Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for
December 8, 2021
People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020
Patrick A. Landers
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about federal
Analyst in Social Policy
benefits and services targeted to low-income populations. This report is the latest update

in a series of CRS reports that attempt to identify and provide information about federal
Karen E. Lynch
spending targeted to this population. The report series does not discuss social insurance
Specialist in Social Policy
programs such as Social Security or Unemployment Insurance, but includes only

programs with an explicit focus on low-income people or communities. Tax provisions,
Jessica Tollestrup
other than the refundable portion of two tax credits, are excluded.
Specialist in Social Policy

This report provides a brief update of federal spending during FY2008-FY2020 for
Gene Falk
programs or activities included in past reports, plus several new programs established in
Specialist in Social Policy
response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Over the course of the 13-year period examined,

federal spending on people with low income increased by 92% in nominal terms,
peaking at an estimated $1.078 trillion in FY2020. Increases in many recent years were
Conor F. Boyle
Analyst in Social Policy
largely driven by spending on health care. In FY2020, spending increased by 13% as a

result of the automatic and legislative response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income, FY2008-FY2020

Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget documents for
President’s budget submissions, FY2010 through FY2022.
Notes: For details on methodology, see report text.

Key findings include the following:
 No single label best describes all programs with a low-income focus, and no single trait
characterizes those who benefit. Programs are highly diverse in their purpose, design, and target
population. Programs with a low-income focus use a variety of eligibility criteria, including
multiples of the official federal poverty guidelines and other measures altogether. Readers should
use caution in making generalizations about the programs described in this report.
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Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

 Total federal spending on low-income programs in nominal terms rose substantially between
FY2008 and FY2009 as the Great Recession took hold. After stabilizing for several years,
spending increased at a fairly steady pace beginning in FY2013 and continuing through FY2019.
In FY2020, spending rose substantially in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the
associated economic downturn.
 The peak spending year in this window was FY2020, when federal spending on low-income
populations totaled an estimated $1.078 trillion. This represents a nominal increase of 92% from
FY2008.
 Health care is the single largest category of low-income spending—accounting for just over half
of all spending since FY2015—and tends to drive overall trends. Health care has seen a 134%
nominal increase in spending since FY2008, the highest of any category.
 After health care, cash aid and food assistance are the next largest categories. Food assistance has
seen the second-highest increase of any category, a 125% nominal increase, over the 13-year
period. Cash aid grew by 36%, the majority of which is attributable to the refundable tax credits
(the Earned Income Tax Credit [EITC] and Child Tax Credit [CTC]). Other categories (in
descending size based on FY2020 spending) are housing and development, education, social
services, employment and training, and energy assistance.
 Most low-income spending is classified in budgetary terms as mandatory (or direct), which
means the amount spent is a function of eligibility and payment rules established in authorizing
laws. The amount spent for the remaining discretionary programs is controlled through the annual
appropriations process. In some cases, programs receive both mandatory and discretionary
funding. In FY2020, 81% of low-income spending was mandatory-only, 15% was discretionary-
only, and 4% was spent on programs receiving both mandatory and discretionary funding.
 Four programs accounted for 67% of low-income spending in FY2020 and ten programs
accounted for 81%. Medicaid alone represented 48% of the total. In addition to Medicaid, the top
four programs (in descending size based on FY2020 spending) and their shares of total spending
included 7% for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), 6% for Supplemental
Security Income (SSI), and 5% for the refundable portion of the EITC.

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Introduction
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about spending on
programs and activities that target low-income individuals and families for benefits and services.
CRS has produced a series of reports that identify these programs and provide their spending
amounts and recent spending trends. The most recent update was CRS Report R46214, Federal
Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2018 Update.
This current report supersedes CRS Report R46214 and is primarily limited to providing an
interim update of the federal spending for programs and activities included in previous reports.
(Limited exceptions are discussed in the “Data and Methodology” section.) This report extends
the spending analysis through FY2020, the most recent year for which federal spending data were
available as of December 2021.
While the programs in this report share the common feature of an explicit low-income focus, the
individual programs are highly diverse in their purpose, design, and target population. They were
established at different times, in response to different policy challenges. In terms of target
population, the largest portion of low-income assistance goes to families with children with
working parents and individuals with disabilities (see CRS Report R46823, Need-Tested Benefits:
Who Receives Assistance?).
Data and Methodology
In general, programs were included in this report series if they (1) have provisions that base an
individual’s eligibility or priority for service on a measure (or proxy) of low income, (2) target
resources in some way (e.g., through allocation formulas, variable matching rates) using a
measure (or proxy) of low income, or (3) prioritize services to low-income segments of a larger
target population. The programs discussed in this report also had spending of $100 million or
more in at least one year covered by this analysis.
Programs that did not reach $100 million in at least one year covered by this analysis are not
included in the aggregate spending numbers presented in this report. In some cases, programs in
the report reached the $100 million threshold for some but not all of the fiscal years between
FY2008 and FY2020. Spending in years that were above the threshold are included in the
spending aggregates, whereas spending in the years that were below the threshold are not
included in the spending aggregates and are represented as $0 in Table 2.
This report is designed largely as an interim update to the data series and methodology presented
in CRS Report R44574, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Overview of
Spending Trends, FY2008-FY2015 (i.e., it generally provides updated spending data for the
programs included in that report). It was generally beyond the scope of this report update to
identify new programs that had been established in the intervening years (e.g., since FY2015) or
cases in which existing programs may have exceeded the $100 million threshold for the first time.
For exceptions, see the text box, “A Note on COVID-19 Pandemic Spending in this Report.”
Additionally, please consider the following:
 Programs included here are not social insurance. That term refers to programs
intended to insure Americans against the loss of wages and work-related benefits
due to retirement, disability, or temporary unemployment (e.g., Social Security,
Medicare, Unemployment Insurance). Social insurance benefits are generally
entitlements earned through work.
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Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

