Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Statistical August 5, 2021
Information
Carla Y. Davis-Castro
This report provides statistical information on Indigenous peoples in Latin America. Data and
Research Librarian
findings vary, sometimes greatly, on all topics covered in this report, including populations and

languages, socioeconomic data, land and natural resources, human rights and international legal
conventions. For example the figure below shows four estimates for the Indigenous population of

Latin America ranging from 41.8 million to 53.4 million. The statistics vary depending on the
source methodology, changes in national censuses, the number of countries covered, and the years examined.
Indigenous Population and Percentage of General Population of Latin America

Sources: Graphic created by CRS using the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab with webpage last updated in July 2021; ECLAC and
FILAC’s 2020 Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde
una perspectiva territorial; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin
America in the twenty-first century: the first decade; and ECLAC’s 2014 Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in Latin America: Progress in
the past decade and remaining challenges.
Notes: The World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab webpage covers 14 Latin American countries. ECLAC and FILAC’s report uses national
censuses from 17 countries, The World Bank report uses national censuses from 16 countries to estimate the population and notes
“for countries without census data available for the end of the decade, the Indigenous population was estimated by applying the
percentage of the last census to the 2010 projection of the national population.” The ECLAC report includes a table titled “Latin
America (17 countries): population of Indigenous peoples according to censuses and estimates, around 2010.” The population
percentage is based on the total population calculated in each source.
Definitions of Indigenous peoples also vary. The United Nations and many countries rely on self-identification of Indigenous
peoples. In counting distinct groups, this report uses the term “Indigenous groups” rather than “tribe,” “nation,” “ethnic
minority,” or “sociolinguistic group.”
A compilation of selected informational resources, covering languages; socioeconomics; land, natural resources, and climate
change; international organizations; and human rights, is available in the appendix as well as a list of national agencies that
oversee Indigenous affairs in each Central American or South American country.

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Introduction
Congress has long been interested in the status of Indigenous peoples abroad. In 1992, the 102nd
Congress enacted H.R. 5368 (P.L. 102-391) requiring the State Department’s annual human rights
report to “describe the extent to which Indigenous people are able to participate in decisions
affecting their lands, cultures, traditions and the allocation of natural resources, and assess the
extent of protection of their civil and political rights.” Issues relating to Indigenous peoples
abroad periodically have been considered in hearings focused on such topics as environmental
protection, energy opportunities, and human rights.1
This report provides statistical information on Indigenous peoples in Latin America, including
populations and languages, socioeconomic data, land and natural resources, human rights, and
international legal conventions. A compilation of informational resources on languages;
socioeconomics; land and resources; international organizations; and human rights are available
in Appendix A. National agencies that oversee Indigenous affairs in each country are listed in
Table B-1.
Terms
Definitions of Indigenous peoples vary. The United Nations (U.N.) has not adopted an official
definition, but instead relies on self-identification to categorize Indigenous populations around the
world; many countries do the same. However, the U.N. web page dedicated to Indigenous peoples
does state “Indigenous peoples are inheritors and practitioners of unique cultures and ways of
relating to people and the environment. They have retained social, cultural, economic and
political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant societies in which they live.”2
The annex of the U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states “Indigenous
peoples have suffered from historic injustices as a result of, inter alia, their colonization and
dispossession of their lands, territories and resources.”
The Organization of American States’ (OAS) American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples repeats the U.N. Declaration language and adds “Indigenous peoples are original, diverse
societies with their own identities that constitute an integral part of the Americas.” According to
OAS estimates, more than 50 million people of Indigenous descent live in the Western
hemisphere. This report examines those living in Latin America.
According to the Manual for National Human Rights Institutions that accompanied the U.N.
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, “Indigenous peoples have argued against the
adoption of a formal definition at the international level, stressing the need for flexibility and for
respecting the desire and the right of each Indigenous people to define themselves.… As a

1 For example: U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Peace
Corps, Narcotics and Terrorism, Environmental Protection in an Era of Dramatic Economic Growth in Latin America,
106th Cong., 2nd sess., July 25, 2000 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2000); U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign
Affairs, Subcommittee on the Western Hemisphere, Energy Opportunities in South America, 115th Cong., 1st sess., May
17, 2017 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2017); U.S. Congress, Tom Lantos Commission on Human Rights, The Rights of
Indigenous Peoples in the Americas, 116th Cong., 2nd sess., November 20, 2020 (Washington, DC: GPO, 2020).
2 U.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Indigenous Peoples at the UN,” at
https://www.un.org/development/desa/Indigenouspeoples/about-us.html.
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consequence, no formal definition has been adopted in international law. A strict definition is seen
as unnecessary and undesirable.”3
In counting distinct groups, this CRS report uses the term “Indigenous groups” rather than
“tribe,” “nation,” “ethnic minority,” or “sociolinguistic group.”
A 2019 United Nations report notes “the persistent invisibility of Indigenous peoples” and “the
need for disaggregated data” to address data limitations regarding Indigenous people around the
globe. However, the report notes progress in Latin America: “only two censuses included self-
identification criteria in the 1990 round, but by the 2010 round such criteria were present in 21 of
them.”4
Despite some advances in data collection, the sources cited in this report contain data limitations,
which are discussed in Appendix A. The countries listed in each table or graph of this report may
differ from others in this report based on the information available in the sources.
Population Data
There are various sources and methodologies for estimating the population of Indigenous peoples
in Latin America, including official sources based on national censuses and household surveys,
and other kinds of estimates such as population projections or data from non-governmental
sources. Latin America is home to an estimated 41 million to 53 million Indigenous people
according to several resources published in the last seven years.5 A 2015 World Bank report
acknowledges the gap that may exist between official and unofficial data: “official data on
Indigenous people are not conclusive, as many technical and sociological difficulties persist in
census data collection. Other sources based on estimates and unofficial data refer to 50 million
Indigenous inhabitants in Latin America (about 10 percent of the total population). For this report,
however, we will refer to the official—albeit imperfect—numbers provided by the national
censuses [41.81 million].”6
Census projections forecast Indigenous population increases in many countries in part due to
populations that are younger on average than non-Indigenous populations and in part due to an
increase in self-identification.7 When the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) published a report with the Development Fund for the

