National Monuments and the Antiquities Act
Updated August 27, 2021
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R41330

National Monuments and the Antiquities Act

Summary
The Antiquities Act of 1906 (54 U.S.C. §§320301-320303) authorizes the President to proclaim
national monuments on federal lands that contain historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric
structures, or other objects of historic or scientific interest. The President is to reserve “the
smal est area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be protected.”
The act was designed to protect federal lands and resources quickly. Presidents have proclaimed a
total of 158 monuments, and also have enlarged, diminished, and changed the terms of
monuments previously proclaimed by Presidents. Congress has modified many of these
proclamations and has abolished some monuments. Congress also has created monuments under
its own authority.
Presidential establishment of monuments sometimes has been contentious—for example,
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s creation of the Jackson Hole National Monument in Wyoming
(1943) and President Clinton’s establishment of 19 monuments and expansion of 3 others
(1996-2001). Debate over the President’s authority to establish and modify national monuments
has continued in light of more recent presidential actions. These actions include President
Obama’s designation of 29 new monuments and enlargement of 5 others; President Trump’s
designation of 1 monument, reduction in size and modification of management terms of 2
monuments, and modification (only) of management terms of one monument; and President
Biden’s review of monument changes made by President Trump.
Various issues regarding presidential y designated monuments have generated controversy,
lawsuits, statutory changes, and legislative proposals to limit the President’s authority. Some
concerns have centered on the extent of the President’s authority to establish and modify
monuments, the size of the areas, the types of protected resources and the level of threats to these
resources, the inclusion of nonfederal lands within monument boundaries, the selection of the
managing agency, restrictions on land uses that may result, and the manner in which the
monuments were created.
Most monument advocates favor the Antiquities Act in its present form. They believe that the act
serves an important purpose in preserving resources for future generations and that the President
needs continued authority to act promptly to protect valuable resources on federal lands from
potential threats. They assert that the public has supported and courts have upheld designations by
the President and that many past presidential designations that initial y were controversial have
come to be supported.
Given the recurring controversies over presidential monument proclamations, Congress has
evaluated whether to abolish, limit, or retain unchanged the President’s authority under the
Antiquities Act. During recent Congresses, measures were considered to impose restrictions on
presidential authority, including to limit the designation of monuments in particular locations and
promote presidential creation of monuments in accordance with certain federal land management,
public participation, and environmental laws. Other measures sought to change land uses within
monuments or alter monument boundaries. Among other bil s, some proposals would have barred
the President from reducing or abolishing national monuments or increased funds for
presidential y proclaimed monuments.
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Introduction
The Antiquities Act of 1906 authorizes the President to proclaim national monuments on federal
lands that contain “historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of
historic or scientific interest.”1 The President is to reserve “the smal est area compatible with the
proper care and management of the objects to be protected.”2 Congress subsequently limited the
President’s authority by requiring congressional authorization for extensions or establishment of
monuments in Wyoming,3 and by making withdrawals in Alaska exceeding 5,000 acres subject to
congressional approval.4
The Antiquities Act was a response to concerns over theft from and destruction of archaeological
sites and was designed to provide an expeditious means to protect federal lands and resources.
President Theodore Roosevelt used the authority in 1906 to establish Devils Tower in Wyoming
as the first national monument. Seventeen of the 21 Presidents since 1906 created 158
monuments,5 including the Grand Canyon, Grand Teton, Zion, Olympic, Statue of Liberty, and
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal.6 President Franklin D. Roosevelt used his authority the most often
(36 times),7 and President Obama proclaimed the most monument acreage (about 554 mil ion,
primarily in two expanded marine monuments).8 For a comparison of President Obama’s and
President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s use of the monument authority, see Appendix A. For
information on the use of the authority by al Presidents since 1906, see Appendix B.
Monument Issues and Controversies
Presidential establishment of national monuments under the Antiquities Act of 1906 has protected
sites with historic and scientific values, but also has been contentious. Various issues regarding
presidential y created monuments have generated controversy, lawsuits, statutory changes, and
legislative proposals to limit the President’s authority. Concerns have centered on the extent of
the President’s authority to establish and modify monuments, the size of the areas, the types of
protected resources and the level of threats to the areas, the inclusion of nonfederal lands within
monument boundaries, and the selection of the managing agency. Another issue has been

1 T he text of the law had been codified at 16 U.S.C. §§431-433. It was recodified pursuant to P.L. 113-287 to 54 U.S.C.
§§320301-320303.
2 54 U.S.C. §320301.
3 54 U.S.C. §320301(d).
4 16 U.S.C. §3213. A withdrawal is an action that restricts the use or disposition of public lands.
5 Since 1906, the Presidents who have not used this authority are Richard M. Nixon, Ronald Reagan, George H. W.
Bush, and Joseph R. Biden, Jr. Monuments created by Presidents from 1906 are listed chronologically on the website of
the National Park Service at https://www.nps.gov/archeology/sites/antiquities/MonumentsList.htm. The information
includes the President that proclaimed the monument and the size of the monument. T he list also denotes when
Presidents have issued proclamations affecting previously designated monuments, for instance to enlarge or diminish
them, and when Congress has enacted related legislation, such as to redesignate them (e.g., as national parks) .
6 Some of these monuments were established under other names or have since been redesignated as other types of
protected areas.
7 T he 36 monument proclamations included the establishment of 11 monuments, enlargement of 20 monuments,
diminishment of 4 monuments, and modification of restrictions in 1 monument.
8 In 2014, President Obama expanded the Pacific Remote Islands Marine Natio nal Monument by approximately 261.3
million acres. In 2016, President Obama expanded the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument by
approximately 283.4 million acres. T hus, the two areas contain about 545 million acres of the 554 million acres
proclaimed by President Obama.
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restrictions that may result on land uses, both extractive (e.g., mining) and recreational (e.g., off-
road vehicle use). Stil another focus is the manner in which the monuments were created. This
includes the lack of a requirement for state or congressional approval prior to presidential
monument proclamations, and a perceived lack of consistency between the Antiquities Act and
the policies established in other laws pertaining to land withdrawals, environmental reviews, and
public participation.
Most monument advocates favor the Antiquities Act in its present form. They believe that the act
serves an important purpose in preserving resources for future generations. They maintain that
Presidents of both parties have used the authority for over a century to protect valuable federal
lands and resources expeditiously, and they defend the President’s ability to take prompt action to
protect resources that may be vulnerable to looting, vandalism, commercial development, and
other permanent changes.9 They contend that significant segments of the public support
monument designations for the protections they afford and the recreational, preservation, and
economic benefits that such designations sometimes bring. They further assert that previous
Congresses that focused on this issue were correct in not repealing the Antiquities Act, and that
courts have supported presidential actions.
Litigation and legislation related to the law have been pursued throughout its history. To give one
historical example, displeasure with President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s proclaiming of the Jackson
Hole National Monument in Wyoming in 1943 (which became Grand Teton National Park)
prompted litigation on the extent of presidential authority under the Antiquities Act, and led to a
1950 law prohibiting future establishment of national monuments in Wyoming unless Congress
made the designation.10 As another example, President Carter’s establishment of monuments in
Alaska in 1978 also was chal enged in the courts and led to a statutory requirement for
congressional approval of land withdrawals in Alaska larger than 5,000 acres.11 President
Clinton’s proclamation of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in 1996 triggered
several lawsuits, a law authorizing land exchanges,12 a law altering the borders of the
monument,13 and proposals to amend or revoke presidential authority under the Antiquities Act.14
Initial opposition to some monument designations has turned to support over time. Some
controversial monuments later were redesignated as national parks by Congress and today are
general y considered popular parks with substantial economic benefit to the surrounding

9 Relatedly, under 43 U.S.C. §1714(e), the Secretary of the Interior has authority to make emergency withdrawals of
federal lands, which are effective when made but which cannot generally exceed three years. T he lands return to their
original designation unless permanent action is taken. Also, the Secretary of the Interior is authorized to make
emergency withdrawals of federal lands not under Department of the Interior jurisdiction without the consent of the
managing agency. 43 U.S.C. §1714(i).
10 54 U.S.C. §320301(d).
11 T his provision was enacted as part of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of 1980 (ANILCA), P.L.
96-487; see 16 U.S.C. §3213.
12 P.L. 105-335.
13 P.L. 105-355.
14 For instance, legislative proposals in the 104th Congress (1995-1996) included H.R. 4118, H.R. 4214, H.R. 4242, and
S. 2150. More recently, President T rump reduced the size of the monument and altered the terms of its management.
See “ Presidential Proclamation Modifying the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument ,” December 4, 2017, at
https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-modifying-grand-staircase-
escalante-national-monument/.