 Programs in this report cannot be collectively characterized as welfare. Welfare is
typically thought of as government assistance to help poor people pay for
necessities. As defined in this report, low-income programs are much broader,
and include in-kind benefits and activities such as education, social services, and
community development, among others.
 This report is not limited to needs-tested programs. Needs-tested programs are
those that require an individual or family to meet a test of low income and/or
financial resources to qualify for benefits. This report includes programs without
such restrictions.
 Low income does not necessarily mean poor, as the federal government officially
defines that term. Programs in this report use a variety of criteria to determine
eligibility, including multiples of the official federal poverty guidelines and other
measures altogether. At the same time, to be included in this report a program
must have a low-income focus. For example, the refundable tax credit and cost-
sharing subsidies that help pay health insurance premiums under the Patient
Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA, P.L. 111-148 as amended) are not
included in the report, as their benefits begin at 100% of the federal poverty
level.
 While this report discusses trends in federal spending, a significant amount of
nonfederal spending (primarily state and local) is also associated with some of
the programs included here. Thus, amounts discussed in the report do not reflect
all public spending for low-income programs.
 The budgetary amounts listed in the report are generally intended to capture the
amounts for program benefits and services. In some cases, it was not possible to
separate benefits funding from funding that pays administrative costs for the
program, in which case the funding listed for the program also captures at least
some administrative costs. However, in other cases administrative costs were not
included.
 New obligations incurred in the indicated fiscal year were chosen as the measure
of spending for this report, although for many programs readers may be more
accustomed to seeing appropriations (budget authority) or outlays. These
spending concepts are related. Congress and the President enact budget authority
through appropriations measures or authorizing laws. Budget authority in turn
allows federal agencies to incur obligations, through actions such as entering into
contracts, employing personnel, and submitting purchase orders. Outlays
represent the actual payment of these obligations. Obligations are used in this
report because they are the most consistent measure available at the necessary
level of detail for the majority of programs.
 Most of the spending amounts presented in this report are based on program-level
obligations found in the Budget of the United States. Some exceptions, where
obligations either were not available or not appropriate for a small number of
programs, are noted in CRS Report R44574.1 (See also the notes accompanying

1 For example, the President’s Budget Appendix does not show obligations solely for the low-income subsidy portion
of the Medicare Part D prescription drug program. Therefore, this report uses aggregate reimbursements for the low-
income subsidy for the calendar year (instead of the fiscal year), available from the annual report of the Medicare
trustees. The annual figures for the low-income subsidy portion of the Medicare Part D prescription drug benefit and
other programs included in this CRS report are based on the most recent information available and may differ from the
annual figures reported in past reports in this series.
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Table 2 of this report for information on cases in which the source or calculation
for spending on a particular program or activity has changed since the publication
of CRS Report R44574.)
 Unless otherwise noted, all spending amounts cited in this report are nominal
dollars and not adjusted for inflation.
A Note on COVID-19 Pandemic Spending in this Report

While this report primarily covers programs included in previous reports, given broad congressional interest,
an exception was made for new programs established as part of the legislative response to the COVID-19
pandemic that otherwise met the report’s criteria for inclusion. CRS identified three programs established in
response to the pandemic that met the report series’s criteria in FY2020: the Pandemic Electronic Benefit
Transfer (P-EBT), Child Nutrition Programs—Supplemental Funding, and Farmers to Families Food Box.2 The
report does not include programs that were made broadly available rather than being targeted to households
with low income (e.g., the economic impact payments, sometimes referred to as recovery rebates, stimulus
payments, or stimulus checks).3 Other newly established programs such as Emergency Rental Assistance did
not report any obligations in FY2020 but may be included in future reports in this series once such
obligations occur.4

