., Naval weapons
upgrade, including numerous historical buildings and
systems, aeronautical engineering). While students may
monuments. On the personnel side, as undergraduate
select from several majors, including those in the
universities, the academies have experienced similar
humanities and social sciences, all successful graduates are
disciplinary issues and problematic behaviors as seen in
awarded a Bachelor of Science degree due to the technical
civilian college campuses (e.g., sexual misconduct, binge
content of the core curriculum.
drinking, and cheating scandals). In addition, some in
Service Requirement
Congress have expressed interest in issues related to
demographic diversity in academy appointments,
Upon graduation from the academies, cadets and
midshipmen are required to accept an appointment as a
particularly for historically underrepresented groups.
commissioned officer, if tendered, and incur a military
Additionally, as a primary commissioning source, Congress
service obligation (MSO) in the active/reserve component.
may consider how well the academy curriculum and
The MSO is typically eight years total with a minimum of
professional development programs prepare cadets and
five years on active duty. Congress has modified the active
midshipmen to take on the responsibilities and challenges
duty service requirement in the past, most recently in 1989
of 21st century military service.
(P.L. 101-189) when the requirement was raised from five
to six years for the class of 1992. It was reduced to five
CRS Products
years in the FY1996 NDAA (P.L. 104-106). Arguments for
modifying the MSO typically stem from return on
CRS Report RL33213, Congressional Nominations to U.S. Service
investment and force-sizing concerns.
Academies: An Overview and Resources for Outreach and
Management, by R. Eric Petersen and Sarah J. Eckman
Students who voluntarily leave the academies or are
Relevant Statute
dismissed for substandard conduct or performance may be
Title 10, United States Code, Chapters 753 (USMA), 853
required to complete a period of active duty enlisted
(USNA), and 954 (USAFA)
service, to reimburse the federal government for the cost of
their education. Those who fail to complete the MSO might
also be required to reimburse the government.
Funding
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
Students at the academies receive fully-funded tuition,
Hibbah Kaileh, Research Assistant
room and board, and some military pay and benefits. The
IF11788
services have estimated that the cost per four-year graduate
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Defense Primer: Military Service Academies
Disclaimer
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