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communities. For instance, the Grand Canyon National Monument, proclaimed in 1908 and the
subject of a legal chal enge, is now a world-famous national park.
The more recent application of national monument authority by President Obama and President
Trump, and review of certain national monuments by President Biden, has continued to foster
debate among some Members of Congress, state and local officials, user groups, and others.
President Obama issued 34 monument proclamations, including designation of 29 new
monuments and enlargement of 5 existing monuments. President Trump issued four monument
proclamations, including one to designate a monument, two to reduce monument sizes and alter
their management, and one to alter a monument’s management. The actions of both Presidents led
to lawsuits chal enging the authority of the President and appeared to spur legislative proposals to
limit the President’s authority to create monuments, establish a process for input into monument
decisions, and legislatively-establish national monuments, among other measures. The Biden
Administration issued an executive order cal ing for a review of monument boundaries and
management conditions of three monuments that were altered by President Trump.15
Modification of Monuments
The Antiquities Act does not expressly authorize the President to modify or abolish national
monuments established by earlier presidential proclamation. This has contributed to uncertainty
and debate over the extent of the President’s authority in these areas, and scholars and others have
reached different conclusions.16
No President has abolished a national monument. In contrast, throughout the history of the
Antiquities Act, Presidents have modified national monuments established by earlier presidential
proclamation. Such modifications included enlargement and/or diminishment of monument
boundaries, by different amounts and percentages of the original monument acreage.17 As
examples, four Presidents enlarged the Muir Woods National Monument following its
establishment in 1908, and three Presidents diminished Mount Olympus National Monument
following its establishment in 1909.18

15 Executive Order 13990, “Protecting Public Health and the Environment and Resto ring Science to T ackle the Climate
Crisis,” 86 Federal Register 7037-7043, January 25, 2021. T he three monuments are the Grand Staircase-Escalante
National Monument, Bears Ears National Monument, and Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National
Monument . T he executive order directed the Secretary of the Interior to report to the President on the findings of the
review together with any recommendations. T he Secretary submitted the review. See, for example, Jennifer Yachnin,
“White House Mulls Interior Advice on Monuments,” Greenwire, June 4, 2021, at https://www.eenews.net/stories/
1063734225/. T he Biden Administration has not released the review or announced related actions thereon as of August
24, 2021.
16 In support of the President’s authority to abolish and modify previously proclaimed monuments, see for instance
John Yoo and T odd Gaziano, “Presidential Authority to Revoke or Reduce National Monument Designations,”
American Enterprise Institute, March 2017, at https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Presidential-Authority-
to-Revoke-or-Reduce-National-Monument-Designations.pdf. In opposition to the President’s authority to abolish or
modify national monuments, see for instance Pamela Baldwin, “Presidential Authority to Modify or Revoke National
Monuments,” September 17, 2017, at https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3095744.
17 See Appendix B for the number of instances in which each President enlarged or diminished national monuments.
For additional information on presidential enlargement or diminishment of national monuments from 1906 to October
2017, see T able 3, T able 4, and T able 5 in CRS Report R44988, Executive Order for Review of National Monum ents:
Background and Data, by Carol Hardy Vincent and Laura A. Hanson .
18 Mount Olympus National Monument was later redesignated by law as Olympic National Park.
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Monuments have been modified in ways other than in size.19 Presidents have changed the terms
and conditions of monument proclamations, although relatively infrequently. As an example, in
1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt modified the Katmai National Monument to make the
reservations in the earlier proclamations subject to valid existing “claims,” since maintained.20
More recently, President Trump modified management provisions of two Utah monuments—the
Bears Ears National Monument and the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument—and the
Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument. In general, monument
proclamations have become more detailed and specific over time, making the question of
potential changes to terms and conditions possibly more relevant. For instance, President
Obama’s 2016 proclamation establishing the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National
Monument contained several paragraphs of management provisions and a number of prohibited
and regulated activities. The prohibitions and regulations subsequently were modified by
President Trump.
Congress has authority to create, modify, and abolish national monuments on federal lands, and
has done so on numerous occasions under its constitutional authority to enact legislation
regarding federal lands.21 This authority is not defined or limited by the provisions of the
Antiquities Act. For instance, Congress could enact legislation to establish a national monument
with more land uses than are typical for national monuments created by the President, such as
al owing new commercial development, or with additional protections than are customary in
presidential monuments.
Congress has modified monuments, including those created by the President, for instance, by
changing their boundaries. Congress has abolished some monuments outright and converted
others into different protective designations, such as national parks.22 Approximately half of the
current national parks were first designated as national monuments.23
Monument Size
In establishing a national monument, the President is required by the Antiquities Act to reserve
“the smal est area compatible with the proper care and management of the objects to be
protected.”24 Monuments vary widely in size. While roughly half of the presidential monument
proclamations involved fewer than 5,000 acres, they have ranged from less than 1 acre to about
283 mil ion acres.25

19 For a list of proclamations affecting monuments in ways other than their size, from 1906 to October 2017, see T able
6 of CRS Report R44988, Executive Order for Review of National Monum ents: Background and Data, by Carol Hardy
Vincent and Laura A. Hanson.
20 Katmai National Monument was later redesignated by law as a Katmai National Park and Preserve.
21 U.S. Constitution, Article IV, Section 3: “T he Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules
and Regulations respecting the T erritory or other Property belonging to the United States.... ”
22 For example, the Fossil Cycad National Monument in South Dakota was abolished by an act of August 1, 1956, and
the area was transferred to the Bureau of Land Management to be administered under the public land laws. As another
example, the Papago Saguaro National Monument in Arizona was abolished by an act of April 7, 1930, and the area
was conveyed to the state of Arizona for park, recreational, and o ther public purposes.
23 Monuments established, modified, and abolished by Congress are listed on the website of the National Park Service,
under “Frequently Asked Questions,” at https://www.nps.gov/archeology/sites/antiquities/MonumentsList.htm.
24 54 U.S.C. §320301(b).
25 T he Stonewall National Monument , established by President Obama in New York, is 0.12 acres. T he
Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument was established by President George W. Bush in 2006 with 89.5
million acres; President Obama’s 2016 expansion of the monument adding approximately 283.4 million acres made the
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More of the larger monuments have been created over the past half century, in Alaska and in
marine areas, among other locations. However, there are examples of relatively large monument
proclamations throughout the history of the Antiquities Act, including Katmai, established in
1918 with 1.1 mil ion acres; Glacier Bay, created in 1925 with 1.4 mil ion acres; many of the
Alaska monuments proclaimed in 1978,26 the largest being Wrangel -St. Elias, with nearly 11
mil ion acres; and Grand Staircase-Escalante, established in 1996 with 1.7 mil ion acres.27
President George W. Bush established large marine monuments, namely the Papahanaumokuakea
Marine National Monument (which includes the Northwestern Hawai an Islands), with
approximately 89.5 mil ion acres; the Marianas Trench Marine National Monument, with 60.9
mil ion acres; the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, with 55.6 mil ion acres;
and the Rose Atoll Marine National Monument, with 8.6 mil ion acres. At the time, the George
W. Bush Administration claimed that the latter three areas formed the largest protected ocean area
in the world.28 More recently, President Obama expanded the Pacific Remote Islands Marine
National Monument in 2014 by 261.3 mil ion acres and the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National
Monument in 2016 by 283.4 mil ion acres.29
Critics assert that large monuments violate the Antiquities Act, in that the President’s authority
regarding size was intended to be narrow and limited. They charge that Congress intended the act
to protect specific items of interest, especial y archaeological sites and the smal areas
surrounding them. They support this view with the legislative history of the act, in which
proposals to limit a withdrawal to 320 or 640 acres were mentioned although not enacted. They
contend that some of the monument designations were greater than needed to protect particular
objects of value, and that the law was not intended to protect large swaths of land or ocean.
Defenders observe that by not specifical y capping the size of monument designations, the
Antiquities Act gives the President discretion to determine the acreage necessary to ensure
protection of the resources in question, which can be a particular archaeological site or larger
features or resources. The Grand Canyon, for example, original y was a national monument
measuring 0.8 mil ion acres; President Theodore Roosevelt determined that this size was
necessary to protect the “object” in question—the canyon. Defenders also note that after
considering the issue in the early 1900s, Congress rejected proposals to restrict the President’s
authority to set the size of the withdrawal. Further, they assert that preserving objects of interest
may require withdrawal of sizeable tracts of surrounding land to preserve the integrity of the
objects and the interactions and relationships among them.