Spending on the pandemic was not limited to the three programs newly established in FY2020. Many of the
existing programs in this report saw increases in FY2020 spending due to automatic or legislated responses
to the pandemic and the associated economic downturn. Due to data limitations, such spending is not broken
out separately.
Trends in Federal Spending on Benefits and
Services for People with Low Income
Figure 1 shows the trend in federal spending in nominal terms on benefits and services for people
with low income for FY2008 through FY2020. The early portion, FY2008 through FY2011,
represents a period of time where spending increased in large part because of automatic or
legislated responses to the recession of 2007 through 2009. The largest low-income assistance
programs are entitlements, and their spending increased automatically as more people became
eligible for their benefits as incomes fell due to the recession. Additionally, Congress and the
President responded to the recession with time-limited expansions or funding increases in some
of these programs in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5).
Total spending on these programs increased by 36% over this four-year period.
Federal spending on benefits and services for low-income people stabilized in FY2011 and
FY2012 as ARRA expired and other spending increases associated with the recession abated.
Beginning in FY2013, spending for these programs increased at a steady pace through FY2019.
Spending growth largely stemmed from increases in spending on health care for low-income
people in every year but FY2019, when growth was similar across health and non-health
programs. Total spending on the low-income programs increased by 32% over this seven-year
period.

2 For background on these programs, see CRS Report R46681, USDA Nutrition Assistance Programs: Response to the
COVID-19 Pandemic.
3 For background information, see CRS Report R46415, COVID-19 and Direct Payments: Resources and Experts.
4 For background information, see CRS Report R46688, Pandemic Relief: The Emergency Rental Assistance Program.
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Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

In FY2020, federal spending on benefits and services for people with low income significantly
increased as a result of automatic changes in entitlement programs and actions taken by Congress
and the President in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated economic
downturn.5 The federal government spent an estimated $1.078 trillion on benefits and services for
people with low income in FY2020. This was an increase of 13% compared to FY2019, which
was higher than the rate of economic growth (-1%) or the rate of inflation (1%) during FY2020.6
Nominal spending was 92% higher in FY2020 than in FY2008, greater than the increase in
nominal Gross Domestic Product (42%) or price inflation (20%) over this period.
Figure 1. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income,
FY2008-FY2020

Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget
documents for President’s budget submissions, FY2010 through FY2022.
Notes: For details on methodology, see report text.
Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for Low-
Income People by Category
CRS’s series of reports on benefits and services for low-income people divides spending for the
programs into eight categories:
 health care,
 cash aid,
 food aid,
 housing and development,

5 For more information, see CRS Report R46474, Laws Enacted in Response to COVID-19: Resources for
Congressional Offices.
6 The rate of inflation used here is the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) price index. The rate of economic growth is the
growth in the GDP in nominal terms, because the spending increase was not adjusted for price inflation. Both of these
figures are drawn from the July 2021 Historical Data and Economic Projections published by the Congressional Budget
Office, and reflect changes over the period of a federal fiscal year rather than a calendar year.
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 education,
 social services,
 employment and training, and
 energy assistance.
Table 1 shows federal spending for the programs by category for FY2008 through FY2020. The
categories are sorted by the amount of their spending in FY2020, with the largest (health care)
first and the smallest (energy aid) last. Health care represents more than half of total spending for
the programs in FY2020 and more than three times the amount of the next largest category, cash
aid. The two smallest categories are employment and training programs and energy assistance.
The largest increases in nominal spending over this 13-year period in both absolute dollar and
percentage terms occurred in the categories of health care (134%) and food aid (125%). Cash aid
grew by 36%, the majority of which is attributable to the refundable tax credits (the Earned
Income Tax Credit [EITC] and Child Tax Credit [CTC]).
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Table 1. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income, by Category, FY2008-FY2020
Percentage
Change
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
(2008-2020)

Health Care
$259.2
$318.8
$347.0
$352.2
$328.1
$344.0
$389.2
$444.2
$467.6
$495.7
$518.1
$536.4
$606.7
134%
Cash Aid
116.4
129.6
145.3
149.1
142.4
150.3
155.3
154.6
158.8
152.6
145.6
161.1
158.8
36%
Food Aid
58.9
77.6
93.9
101.4
104.8
107.1
102.0
103.1
100.7
97.8
96.7
91.3
132.2
125%
Housing and
39.7
60.0
51.8
46.2
44.0
41.4
45.1
44.6
46.3
45.8
53.5
54.5
61.1
54%
Development
Education
41.9
58.2
58.6
66.5
58.6
55.1
53.7
52.2
53.7
53.5
52.2
55.6
54.0
29%
Social Services
36.0
43.9
39.7
37.0
36.7
36.7
38.1
38.4
39.7
40.8
43.3
44.7
52.4
45%
Employment and
6.2
8.6
7.7
6.5
6.1
6.0
6.5
7.0
6.8
7.9
7.4
7.5
7.8
26%
Training
Energy Assistance
2.9
10.3
5.6
4.9
3.6
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.6
3.7
3.9
4.0
5.0
74%
Total
561.2
707.2
749.7
763.7
724.3
744.1
793.6
847.8
877.3
897.8
920.8
955.1 1,078.0
92%
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget documents for President’s budget submissions, FY2010
through FY2022.
Notes: Amounts are in bil ions of dol ars. Totals may not sum due to rounding. For details on methodology, see report text.
CRS-6