monument roughly 372.9 million acres. T he largest national monument proclaimed on land was the Wrangell-St. Elias
National Monument in Alaska, with 10.95 million acres. It was redesignated as a national park and national preserve in
1980, two years after it was proclaimed.
26 In 1978, President Carter proclaimed 15 new monuments and enlarged two in Alaska.
27 T he proclamation establishing the monument estimated its size at 1.7 million acres. See “Presidential Proclamation
6920, September 18, 1996, Establishment of the Gran d Staircase-Escalante National Monument,” at
https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/ST AT UTE-110/pdf/ST ATUTE-110-Pg4561.pdf. The Bureau of Land
Management later revised the estimate to 1.9 million acres. T he monument size was reduced to approximately 1 million
acres by presidential proclamation 9682 on December 4, 2017 .
28 For background information on protection of ocean areas, see CRS Report RL32154, Marine Protected Areas: An
Overview, by Harold F. Upton.
29 All marine monument sizes listed are approximate. T he sizes of marine monuments typically have been identified in
square miles, although the proclamation expanding the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was
expressed in square nautical miles. Monuments on land have been expressed in acres. A square mile is equal to 640
acres, while a square nautical mile is equal to 847.5 acres.
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Establishment Criteria
Under the Antiquities Act, the President can establish monuments on federal land containing
“historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of historic or scientific
interest.”30 Some proclamations have identified particular objects needing protection, while others
have referred more general y to scenic, scientific, or educational features of interest.
Presidents sometimes have cited threats to resources (e.g., natural and cultural) to support
establishing monuments, although imminent threat is not expressly required by the Antiquities
Act. In his remarks designating the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, for instance,
President Clinton expressed concern about work underway for a large coal mining operation that,
he asserted, could damage resources in the area. Sometimes the noted threats appear less
immediate, as for the lands included in the Grand Canyon-Parashant Monument (proclaimed
January 11, 2000) which “could be increasingly threatened by potential mineral development,”
according to the Clinton Administration.31 In other cases, threats were reported by the press or
private organizations. For instance, the National Trust for Historic Preservation had identified the
(subsequently proclaimed) President Lincoln and Soldiers’ Home National Monument as one of
the country’s most endangered historic properties.
Presidential designation of monuments in the absence of immediate threats to resources troubles
those who believe that the law is intended to protect objects that are in immediate peril of
permanent harm. They contend that Presidents have established monuments to support
environmental causes, limit development, and score political gains, among other reasons. Those
who contest those charges note that the Antiquities Act lacks a requirement that objects be
immediately threatened or endangered. Others cite the pervasive dangers of development and
growth, looting, and vandalism as sufficient grounds for contemporary presidential action.
Some critics charge that, because the original purpose of the act was to protect specific objects,
particularly objects of antiquity such as cliff dwel ings, pueblos, and other archeological ruins
(hence the name “Antiquities Act”), Presidents have used the act for excessively broad purposes.
Among the broad purposes they cite are general conservation, recreation, scenic protection, or
protection of living organisms. These purposes, they contend, are more appropriate for a national
park or other designation established by Congress. Supporters of current presidential authority
counter that the act does not limit the President to protecting ancient relics, and maintain that
“other objects of historic or scientific interest” broadly grants considerable discretion to the
President.
Inclusion of Nonfederal Lands
The Antiquities Act initial y states that it applies to lands owned or controlled by the federal
government. However, it also states that, where the objects to be preserved are on privately
owned lands, the property “may be relinquished to the Federal Government.”32 Private and other
nonfederal landowners have donated land under this provision, and presidents have subsequently
designated national monuments that included the donated lands. Typical y the monument
designation occurs relatively quickly following the land donation. Land donation has occurred for
both early and more recent presidential proclamations. As an early example, Secretary of the
Interior James R. Garfield accepted the private donation of a redwood forest in California on

30 54 U.S.C. §320301(a).
31 T he White House, Office of the Press Secretary, Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument, January 11, 2000, at
https://clintonwhitehouse3.archives.gov/CEQ/remarks2000-1-11.html.
32 54 U.S.C. §320301(c).
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December 31, 1907, and on January 9, 1908, President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed the area
the Muir Woods National Monument. More recently, former Secretaries of the Interior accepted
donations leading to the establishment of some monuments by President Obama, including the
César E. Chávez National Monument in California and the Katahdin Woods and Waters National
Monument in Maine.
It remains untested whether relinquishment of nonfederal lands must be voluntary (via donation,
purchase, or exchange) or whether the President can convert private property to federal property
through condemnation when establishing a national monument. To date, no presidential
declaration of a monument has converted private property to federal property.
In addition, in some cases, private or other nonfederal lands are contained within the outer
boundaries of a proclaimed monument, although the ownership does not change by the monument
designation. Such inclusions are sometimes a source of controversy. The Clinton Administration
indicated that the monument designation does not apply to nonfederal lands; the then-Solicitor of
the Department of the Interior (DOI) asserted this view in 1999 testimony before Congress. His
testimony stated that the Antiquities Act applies only to federal lands and that monument
designations cannot bring state or private lands into federal ownership.33 Some monument
proclamations have stated that nonfederal lands wil become part of the monument if the federal
government acquires title to the lands.34
Some, however, note that while private or state-owned lands technical y are not part of the
monument, development of such land located within monuments is difficult because certain types
of development might be incompatible with the purposes for which the monument was created or
constrained by management of the surrounding federal lands. Monument supporters note that if
state or private landowners within a monument fear or experience difficulties, they can pursue
land exchanges with the federal government. Some monument proclamations have authorized
land exchanges to further the protective purposes of the monument.35
Monument Management
Although most monuments are managed by the National Park Service (NPS), both Congress and
the President have created monuments managed by other agencies. For example, in 1996
President Clinton created the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument and assigned the
Bureau of Land Management (BLM) its management. It was the first such area administered by
BLM.36Also, President George W. Bush selected the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in the Department of Commerce, and other
agencies to manage marine monuments. As another example, on September 21, 2012, President
Obama established the Chimney Rock National Monument with the Forest Service as the
managing agency. In most cases, monuments created in recent decades have been assigned to be