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Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

Figure 2 breaks out total federal spending on benefits and services for people with low income
into two groups: health programs and all other programs. As shown in the figure, the increase in
nominal spending in the earlier portion of the period (affected by recession-related spending)
stemmed from increases in both health and other program spending. However, beginning in
FY2013 and continuing through FY2018, the increase is attributable to higher spending on health
care. Much of the increase in health spending is from the Medicaid program and, since FY2014,
reflects increases in spending due to the ACA Medicaid expansion.7 Spending on health care and
all other programs grew at similar rates in FY2019 (a smaller increase) and FY2020 (a larger
increase).
Figure 2. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income,
Health and Non-health, FY2008-FY2020

Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget
documents for President’s budget submissions, FY2010 through FY2022.
Note: For details on methodology, see report text.
Mandatory and Discretionary Spending
The largest programs providing benefits and services to low-income people are mandatory
spending programs. These are programs where spending is controlled by the terms of their
authorizing laws—such as entitlements either to individuals or states—rather than the annual
appropriation process. Discretionary spending is determined through annual appropriations.
Figure 3 shows federal spending in FY2020 on benefits and services for people with low income
by category and budget classification (mandatory, discretionary, or some programs have spending
classified as both). The largest categories (health, cash aid, and food aid) are dominated by
mandatory spending. Housing is almost entirely discretionary spending, determined through
annual appropriations. Education is split between discretionary spending and the Pell Grant
program, which has both mandatory and discretionary components. Social services and

7 See CRS In Focus IF10399, Overview of the ACA Medicaid Expansion. The major factors other than the Patient
Protection and Affordable Care Act’s (ACA, P.L. 111-148 as amended) Medicaid expansion affecting health
expenditures and Medicaid spending are population growth, changes in the use of health care services, and changes in
the prices of health care services. See Office of the Actuary, Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, United
States Department of Health and Human Services, 2018 Actuarial Report on the Financial Outlook for Medicaid, 2020,
pp. 9-10.
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Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

employment and training have a mix of mandatory spending (much of it coming from the broad-
based Temporary Assistance for Needy Families [TANF] block grant) and discretionary funding.
Energy assistance is entirely discretionary.
Of the estimated $1.078 trillion spent by the federal government on benefits and services for
people with low income in FY2020, $869.3 billion (81%) was spent on programs or activities
receiving only mandatory funding and $166.3 billion (15%) was spent on programs or activities
receiving only discretionary funding. The remaining $42.3 billion (4%) of spending occurred in
programs receiving both mandatory and discretionary funding.8 Health care is a major source of
mandatory spending: 94% of all health care spending discussed in this report was mandatory
spending in FY2020.
Since FY2013, certain mandatory spending programs have been subject to sequestration, an
across-the-board spending reduction process designed to achieve deficit reduction targets.9
Discretionary spending programs were subject to sequestration in FY2013 only. The numbers in
this report are post-sequester (i.e., they reflect reductions due to sequestration).
Figure 3. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income, by
Budget Classification, FY2020

Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget
documents for the President’s budget submission, FY2022.
Note: For details on methodology, see report text.
Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for Low-
Income People by Program
Table 2 shows spending for federal benefits and services to low-income persons by program for
FY2008 to FY2020. The programs were classified into the eight categories of spending noted