33 T estimony of John D. Leshy, at House Committee on Resources, Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands,
hearings on H.R. 1487, The National Monum ent NEPA Com pliance Act, 106th Cong., 1st sess., June 17, 1999, pp. 53
and 55.
34 For instance, nearly all of President Clinton’s monument proclamations had such a provision, including the
monument proclamations for the Agua Fria, Canyons of the Ancients, Sonoran Desert, and Upper Missouri River
Breaks National Monuments.
35 For instance, President Clinton’s monument proclamations typically contained a land exchange provision, including
the monument proclamations for the Agua Fria, Canyons of the Ancients, Sonoran Desert, and Upper Missouri River
Breaks National Monuments.
36 T oday, the Bureau of Land Management manages 28 national monuments, including 25 proclaimed by Presidents
and 3 established by law.
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managed by the agency responsible for the area before the monument designation, although that
was not always the case. For example, although the area proclaimed as the Minidoka Internment
National Monument was managed by the Bureau of Reclamation before designation, the
proclamation designating the monument changed management to the NPS.
The President’s authority to choose a management agency other than NPS has been questioned.
Before 1933, monuments were managed by different agencies, but in that year President Franklin
D. Roosevelt consolidated management of national monuments in the NPS.37 Following the 1933
consolidation, it was not until 1978 that a presidential y created monument was managed by an
agency other than the NPS. In 1978, two of the Alaska monuments created by President Carter
were directed to be managed by the Forest Service, part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and two were managed by FWS. Assigning management to the Forest Service was controversial,
and the two monuments were ultimately given statutory direction for Forest Service
management.38 Others also assert that the authority of the President under the Antiquities Act
carries with it discretion to choose the managing agency.
Some critics contend that management by an agency other than the NPS is an il egal transfer of
the current functions of the NPS. Others counter that establishing a new monument under another
agency would not constitute a reorganization because management of current NPS units, and the
general authority of the NPS to manage monuments, would be unaffected. Even if placing
management authority under a department other than the DOI might constitute a reorganization,
the President nevertheless might be able to move a function of the NPS to other DOI agencies
under congressional y approved authority al owing transfers of functions within DOI.39
Effects on Land Use
The overriding management goal for al monuments is protection of the objects described in the
proclamations. In general, existing uses of the land that are not precluded by the proclamations
and do not conflict with the purposes of the monument may continue. Monument designation can
limit or prohibit land uses, such as development or recreational uses. Limitations or prohibitions
may be included in the proclamations themselves, accompanying Administration statements,
management plans developed by the agencies to govern monument lands, agency policies, or
other sources. Some use issues may not arise for particular monuments given their distinctive
characteristics, for instance, their smal size or water-based nature.
A primary objection to national monuments is that the declaration might change management of
the property by restricting uses. At least over the past 50 years,40 monument proclamations
typical y have had explicit protections for valid existing rights for land uses,41 but the extent to
which designations may affect existing rights is not always clear. A common concern is that
monument designation potential y could result in new constraints on development of existing

37 T he consolidation of management of national monuments occurred under Executive Order 6166 of June 10, 19 33.
See Executive Order 6166, “Organization of Executive Agencies,” June 10, 1933, at https://www.archives.gov/federal-
register/codification/executive-order/06166.html.
38 T he two monuments were given statutory approval as part of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act of
1980 (ANILCA), P.L. 96-487. Also, the two FWS monuments were redesignated by ANILCA as national wildlife
refuges (under FWS management).
39 Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1950.
40 No comprehensive examination was made of earlier monument proclamations.
41 T he term valid has been interpreted by the Supreme Court in the context of a mine within a national monument as
meaning there were valuable, workable deposits of ore present. Cameron v. United States, 252 U.S. 450 (1920).
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mineral and energy leases, claims, and permits. Some fear that mineral exploration and extraction
activities may have to adhere to a higher standard of environmental review, and may have a
higher cost of mitigation, to ensure compatibility with the monument designation.
Most monument proclamations since 1996 have barred new mineral leases, mining claims,
prospecting or exploration activities, and oil, gas, and geothermal leases, subject to valid existing
rights.42 This has been accomplished by language to withdraw the lands within the monuments
from entry, location, selection, sale, leasing, or other disposition under public land laws, mining
laws, and mineral and geothermal leasing laws. In some cases, provisions of proclamations that
withdraw monument lands from new energy and mineral development have been controversial, as
was the case for the 1996 proclamation of the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument.
President Trump’s 2017 reduction of this monument, and the Bears Ears National Monument,
provided for the lands removed from the monuments to be opened to energy and mineral
development.43
Another concern for some is whether commercial timber cutting wil be restricted as a result of
designation. For instance, President Clinton’s proclamation of the Giant Sequoia National
Monument (in 2000) expressly precluded future timber production, although certain then-current
logging contracts could be completed. In many other cases, the proclamations have implied,
through a general prohibition against removing any “feature” of the monuments, that timber
cutting is precluded.44 Some assert that restrictions are needed to protect the environmental,
scenic, and recreational attributes of forests preserved under the Antiquities Act. Logging
supporters assert that forests can be used sustainably and that concerns raised by
environmentalists as grounds for limiting commercial timber operations do not reflect modern
forestry practices.
Motorized and mechanized vehicles off-road are prohibited (except for emergency or authorized
purposes) under the proclamations for many post-1996 monuments.45 Otherwise, the agency’s
management plan for a monument typical y addresses whether to al ow vehicular travel on
designated routes or in designated areas or to close routes or areas to vehicular use in those
monuments where such use is not expressly prohibited. In some areas that have become
monuments, off-road vehicles have been al owed, at least in some places.
Other concerns that some have raised included the possible effects of monument designation on
hunting, fishing, and grazing. Some proclamations have restricted such activities to protect
monument resources, and monument management plans may impose additional restrictions. For
instance, proclamations for some marine monuments established by President George W. Bush
restricted or prohibited commercial and recreational fishing. President Obama’s expansion and
establishment of marine national monuments appears to have enhanced focus on the potential

42 By contrast, proclamations issued by President Johnson in 196 9 and President Carter in 1978 did not contain such
explicit provisions. No comprehensive examination was made of earlier monument proclamations.
43 See “Presidential Proclamation Modifying the Bears Ears National Monument ,” December 4, 2017, at
https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-modifying-bears-ears-national-
monument/; and “ Presidential Proclamation Modifying the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument ,” December
4, 2017, at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-modifying-grand-
staircase-escalante-national-monument/.
44 For instance, President Clinton’s monument proclamations typically contained such a provision , including the
monument proclamations for the Agua Fria, Canyons of the Ancients, Sonoran Desert, and Upper Missouri River
Breaks National Monuments.
45 By contrast, proclamations issued by President Johnson in 1969 and President Carter in 1978 did not contain such
explicit provisions. No comprehensive examination was made of earlier monument proclamations.
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effect of monument designations on fishing. For example, President Obama’s 2014 expansion of
the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument prohibited commercial fishing within the
boundaries of the monument expansion while permitting other types of fishing, such as for
noncommercial, recreational, and scientific and research purposes.46 Also, President Obama’s
2016 proclamation establishing the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National
Monument general y banned commercial fishing and phased out red crab and American lobster
commercial fishing; President Trump’s 2020 proclamation modifying the monument removed
these restrictions.47 In addition, monument designation provisions on grazing have been
controversial in some cases, with some asserting that grazing has been unnecessarily curtailed and
others claiming that grazing has not been sufficiently limited to prevent ecological damage.
States and counties frequently have viewed restrictions on federal lands in their jurisdictions as
threats to economic development. They maintain that local communities are hurt by the loss of
jobs and tax revenues that results from prohibiting or restricting future mineral exploration,
timber development, or other activities. Some contend that limitations on energy exploration
could leave the United States more dependent on foreign oil. Advocates of creating monuments
claim that economic benefits resulting from designation, including increased tourism, recreation,
and attracting new businesses and residents, may exceed the benefits of traditional economic
development.48 Others al ege that the public interest value of continued environmental and
resource protection outweighs any temporary economic benefit that could result from
development. Some monument advocates support more restrictions on development.
“Consistency” of Antiquities Act with NEPA and FLPMA
The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA) 49 authorized the Secretary of
the Interior to make certain land withdrawals under specified procedures.50 In enacting FLPMA,
Congress also repealed much of the express and implied withdrawal authority previously granted
to the President by several earlier laws.
Critics of the Antiquities Act maintain that the act is inconsistent with FLPMA’s intent of
restoring control of public land withdrawals to Congress. They assert that Congress is the

46 See “Presidential Proclamation—Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Expansion ,” September 25,
2014, at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/25/presidential-proclamation-pacific-remote-islands-
marine-national-monumen.
47 See “Presidential Proclamation—Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument ,” September 15,
2016, at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/09/15/presidential-proclamation-northeast-canyons-and-
seamounts-marine; and Executive Office of the President, “ Modifying the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine
National Monument,” 85 Federal Register 35793, June 5, 2020.
48 T he potential economic benefits to local communities of national monument designation were discussed at a House
subcommittee hearing on September 13, 2011. For testimony asserting beneficial economic impacts, see Ray Rasker,
Executive Director, Headwaters Economics, at https://republicans-naturalresources.house.gov/uploadedfiles/
raskertestimony09.13.11.pdf. For testimony asserting adverse impacts on communities, see Jerry T aylor, Mayor,
Escalante City, Utah, at https://republicans-naturalresources.house.gov/uploadedfiles/taylortestimony09.13.11.pdf.
49 43 U.S.C. §§1701 et seq. T his law applies primarily to the lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management and
actions taken by the Secretary of the Interior, although some provisions also apply to the lands managed by the Forest
Service and the Secretary of Agriculture.
50 FLPMA defined “withdrawal” as “withholding an area of Federal land from settlement, sale, location, or entry, under
some or all of the general land laws, for the purpose of limiting activities under those laws in order to maintain othe r
public values in the area or reserving the area for a particular public purpose or program; or transferring jurisdiction
over an area of Federal land, other than ‘‘property’’ governed by the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act,
as amended (40 U.S.C. 472) from one department, bureau or agency to another department, bureau or agency.” 43
U.S.C. 1702(j).
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appropriate body to make and implement land withdrawal policy and that Congress intended to
review and retain veto control over al executive withdrawals exceeding 5,000 acres. On the other
hand, in enacting FLPMA, the 94th Congress did not explicitly repeal or amend the Antiquities
Act, despite extensive consideration of executive withdrawal authorities. Supporters of the
Antiquities Act assert that Congress intended to retain presidential withdrawal authority under the
Antiquities Act.
Similarly, critics note that monuments have been proclaimed without the environmental studies
required of agencies for “major federal actions” under the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA),51 or the review of a public purpose and opportunity for public participation that FLPMA
provides. However, neither NEPA nor FLPMA applies to the actions of a President (as opposed to
an action of an agency),52 and the Antiquities Act is silent as to the procedures a President must
follow to proclaim a new monument. Some want to add procedures for environmental review and
public participation to the monument designation process so that significant withdrawals (with
resulting effects on existing uses) would not be made without scientific evaluation, economic
information, and public input.
Others counter that such changes would impair the ability of the President to act quickly to
protect objects and lands, thereby avoiding possible damage to the resources. They assert that
participation requirements are not needed in law because Presidents typical y consult with
government officials and the public before establishing monuments. Some believe that NEPA
requirements are unnecessary for monument designation because once monuments are created,
detailed management plans are developed in accordance with NEPA.53
President Obama’s and President Trump’s
Monument Proclamations
President Obama designated 29 new national monuments in 17 states, the District of Columbia,
and the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of New England. They ranged in size from 0.12 acres to 1.6
mil ion acres. President Obama also enlarged five monuments in California and Oregon, off the
California Coast, and in marine areas. Enlargements ranged from 1,665 acres to 283.4 mil ion
acres. Brief information on each monument is included in Appendix C.
The Obama Administration usual y cited support for the establishment of the monuments—for
instance, from government officials, businesses and local communities, or other stakeholders.
Most of the areas that President Obama designated as monuments were first proposed for some
sort of protective designation in legislation. In addition, some Members and segments of the
public had advocated for additional monument designations in their states.54

51 42 U.S.C. §§4321 et seq. For an overview and background on NEPA, see CRS Report RL33152, The National
Environm ental Policy Act (NEPA): Background and Im plementation, by Linda Luther.
52 See Alaska v. Carter, 462 F. Supp. 1155 (D. Alaska 1978) (NEPA does not apply to presidential proclamation under
the Antiquities Act).
53 As an example, the following article notes the views of monument supporters regarding public participation and
NEPA. See Mathew J. Sanders, “ Are National Monuments the Right Way to Manage Federal Public Lands?,” Natural
Resources & Environm ent, Summer 2016, 31(1), pp. 3-7.
54 For instance, in a letter of January 24, 2014, some Members of Congress expressed support to the then Secretary of
the Interior for additional monument designations under the Antiquities Act. In addition, on December 12, 2013, a
coalition of groups asked President Obama to designate additional monuments that conserve the nation’s diverse
culture and heritage.
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However, some federal and other governmental officials, communities, and stakeholders
expressed opposition to monuments established by President Obama.55 Concerns centered on the
process used to create monuments, particularly whether there was sufficient consultation with,
and support from, Congress, local and state governments, residents of the affected areas, and the
general public. Other concerns related to restrictions on land uses in new monuments, the
frequency with which the President used his monument authority, and the size of some of the
larger monuments, among other issues.
President Trump proclaimed one new monument in Kentucky—Camp Nelson—with 380 acres.
President Trump also reduced and modified two monuments in Utah. The Grand Staircase-
Escalante National Monument, established in 1996 by President Clinton, was reduced from about
1.9 mil ion acres to about 1.0 mil ion acres, and the Bears Ears National Monument, established
in 2016 by President Obama, was reduced from about 1.35 mil ion acres to about 0.2 mil ion
acres. In addition, President Trump modified the management terms of the Northeast Canyons
and Seamounts Marine National Monument, which was proclaimed by President Obama in 2016.
These actions followed a 2017 review of certain national monuments by the Secretary of the
Interior, at the direction of the President.56 The Secretary’s final report recommended that Camp
Nelson (and two other areas) be evaluated for national monument designation. The final report
also recommended boundary changes and other modifications to the two Utah monuments,
management changes to the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument, and
changes to several other monuments.57 Brief information on each monument proclamation by
President Trump is contained in Appendix C.
Overview of Legislative Activity
Given the recurring controversies over presidential establishment and modification of national
monuments, recent Congresses have evaluated whether to abolish, limit, or retain unchanged the
President’s authority to proclaim monuments under the Antiquities Act. Among the monument
measures considered during recent Congresses were bil s to impose restrictions on presidential
authority, including to:
 limit the size or duration of withdrawals;
 prohibit or restrict withdrawals in particular states or other locations (e.g., the
exclusive economic zone);
 narrow the types of resources that could be protected;
 ban the inclusion of nonfederal land within monument boundaries;

55 For instance, in a letter of June 13, 2013, several Senators expressed to the President opposition to “unilateral”
designation of national monuments. In addition, on April 16, 2013, a witness representing the Public Lands Council,
National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, and Utah Cattlemen’s association testified in favor of limiting the President’s
authority to proclaim monuments. See testimony of David Eliason, in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Natural
Resources, Subcommittee on Public Lands and En vironmental Regulation, hearings, 113th Cong., 1st sess., April 16,
2013, at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-113hhrg80524/pdf/CHRG-113hhrg80524.pdf.
56 See Executive Order 13792, “Review of Designations Under the Antiquities Act,” 82 Federal Register 20429, April
26, 2017, at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2017-05-01/pdf/2017-08908.pdf.
57 See Ryan K. Zinke, Memorandum for the President, Final Report Summarizing Findings of the Review of
Designations Under the Antiquities Act, December 5, 2017, at https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.gov/files/uploads/
revised_final_report.pdf. For a discussion of the monument review and recommendations in the final report, see CRS
Report R44988, Executive Order for Review of National Monum ents: Background and Data , by Carol Hardy Vincent
and Laura A. Hanson.
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 encourage public participation in the monument designation process;
 revoke the President’s authority to designate monuments or require congressional
and/or state approval of some or al monument designations; and
 promote presidential creation of monuments in accordance with certain federal
land management laws and environmental laws.58
Other measures had a variety of additional purposes. They included changing land uses within
monuments, imposing conditions on agency implementation of restrictions on monument use,
addressing use of water within monument boundaries, and altering monument boundaries.
As previously noted, some Members and segments of the public have opposed legislation in
recent Congresses that would restrict the President’s authority to establish national monuments.
(See the section above on “Monument Issues and Controversies.”) Some of these supporters have
introduced legislation to bar the President from reducing or abolishing national monuments.
Other bil s would increase funding for presidential y proclaimed monuments in general or
dedicate funds to particular purposes, such as the development of management plans and
recreational infrastructure.