8 Totals may not sum due to rounding. Due to data limitations, CRS cannot separate obligations for these programs into
mandatory and discretionary components.
9 Under current law (as amended by the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act [CARES Act; P.L. 116-
136]), sequestration of non-exempt mandatory spending programs is to occur in each fiscal year between FY2013-
FY2030. For more information, see CRS Report R44874, The Budget Control Act: Frequently Asked Questions.
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above, and are ranked within each category by FY2020 spending. (Programs without spending
that exceeded the $100 million reporting threshold in FY2020 are ranked at the bottom of their
category. In categories with more than one such program, the programs listed as having $0 in
spending in FY2020 are ranked by the most recent year for which spending above $100 million
was recorded and the amount of that spending.)
In many categories, spending is dominated by a few large programs. For example, in FY2020,
Medicaid accounted for 86% of health care spending, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) and
two refundable tax credits for low-income workers (the refundable portions of the EITC and
CTC), accounted for 94% of all cash aid, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
accounted for 60% of all food aid, and Pell Grants plus aid to school districts with large shares of
disadvantaged children accounted for 80% of all education aid.
Overall, four programs accounted for 67% of low-income spending in FY2020 and ten programs
comprised 81%.10 Medicaid alone represented 48% of the total. The remaining top four programs
(in descending size based on FY2020 spending) and their shares of total spending included 7%
for SNAP, 6% for SSI, and 5% for the refundable portion of the EITC.
Most programs had spending that was classified in a single category. The exceptions are TANF
and SNAP. TANF is best known as a program that provides cash assistance to needy families with
children, but states use this broad-purpose block grant to fund other services as well. TANF
spending was distributed across the cash aid, social services, and employment and training
categories. TANF cash aid accounted for $5.4 billion in federal spending on cash aid in FY2020,
making it the fourth-largest cash program and representative of 3% of cash spending. TANF
social services accounted for the $8.9 billion in federal spending on social services, making it the
third-largest social services program. The nearly $3.0 billion in TANF employment and training
expenditures made it the largest employment and training program. SNAP spending was divided
into its food assistance and its employment and training components. SNAP was the largest food
assistance program ($79.0 billion in food assistance in FY2020), but it also contributed $540
million in employment and training expenditures in FY2020.

10 For this calculation, the SNAP and TANF spending that is divided across categories in Table 2 is aggregated to
generate spending totals for each program.
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Table 2. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for Low-Income People, by Program, FY2008-FY2020
(Dollars in millions)
Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Health Care
Medicaid
$214,015
$265,058
$290,461
$295,836
$270,914
$286,920
$329,019
$378,896
$398,217
$422,045
$441,392
$458,213 $519,007
Medicare Part D
18,100
19,600
21,100
22,200
22,500
23,200
24,300
25,600
26,400
27,300
28,500
29,700 33,100
Prescription
Drug Benefit—
Low-Income
Subsidy
State Children’s
6,360
9,534
10,717
8,740
9,362
9,357
10,111
11,353
14,069
15,966
17,489
17,605 18,559
Health Insurance
Program (CHIP)
Medical Care for
10,246
11,201
11,780
12,000
11,970
11,737
11,921
13,087
13,130
15,715
15,644
15,201 17,029
Veterans without
Service-
Connected
Disabilitya
Consolidated
2,021
3,665
3,049
3,295
3,384
2,882
3,587
4,701
5,040
5,188
5,562
5,691
7,666
Health Centers
Indian Health
4,347
5,416
5,668
5,544
5,729
5,661
5,910
6,074
5,207
5,398
5,711
5,894
7,007
Service
Ryan White
2,141
2,227
2,286
2,310
2,367
2,220
2,290
2,318
2,266
2,339
2,355
2,332
2,503
HIV/AIDS
Program
Maternal and
666
662
661
656
639
605
632
637
637
640
650
675
688
Child Health
Block Grantb
Transitional Cash
296
282
353
353
323
401
391
383
532
490
245
354
326
and Medical
Services for
Refugees
CRS-10

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Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
State Grants and
556
625
418
758
416
534
524
680
1559
111
0
185
291
Demonstrations
Family Planning
300
307
316
298
294
278
286
286
286
286
286
285
286
Breast/Cervical
201
206
210
206
213
197
207
207
210
210
218
218
245
Cancer Early
Detection
Total Health
259,249
318,783
347,019
352,196
328,111
343,992
389,178
444,222
467,553
495,688
518,052
536,353 606,707
Care
Cash Aid
Supplemental
48,926
52,446
54,463
59,854
53,773
59,756
62,159
62,055
66,751
62,544
57,934
62,687 63,302
Security Income
(SSI)
Earned Income
40,600
42,418
54,712
55,652
54,890
57,513
60,087
60,084
60,580
59,749
58,640
59,209 57,577
Tax Credit
(EITC)
(refundable
component)
Additional Child
16,690
24,284
22,659
22,691
22,106
21,608
21,490
20,592
20,188
19,408
18,597
28,898 27,779
Tax Credit
(refundable
portion)
Temporary
6,364
6,341
9,118
6,594
6,737
6,263
6,340
6,404
5,856
5,562
5,247
5,393
5,394
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF)c
Pensions for
3,777
4,134
4,345
4,294
4,892
5,195
5,258
5,497
5,468
5,386
5,230
4,910
4,761
Needy Veterans
Total Cash Aid
116,357
129,623
145,297
149,085
142,398
150,335
155,334
154,632
158,843
152,649
145,648
161,097 158,813
CRS-11

Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Food Aid
Supplemental
37,179
53,396
68,192
74,943
77,828
79,365
73,721
73,615
70,406
67,545
66,111
59,919 78,971
Nutrition
Assistance
Program (SNAP)
Pandemic
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 12,647
Electronic Benefit
Transfer (P-EBT)
National School
7,863
8,498
9,462
9,831
9,984
10,549
10,801
11,515
11,777
11,830
12,270
12,429
8,206
Lunch Program
(free/reduced
price
components)
Child Nutrition
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
7,038
Programs—
Supplemental
Funding
Special
6,400
7,028
7,245
7,300
7,168
6,945
7,019
6,774
6,864
6,665
6,039
5,906
5,959
Supplemental
Nutrition
Program for
Women, Infants
and Children
(WIC)
Summer Food
312
356
374
377
400
437
464
517
540
506
512
485
4,165
Service Program
Farmers to
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3,907
Families Food
Box
School Breakfast
2,307
2,513
2,811
2,987
3,256
3,514
3,618
3,956
4,135
4,278
4,531
4,539
3,290
Program
(free/reduced
price
components)
CRS-12

link to page 25
Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Child and Adult
2,029
2,217
2,358
2,499
2,616
2,799
2,920
3,154
3,259
3,450
3,550
3,549
2,620
Care Food
Program (lower-
income
components)
Nutrition
1,623
2,000
2,000
2,001
2,000
2,001
1,903
1,951
1,959
1,949
1,919
2,523
2,235
Assistance for
Puerto Rico
Nutrition
756
905
817
820
814
765
807
812
834
833
895
906
1,657
Program for the
Elderlyd
The Emergency
240
425
359
298
309
312
318
370
374
245
350
403
852
Food Assistance
Program (TEFAP)
Commodity
141
165
183
196
189
187
180
198
223
206
246
303
245
Supplemental
Food Program
Food
0
119
114
0
103
100
119
143
145
145
145
140
188
Distribution
Program on
Indian
Reservations
(FDPIR)
Fresh Fruit and
0
0
0
115
157
165
166
139
167
184
175
172
182
Vegetable
Program
Total Food Aid
58,850
77,622
93,915
101,367
104,824
107,139
102,036
103,144
100,683
97,836
96,743
91,274 132,162
Housing
Section 8
15,552
16,289
18,071
18,510
18,316
17,897
19,181
19,333
19,634
20,313
21,698
22,640 25,166
Housing Choice
Vouchers
CRS-13

Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Section 8
7,004
9,390
8,991
9,444
9,311
8,818
9,870
9,810
10,680
11,108
11,623
11,962 13,509
Project-Based
Rental Assistance
Public Housing
6,894
10,843
7,360
6,999
5,847
5,954
6,383
6,421
5,954
5,930
7,680
7,721
7,721
Community
3,645
4,733
3,956
3,341
3,245
2,971
3,213
2,664
3,193
1,990
3,989
3,977
4,586
Development
Block Grants
Homeless
1,538
2,861
1,813
1,888
2,079
2,086
1,957
2,109
2,137
2,218
2,487
2,597
4,206
Assistance
Grants
Rural Rental
479
902
979
954
905
837
1110
1,088
1,390
1,365
1,345
1,331
1,375
Assistance
Program
Home
1,647
1,911
1,857
1,485
1,208
919
1023
848
961
572
1,486
1,513
1,133
Investment
Partnerships
Program
(HOME)
Indian Housing
556
1,149
762
663
691
627
665
653
670
652
684
663
1,056
Block Grants
Water and
685
1,370
1,443
648
583
524
685
604
622
672
1,084
772
885
Waste Disposal
for Rural
Communities
Supportive
778
800
580
509
1,056
389
362
456
437
535
626
639
774
Housing for the
Elderly
Housing
310
318
314
352
352
302
349
290
342
163
494
438
362
Opportunities
for Persons with
AIDS (HOPWA)
CRS-14

Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Supportive
256
284
216
149
243
102
209
207
189
149
155
163
175
Housing for
Persons with
Disabilities
Public Works
170
285
149
115
129
0
133
101
111
121
138
125
124
and Economic
Development
Neighborhood
0
3,920
1,980
969
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Stabilization
Program-1 (NSP-
1)
Grants to States
0
2,465
3,083
160
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
for Low-Income
Housing in Lieu
of Low-Income
Housing Credit
Allocations
Single-Family
178
279
277
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Rural Housing
Loans
Tax Credit
0
2,250
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Assistance
Program
Total Housing
39,692
60,049
51,831
46,186
43,965
41,426
45,140
44,584
46,320
45,788
53,489
54,541 61,072
Education
Federal Pell
18,000
26,019
32,905
41,458
34,308
31,887
29,808
28,153
29,106
28,565
26,514
29,666 27,045
Grants
Education for the
13,352
21,495
14,526
14,472
14,490
13,757
14,383
14,410
14,893
15,474
15,758
15,857 16,313
Disadvantaged—
Grants to Local
Educational
Agencies (Title I-
A)
CRS-15

Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Improving
2,946
2,687
2,955
2,460
2,450
2,334
2,341
2,370
2,325
2,117
2,050
2,046
2,128
Teacher Quality
State Grants
21st Century
1,082
1,127
1,166
1,157
1,150
1,091
1,146
1,149
1,163
1,191
1,210
1,224
1,246
Community
Learning Centers
Federal Work-
989
1,156
995
986
986
934
978
990
990
990
1,130
1,130
1,129
Study
Federal TRIO
885
905
910
883
840
796
838
840
900
950
1,010
1,060
1,090
Programs
Indian Education
684
699
784
753
803
766
747
808
835
856
914
936
1,084
Higher
755
801
764
833
816
780
792
777
818
825
906
903
993
Education—
Institutional Aid
and Developing
Institutions
Federal
759
760
759
740
738
698
736
733
733
733
840
840
865
Supplemental
Educational
Opportunity
Grant
Adult Basic
569
585
641
607
606
576
575
593
597
589
634
670
671
Education Grants
to States
Title I Migrant
380
395
395
394
393
373
375
375
375
375
375
375
375
Education
Program
Gaining Early
303
313
323
303
302
286
302
302
323
340
350
360
365
Awareness and
Readiness for
Undergraduate
Programs
(GEAR-UP)
CRS-16

Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Preschool
0
0
0
497
133
370
250
250
250
250
248
249
270
Development
Grants
Rural Education
172
174
175
175
179
170
170
170
176
177
181
180
186
Achievement
Program
Indian Education
0
0
104
104
106
100
100
100
100
100
105
105
106
Grants to Local
Educational
Agencies
Education for
0
135
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
102
Homeless
Children and
Youth
Mathematics and
182
176
180
179
148
141
150
152
153
0
0
0
0
Science
Partnerships
Col ege Access
0
0
145
150
128
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Challenge Grants
Academic
297
690
918
350
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Competitiveness
and SMART
Grant Program
Reading First and
560
129
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Early Reading
First
Total Education
41,915
58,246
58,645
66,501
58,576
55,059
53,691
52,172
53,737
53,532
52,225
55,601 53,968
Social Services
Child Care and
4,979
7,034
5,083
5,152
5,218
5,140
5,288
5,379
5,712
5,798
8,178
8,219 12,308
Development
Fund
Head Start
6,877
9,077
8,757
7,559
7,968
7,573
8,105
8,717
9,119
9,554
9,556
10,438 11,529
CRS-17

link to page 25 link to page 25 link to page 25 link to page 25
Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Temporary
9,411
10,594
9,837
8,828
8,913
9,491
9,295
8,742
8,939
8,786
9,037
8,909
8,918
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF)c
Foster Care
4,525
4,705
4,603
4,456
4,180
4,133
4,746
4,669
4,815
5,363
5,054
5,231
5,354
Child Support
4,585
4,719
5,044
4,671
4,179
4,278
4,324
4,347
4,379
4,454
4,429
4,607
4,993
Enforcement
Adoption
2,038
2,324
2,438
2,362
2,296
2,278
2,450
2,473
2,587
2,706
2,785
2,993
3,385
Assistance
Community
654
1,692
708
678
677
635
667
674
715
707
715
717
1,701
Services Block
Grant
Social Services
1,700
2,300
1,700
1,700
1,700
1,613
1,577
1,576
1,584
1,583
1,588
1,594
1,600
Block Grant
Older Americans
351
361
368
369
367
348
348
348
348
349
384
385
590
Act Grants for
Supportive
Services and
Senior Centersd
Legal Services
351
392
422
406
351
343
368
378
387
387
427
435
493
Corporation
Maternal, Infant,
0
0
100
250
344
378
394
430
391
408
411
402
400
and Early
Childhood Home
Visiting Program
Emergency Food
153
300
200
121
120
114
120
120
120
120
120
120
325
and Shelter
Programe
Older Americans
153
154
154
154
154
146
145
146
151
150
180
181
286
Act National
Family Caregiver
Support
Programc
CRS-18

link to page 25 link to page 25 link to page 25
Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Guardianship
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
101
120
145
155
189
219
Indian Human
118
115
118
115
110
100
135
150
145
147
150
161
149
Services
Chafee Foster
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
140
142
143
Care
Independence
Program
Total Social
36,035
43,907
39,672
36,961
36,717
36,710
38,102
38,390
39,652
40,797
43,309
44,722 52,393
Services
Employment and Training
Temporary
1,694
1,826
2,682
1,845
1,683
1,579
1,696
2,255
2,510
2,922
2,984
2,963
2,962
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF)c
Job Corps
1,558
1,804
1,713
1,777
1,735
1,718
1,984
1,751
1,552
1,773
1,492
1,597
1,769
Workforce
984
2,218
994
946
902
856
898
906
875
1,033
946
1,001
1,003
Innovation and
Opportunity Act
(WIOA) Youth
Activitiesf
Workforce
827
1,357
862
766
773
731
766
775
813
813
843
846
855
Innovation and
Opportunity Act
(WIOA) Adult
Activitiesf
Supplemental
351
367
344
354
334
368
400
630
427
437
441
411
540
Nutrition
Assistance
Program (SNAP)
CRS-19