58 Examples included the Federal Land Policy and Management Act and the National Environmental Policy Act.
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Appendix A. Use of Monument Authority in the
Antiquities Act: Comparison of Two Presidents
Table A-1. Number and Type of Presidential Proclamations:
President Franklin D. Roosevelt and President Barack Obama
(number of uses and acreage)
Monument
Total
Monument
Monument
Monument
Restrictions
Monument
President
Established
Enlarged
Diminished
Modified
Proclamations

Mil ions
Mil ions
Mil ions
Mil ions
Mil ions
No. of Acres No. of Acres
No. of Acres No. of Acres
No.
of Acres
Franklin D.
11
1.5
20
1.5a
4
0.1b
1
N/A
36
3.1
Roosevelt
Barack Obama
29
8.8
5
544.7c
0
0
0
0
34
553.6
Source: Prepared by CRS, based primarily on National Park Service (NPS) data at https://www.nps.gov/
archeology/sites/antiquities/monumentslist.htm.
Notes: President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the authority in the Antiquities Act the most often, and President
Obama proclaimed the most monument acreage. This table reflects the number of times each of the two
Presidents used the authority in the Antiquities Act to issue monument proclamations, the primary purpose of
the proclamations (e.g., to establish a monument), and the acreage of the proclamations. Each proclamation
pertained to one monument.
The table does not reflect a 1941 proclamation by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, under his authority in the
Antiquities Act, to expand the Ocmulgee National Monument. The President had established the monument in
1936, under specific authority provided in a 1934 law.
N/A = not available.
Some figures do not sum to totals provided due to rounding.
a. The NPS source on which data in this table are based did not include the acreage of an expansion of the
Katmai National Monument. Instead, an estimated 3,000 acres for this monument, included in this total, was
derived from the NPS website at https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/katm/adhi/chap3.htm.
b. This figure reflects a total of 71,906 acres for two of the four diminished monuments. The other two
diminishments pertained to rights-of-way, for which no acreage estimate was included in the primary NPS
source.
c. Two expanded marine national monuments (Pacific Remote Islands, with 261. 3 mil ion acres, and
Papahanaumokuakea Marine, with 283.4 mil ion acres) account for nearly al this acreage. The other three
expansions total 55,895 acres. Marine monument acreage was converted from square miles to acres b y
CRS.

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Appendix B. Historical Use of Monument Authority
in the Antiquities Act
Table B-1. Number and Type of Presidential Proclamations Since1906
Monument
Enlarged
Total
Monument
Monument
Monument
and
Monument
President
Established
Enlarged
Diminished Diminished
Other
Proclamations
T. Roosevelt
18
0
0
0
0
18
Taft
10
1
3
0
2a
16
Wilson
13
3b
1
0
1c
18
Harding
8
2
0
0
0
10
Coolidge
13
5
1
0
0
19
Hoover
9
10d
0
0
0
19
F.D.
11
20
4
0
1e
36
Roosevelt
Truman
1
9f
1
0
1g
12
Eisenhower
2
7
2
4
0
15
Kennedy
2
3
0
2
1h
8
Johnson
1
4i
0
0
0
5
Nixon
0
0
0
0
0
0
Ford
0
2
0
0
1j
3
Carter
15
2
0
0
0
17
Reagan
0
0
0
0
0
0
G.H.W. Bush
0
0
0
0
0
0
Clinton
19
3
0
0
0
22
G.W. Bush
6
0
0
0
2k
8
Obama
29
5
0
0
0
34
Trump
1
0
2l
0
1m
4
Bidenn
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
158
76
14
6
10
264
Source: Prepared by CRS, based primarily on National Park Service (NPS) data at https://www.nps.gov/
archeology/sites/antiquities/monumentslist.htm.
Notes: This table reflects the number of times each President used the authority in the Antiquities Act to issue
monument proclamations and the primary purpose of the proclamations (e.g., to establish a monument). Each
proclamation pertained to one monument.
The column entitled “Monument Enlarged and Diminished” reflects proclamations that added acreage to a
monument and removed other acreage from the monument.
This table does not reflect a 1941 proclamation by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, under his authority in the
Antiquities Act, to expand the Ocmulgee National Monument. The President had established the monument in
1936, under specific authority provided in a 1934 law. It is unclear as to the extent to which Presidents have
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used authority in the Antiquities Act under similar circumstances involving initial monument authorization by
Congress. Such instances do not appear to be contained in the primary NPS source on which this table is based.
a. Reflects the transfer of acreage from one monument to the then General Land Office and the confirmation
of the boundaries of another monument.
b. Includes the enlargement and renaming of one monument.
c. Reflects confirmation of the boundaries of a monument.
d. Includes the enlargement of one monument and designation of NPS as monument manager.
e. Reflects modification of restrictions.
f.
Includes the resurvey and enlargement of one monument.
g. Reflects the resurvey and modification of one monument.
h. Reflects confirmation of the boundaries of one monument.
i.
Includes the enlargement and renaming of one monument.
j.
Reflects amendment of the description of one monument.
k. Reflects the reaffirmation of one monument and the renaming of another monument.
l.
Reflects the diminishment and modification of two monuments.
m. Reflects modification of restrictions.
n. Information in this row is current as of August 24, 2021.
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Appendix C. Summary of President Obama’s
Monument Proclamations
This appendix provides a chronological list of President Obama’s 34 monument proclamations
under the Antiquities Act. For additional information on a particular monument, see the pertinent
proclamation identified in the footnotes.
 Fort Monroe National Monument in Virginia was designated on November 1,
2011. In establishing the 325-acre monument, the President stated that “Fort
Monroe on Old Point Comfort in Virginia has a storied history in the defense of
our Nation and the struggle for freedom.”59
 Fort Ord National Monument in California was designated on April 20, 2012.
The purpose of the 14,651-acre Fort Ord National Monument is to maintain its
historical and cultural significance, as wel as attract tourists and recreationists
and enhance the area’s unique natural resources, according to the President.60
 Chimney Rock National Monument in Colorado was designated on September
21, 2012. The President cited the “spiritual, historic, and scientific resources of
great value and significance” in proclaiming the 4,726-acre monument.61
 César E. Chávez National Monument in California was designated on October 8,
2012. The 10.5-acre monument “marks the extraordinary achievements and
contributions to the history of the United States made by César Chávez and the
farm worker movement that he led with great vision and fortitude,” according to
the President.62
 First State National Monument in Delaware was designated on March 25, 2013.
The 1,108 acres of the monument contain objects and areas of historic interest
related to the settlement of Delaware and the role of Delaware as the first state to
ratify the Constitution, according to the President.63
 Charles Young Buffalo Soldiers National Monument in Ohio was designated on
March 25, 2013. The 60-acre monument was established to commemorate the life
and accomplishments of Colonel Charles Young, the highest-ranking African
American commanding officer in the U.S. Army from 1894 until his death in

59 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Fort Monroe National Monument, November 1, 2011, on the
White House archives website at htt ps://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2011/11/01/presidential-
proclamation-establishment-fort-monroe-national-monument.
60 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Fort Ord National Monument, April 20, 2012, on the White
House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/04/20/presidential-proclamation-establishment-
fort-ord-national-monument.
61 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Chimney Rock National Monument, September 21, 2012, on
the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/09/21/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -chimney-rock-national-monument.
62 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the César E. Chávez National Monument, October 8, 2012, on the
White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/10/08/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -cesar-e-chavez-national-monument.
63 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the First State National Monument, March 25, 2013, on the White
House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/25/presidential-proclamation-first-state-
national-monument.
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1922, the commander of a troop of Buffalo Soldiers, and the first African
American superintendent of a national park, as described in the proclamation.64
 Río Grande del Norte National Monument in New Mexico was designated on
March 25, 2013. In proclaiming the monument, the President stated that
protecting the 242,555-acre monument “wil preserve its cultural, prehistoric, and
historic legacy and maintain its diverse array of natural and scientific resources,
ensuring that the historic and scientific values of this area remain for the benefit
of al Americans.”65
 San Juan Islands National Monument in Washington was designated on March
25, 2013. This 970-acre monument contains an archipelago of over 450 islands,
rocks, and pinnacles in Washington’s Puget Sound. According to the President,
the area contains an “unmatched landscape,” numerous wildlife species in
diverse habitats, archaeological sites, and historic lighthouses and is a “refuge of
scientific and historic treasures and a classroom for generations of Americans.”66
 Harriet Tubman–Underground Railroad National Monument in Maryland was
designated on March 25, 2013. This 11,750-acre monument commemorates the
life of Harriet Tubman, a leader of the Underground Railroad, and protects the
landscape and historic features of the area in which she lived, worked, and later
led enslaved African Americans to freedom, according to the proclamation.67
 California Coastal National Monument was enlarged on March 11, 2014.
President Obama added 1,665 onshore acres to this offshore monument, and
named the expanded area the “Point Arena-Stornetta Unit.” According to the
proclamation, the area is of “significant scientific importance,” and contains
archeological and cultural sites and artifacts, a landscape shaped by “powerful
geologic forces,” and “spectacular wildlife,” among other resources and values.68
 Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument in New Mexico was
designated on May 21, 2014. Among other attributes, the 496,330-acre
monument includes mountain ranges and lowlands with archaeological resources;
paleontological research areas; geologic features; historical y significant areas;
and diverse animals, vegetative communities, and ecosystems, according to the
President.69

64 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Charles Young Buffalo Soldiers National Monument, March
25, 2013, on the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/25/presidential-
proclamation-charles-young-buffalo-soldiers-national-monume.
65 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Río Grande del Norte National Monument, March 25, 2013, on
the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/25/presidential-proclamation-r-o-
grande-del-norte-national-monument.
66 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the San Juan Islands National Monument, March 25, 2013, on the
White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/25/presidential-proclamation-san-juan-
islands-national-monument .
67 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Harriet Tubman–Underground Railroad National Monument,
March 25, 2013, on the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/03/25/presidential-
proclamation-harriet-tubman-underground-railroad-national-m.
68 See Presidential Proclamation—Boundary Enlargement of the California Coastal National Monument, March 11,
2014, on the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/03/11/presidential-
proclamation-boundary-enlargement-california-coastal-nation.
69 See Presidential Proclamation—Organ Mountains-Desert Peaks National Monument, May 21, 2014, on the White
House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/05/21/presidential-proclamation-organ-mountains-
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 Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument was expanded on September
25, 2014, by approximately 261.3 mil ion acres. The proclamation indicates that
the expansion area includes opportunities for scientific study and research. It also
identifies diverse species and habitats, such as deep-sea coral species, habitat and
range for protected turtles, foraging habitat for seabird species, and an abundance
of manta rays.70
 San Gabriel Mountains National Monument in California was designated on
October 10, 2014. In establishing the 346,177-acre monument, the President
noted cultural, historic, and geologic features; recreational and scientific
opportunities; and ecological diversity, among other distinctive elements.71
 Browns Canyon National Monument in Colorado was designated on February
19, 2015. The 21,586-acre monument is described as an “iconic” landscape with
diverse plants and wildlife and scientifical y significant geological, ecological,
riparian, cultural, and historic resources. It is also important for studying
paleoecology, mineralogy, archaeology, and climate change, according to the
President.72
 Pullman National Monument in Il inois was designated on February 19, 2015. In
proclaiming the 0.24-acre monument, the President cited the national
significance and contemporary relevance of the Pullman Historic District,
including its architecture, urban planning, transportation, labor relations, and
social history.73
 Honouliuli National Monument in Hawai was designated on February 24, 2015.
The 123-acre Honouliuli Internment Camp was used during World War II as a
prisoner-of-war camp and an internment camp, with most of the internees of
Japanese descent. The President cal ed the area “a powerful reminder of the need
to protect civil liberties in times of conflict, and the effects of martial law on civil
society.”74
 Basin and Range National Monument in Nevada was designated on July 10,
2015. In preserving the cultural, prehistoric, and historic legacy of the 704,000-
acre Great Basin area, the President noted the area’s topography, geology,
ecological y intact landscape, species diversity, archaeological resources, and a
recent work of land art, among other features.75

desert-peaks-national-monument.
70 See Presidential Proclamation—Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument Expansion , September 25,
2014, on the White House website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/09/25/presidential-
proclamation-pacific-remote-islands-marine-national-monumen.
71 See Presidential Proclamation—San Gabriel Mountains National Monument, October 10, 2014, on the White House
website at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/10/10/presidential-proclamation-san-gabriel-mountains-
national-monument.
72 See Presidential Proclamation—Browns Canyon National Monument, February 19, 2015, on the White House
website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/02/19/presidential-proclamation-browns-canyon-
national-monument.
73 See Presidential Proclamation—Pullman National Monument, February 19, 2015, on the White House website at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/02/19/presidential-proclamation-pullman-national-monument.
74 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Honouliuli National Monument, February 24, 2015, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/02/24/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -honouliuli-national-monument.
75 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Basin and Range National Monument, July 10, 2015, on the
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 Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument in California was designated on
July 10, 2015. The significance of the 330,780-acre site stems from its historic
and prehistoric importance as wel as its diversity of geologic, natural, cultural,
plant and animal, scientific, and other resources, according to the proclamation.76
 Waco Mammoth National Monument in Texas was designated on July 10, 2015.
With 7.11 acres, the excavation site contains the remains of Columbian
mammoths and other animals of the Pleistocene Epoch. The President cited the
value of the area for further exploration and research.77
 Mojave Trails National Monument in California was designated on February 12,
2016. Its 1.6 mil ion acres are used for geological, ecological, and entomological
research and contain paleontological resources, habitat for rare plant species and
the threatened desert tortoise, and archeological records. The monument is also
important for both transportation and military history, according to the
proclamation.78
 Sand to Snow National Monument in California was designated on February 12,
2016. The President cal ed the 154,000 acre area an “ecological and cultural
treasure” and noted its geologic and other geographic diversity, archaeological
attributes, historic remains of communities, range of ecosystems and species, and
scientific value.79
 Castle Mountains National Monument in California was designated on February
12, 2016. The “outstanding natural, cultural, and historical values” of the 20,920
acres were highlighted in the proclamation, including its geology; relatively
intact habitat and ecosystems; priority for scientific research; prehistoric rock art
and archeological sites; and historic mining, ranching, and railroad uses.80
 Belmont-Paul Women’s Equality National Monument was designated in
Washington, DC, on April 12, 2016. The President noted the role of the house at
this 0.34-acre monument for its role in women’s history, including as the home of
the National Woman’s Party and the staging area for legislation and other actions
on behalf of women’s political, social, and economic equality.81