link to page 25
Program
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
Community
504
708
820
454
448
429
440
384
321
570
404
404
362
Service
Employment for
Older Americans
Refugee Support
203
203
203
202
152
198
198
198
223
203
202
207
235
Servicesg
Foster
109
109
111
111
111
105
108
108
108
108
108
111
119
Grandparents
Total
6,230
8,592
7,729
6,455
6,138
5,984
6,490
7,007
6,829
7,859
7,420
7,540 7,845
Employment
and Training
Energy Assistance
Low-Income
2,590
5,100
5,100
4,701
3,472
3,255
3,401
3,395
3,372
3,394
3,641
3,653
4,641
Home Energy
Assistance
Program
(LIHEAP)
Weatherization
291
5,240
517
234
126
182
234
255
270
287
301
341
374
Assistance
Program
Total Energy
2,881
10,340
5,617
4,935
3,598
3,437
3,635
3,650
3,642
3,681
3,942
3,994 5,015
Assistance
Totals
561,209
707,162
749,725
763,686
724,327
744,082
793,606
847,801
877,259
897,830
920,828
955,122 1,077,975
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from information contained in federal budget documents for President’s budget submissions, FY2010
through FY2022.
Notes: Sources and methods used for numbers in this report are consistent with past reports in this series (see report text for more details), with limited exceptions
noted below. This report displays obligations of less than $100 mil ion in a given fiscal year or no obligations (e.g., due to the program not yet being authorized or not
being funded at all for a given fiscal year) as $0, and does not include obligations from those years in aggregate spending totals. Totals may not sum due to rounding.
a. Between FY2008 and FY2016, the budget figures for the Medical Care for Veterans without Service-Connected Disability program were from expenditure data
provided by the Department of Veterans Affairs to CRS. Since FY2017, the budget figures are obligations listed in publically available agency budget documents.
CRS-20

b. Between FY2008 and FY2016, the budget figures for the Maternal and Child Health Block Grant were obligation data from the President’s budget appendixes.
Because obligation data are no longer available at this level of detail in source documents, the budget figures since FY2017 are budget authority from publicly
available Health Resources and Services Administration budget documents.
c. Total TANF obligations in FY2020 are sourced from the appendix to the FY2022 President’s budget and allocated between the categories of cash aid, social services,
and employment and training according to CRS analysis of TANF financial data on expenditures by spending category for FY2019 published by the Office of Family
Assistance.
d. Between FY2008 and FY2016, the budget figures for the Nutrition Program for the Elderly, Older Americans Act Grants for Supportive Services and Senior
Centers, and Older Americans Act National Family Caregiver Support Program were obligation data from the President’s budget appendixes. Because obligation
data are no longer available at this level of detail in source documents, the budget figures since FY2017 are budget authority from publicly available Administration
for Community Living budget documents.
e. Between FY2008 and FY2016, the budget figures for the Emergency Food and Shelter program were obligation data from the President’s budget appendixes.
Because obligation data are no longer available at this level of detail in source documents, the budget figures since FY2017 are budget authority from publicly
available Federal Emergency Management Agency budget documents.
f.
The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA; P.L. 113-128) was enacted in 2014, succeeding the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (P.L. 105-220).
g. Prior to FY2018, the figure for Refugee Support Services (labeled as “Social Services and Targeted Assistance for Refugees” in previous reports in this series) was a
combination of Refugee Social Services and Refugee Targeted Assistance Grants. However, in FY2018 the enacted appropriation combined these activities with the
Preventative Health program into a single budget line. Thus, the budget figures since FY2018 include this additional activity.
CRS-21

Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2020

Author Information

Patrick A. Landers
Gene Falk
Analyst in Social Policy
Specialist in Social Policy

Karen E. Lynch
Conor F. Boyle
Specialist in Social Policy
Analyst in Social Policy

Jessica Tollestrup

Specialist in Social Policy

Acknowledgments
Karen Spar, former CRS Specialist in Domestic Social Policy and Division Research Coordinator,
produced earlier reports in this series and was instrumental in developing the methods underlying the
current report. Amber Wilhelm, CRS Visual Information Specialist, designed the graphics in this report.

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
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its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
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copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service
R46986 · VERSION 1 · NEW
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