White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/10/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -basin-and-range-national.
76 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Berryessa Snow Mountain National Monument, July 10, 2015,
on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/10/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -berryessa-snow-mountain-national.
77 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Waco Mammoth National Monument, July 10, 2015, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2015/07/10/presidential-proclamation-
establishment-waco-mammoth-national-monument .
78 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Mojave Trails National Monument, February 12, 2016, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/12/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -mojave-trails-national-monument.
79 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Sand to Snow National Monument, February 12, 2016, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/12/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -sand-snow-national-monument .
80 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Castle Mountains National Monument, February 12, 2016, on
the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/12/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -castle-mountains-national.
81 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Belmont-Paul Women’s Equality National Monument, April
12, 2016, on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/12/presidential-
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 Stonewal National Monument was designated on June 24, 2016, in New York.
The significance of the 0.12-acre park (Christopher Park) stems from its role in
the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) civil rights movement. It
forms part of a “historic landscape” that includes the Stonewal Inn, scene of the
“uprising” that galvanized a movement for LGBT equality, according to the
President.82
 Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument in Maine was designated on
August 24, 2016. In establishing the 87,563-acre monument, the President noted
its archaeological records of Native people, logging and other historic industrial
infrastructure, significant biodiversity, ecosystems of scientific interest, and
defining geologic and natural features.83
 Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument was expanded on August 26,
2016, by 283.4 mil ion acres. The President highlighted the geological and
biological resources of the expansion area that are sacred to Native Hawai ans
and that constitute “part of a highly pristine deep sea and open ocean ecosystem
with unique biodiversity.”84
 Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument was designated
on September 15, 2016. The 3.1-mil ion-acre monument is composed of two
units containing mountains and canyons, and has been an area of scientific
exploration in recent decades. Features include habitat for protected and
endangered species (such as sea turtles and whales), species of coral exclusive to
the area, and other rare fish and invertebrates, according to the President.85
 Bears Ears National Monument was designated on December 28, 2016, in Utah.
In designating the 1.35 mil ion-acre monument, the President highlighted the
area’s “extraordinary archaeological and cultural record that is important to us
al ,” sacredness of the land to many Native American tribes, historic and
prehistoric legacy, geology, paleontological resources, and diverse vegetation and
wildlife species.86
 Gold Butte National Monument in Nevada was designated on December 28,
2016. This 296,937-acre monument contains an “extraordinary variety of diverse
and irreplaceable scientific, historic, and prehistoric resources,” including plant

proclamation-establishment-belmont -paul-womens-equality.
82 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Stonewall National Monument, June 24, 2016, on the White
House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/06/24/presidential-proclamation-establishment-
stonewall-national-monument.
83 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument, August 24,
2016, on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/08/24/presidential-
proclamation-establishment-katahdin-woods-and-waters.
84 See Presidential Proclamation—Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument Expansion, August 26, 2016, on
the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/08/26/presidential-proclamation-
papahanaumokuakea-marine-national-monument.
85 T his monument is located off the coast of New England. See Presidential Proclamation—Northeast Canyons and
Seam ounts Marine National Monum ent, September 15, 2016, on the White House website at
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/09/15/presidential-proclamation-northeast-canyons-and-seamounts-
marine.
86 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Bears Ears National Monument, December 28, 2016, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/12/28/proclamation-establishment -bears-
ears-national-monument.
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and animal habitat, geological formations, rare fossils, sites from Native
American history, and remnants of western ranching and mining, according to
President Obama.87
 Cascade Siskiyou National Monument was enlarged on January 12, 2017. The
enlargement consisted of 47,624 acres, with 42,349 in Oregon and 5,275 in
California.88 Diverse plant and animal species, ecological connectivity,
hydrologic resources, historic trails, and opportunities for scientific study are
among the features of the area set out in the proclamation.89
 Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument in Alabama was designated on
January 12, 2017. The purpose of the 0.88-acre monument is to protect the
historic A. G. Gaston Motel, the headquarters of a civil rights campaign led by
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., among others, which helped lead to the enactment of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964.90
 Freedom Riders National Monument in Alabama was designated on January 12,
2017. The 5.96-acre monument contains two related sites associated with the
civil rights movement. They are a former Greyhound bus station and nearby area
where, in 1961, an interracial group of Freedom Riders was attacked during a
journey to test desegregation.91
 Reconstruction Era National Monument in South Carolina was designated on
January 12, 2017. The 15.56-acre monument contains four sites in Beaufort
County, the birthplace of Reconstruction, where formerly enslaved people
developed a thriving community during and after the Civil War.92
 California Coastal National Monument was expanded on January 12, 2017. Six
areas along the California coast were included in the expansion, which totaled
6,230 acres. These on- and off-shore areas include historic sites, ancient
archaeological sites, unique geology, habitat for plants and animals, and marine
wildlife, according to President Obama.93

87 See Presidential Proclamation—Establishment of the Gold Butte National Monument, December 28, 2016, on the
White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/12/28/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -gold-butte-national-monument.
88 Acreage figures are taken from the Fast Facts and Q&A on the BLM website at https://www.blm.gov/sites/blm.gov/
files/documents/files/csnmfactsheet.pdf.
89 See Presidential Proclamation—Boundary Enlargement of the Cascade-Siskiyou National Monument, January 12,
2017, on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/presidential-
proclamation-boundary-enlargement-cascade-siskiyou-national.
90 See Presidential Proclamations—Establishment of the Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument, January 12,
2017, on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/presidential-
proclamations-establishment-birmingham-civil-rights.
91 See Presidential Proclamations—Establishment of the Freedom Riders National Monument, January 12, 2017, on
the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/presidential-proclamations-
establishment -freedom-riders-national.
92 See Presidential Proclamations—Establishment of the Reconstruction Era National Monument, January 12, 2017, on
the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/presidential-proclamations-
establishment -reconstruction-era-national.
93 See Presidential Proclamation—Boundary Enlargement of the California Coastal National Monument, January 12,
2017, on the White House website at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2017/01/12/presidential-
proclamation-boundary-enlargement-california-coastal.
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Appendix D. Summary of President Trump’s
Monument Proclamations
This appendix provides a chronological list of President Trump’s four monument proclamations
under the Antiquities Act. For additional information on a particular monument, see the pertinent
proclamation identified in the footnotes.
 Bears Ears National Monument in Utah was reduced and modified on December
4, 2017. The monument was reduced (from 1.35 mil ion acres) to 201,876 acres
in two separate units—Shash Jáa and Indian Creek. The President described
objects removed from the 2016 monument as sufficiently protected under other
authorities, and/or not unique, not of significant scientific or historic interest, or
not threatened so as to require protection in the monument. Modifications relate
to the role and membership of the commission created to provide tribal expertise
to monument management, use of motorized and non-mechanized vehicles,
livestock grazing, and ecological restoration and active vegetation management.94
 Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument in Utah was reduced and
modified on December 4, 2017.95 The reduction to 1,003,863 acres (from about
1.9 mil ion acres) identified three units of the monument—Escalante Canyons,
Grand Staircase, and Kaiparowits. The proclamation removed objects that are
adequately protected under other laws, not of unique or distinctive scientific or
historic significance, and/or not under threat of destruction, according to the
President. Modifications to the 1996 monument pertain to preparing management
plans, establishing advisory committees, using motorized and non-mechanized
vehicles, grazing livestock, and undertaking ecological restoration and active
vegetation management.
 Camp Nelson National Monument in Kentucky was designated on October 26,
2018. The significance of the 380-acre monument relates to its role as a Union
Army recruitment center of African American soldiers, then known as U.S.
Colored Troops, during the Civil War. In proclaiming the monument, the
President cal ed the area “one of the best-preserved landscapes and archeological
sites associated with United States Colored Troops recruitment and the refugee
experiences of African American slaves seeking freedom during the Civil War.”96
 Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument was modified on
June 5, 2020. The modifications to the 2016 monument removed a general
prohibition on commercial fishing and a phase out of commercial fishing for red
crab and American lobster. According to the President, wel -regulated

94 See Presidential Proclamation Modifying the Bears Ears National Monument, December 4, 2017, on the White
House website at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-modifying-
bears-ears-national-monument/.
95 See Presidential Proclamation Modifying the Grand Staircase-Escalante National Monument, December 4, 2017, on
the White House website at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-
modifying-grand-staircase-escalante-national-monument/.
96 See Presidential Proclamation on the Establishment of the Camp Nelson National Monument, October 26, 2018, on
the White House website at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/presidential-proclamation-
establishment -camp-nelson-national-monument/.
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 commercial fishing is in the public interest, and the proper care and management
of monument objects is protected under existing laws and regulations.97
Author Information

Carol Hardy Vincent

Specialist in Natural Resources Policy

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97 Executive Office of the President, “Modifying the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument,”
85 Federal Register 35793, June 5, 2020.
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