3 United Nations, The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples: A Manual for National Human
Rights Institutions, HR/PUB/13/2, 2013, at
https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/UNDRIPManualForNHRIs.pdf. For more information about the
United Nations, the International Labor Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization, see CRS
Report R43614, Membership in the United Nations and Its Specialized Agencies, by Luisa Blanchfield and Marjorie
Ann Browne.
4 United Nations, The state of the world´s Indigenous people: Implementing the United Nations Declaration on the
Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 4th volume, ST/ESA/371, 2019, at https://social.un.org/unpfii/sowip-vol4-web.pdf.
5 In this report, Latin America includes Mexico, the land mass of Central America (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador,
Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama), and the land mass of South America (Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana,
Suriname, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay). The exception is French Guiana,
which is an overseas department of France and is not included in this report.
6 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank, Indigenous Latin America in the Twenty-First
Century: the First Decade, 2015, at http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2016/02/24863854/Indigenous-latin-
america-twenty-first-century-first-decade, p. 24. Hereinafter: World Bank, 2015.
7 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in Latin
America: Progress in the past decade and remaining challenges, November 2014, p. 40, at
https://repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/37051/4/S1420782_en.pdf. Hereinafter: ECLAC, 2014.
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Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Statistical Information

Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean (Spanish acronym FILAC) in 2020, the
censuses reported over 53 million Indigenous people or 9.8% of the region’s total.8
Figure 1 illustrates the total number of Indigenous people and their share of the total population
according to four sources: a 2014 ECLAC report (with population data from 2010), a 2015 World
Bank Report (with population data from 2010), a 2020 ECLAC and FILAC report using census
data from 2005-2018, and the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab with data last updated in 2021 also
using census data from 2005-2018.
Figure 1. Indigenous Population and Percentage of General Population of Latin
America

Sources: Graphic created by CRS using the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab with webpage last updated in July
2021; ECLAC and FILAC’s 2020 Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el
Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial; the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development and World Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade;
and ECLAC’s 2014 Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in Latin America: Progress in the past decade and remaining
challenges.
Notes: The World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab webpage covered 14 Latin American countries. ECLAC and FILAC’s
report used national censuses from 17 countries, The World Bank report used national censuses from 16
countries to estimate the population and notes “for countries without census data available for the end of the
decade, the Indigenous population was estimated by applying the percentage of the last census to the 2010
projection of the national population. The ECLAC report included a table titled “Latin America (17 countries):
population of Indigenous peoples according to censuses and estimates, around 2010.” The population percentage
is based on the total population calculated in each source.
Table 1 shows a breakdown by country of Indigenous populations and their share of the overall
population. CRS created the following tables from several sources; publication dates and
methodologies differed. The countries listed in each table may differ from other tables in this
report, based on the information available in the sources.

8 Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean and the Development Fund for the Indigenous Peoples
of Latin America and the Caribbean (Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de América Latina y el
Caribe), Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible:
tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial, 2020, at https://www.filac.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Los-
Pueblos-Indigenas-de-America-lLatina-y-la-Agenda-2030-para-el-Desarrollo-SostenibleAutosaved.pdf. Hereinafter
ECLAC and FILAC, 2020.
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Table 1. Indigenous Populations and Percentages of General Population in Latin
America by Country
ECLAC &
LAC Equity
FILAC 2020:
Lab 2021:
ECLAC 2014:
WB 2015:
Indigenous
Indigenous
Country
Indigenous
Indigenous
Population
Population
Population
Population
with 2005-
with 2005-
around 2010
with 2010
2018 data (%
2018 data (%
(% of general
estimate (% of
of general
of general
pop.)a
general pop.)b
pop.)c
pop.)d
955,032
955,032
955,032
926,003
Argentina
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
(2.3%)
6,216,026
4,115,226
4,176,647
N/A
Bolivia
(62.2%)
(41%)
(41.5%)
896,917
817,963
896,917
821,629
Brazil
(0.5%)
(0.5%)
(0.5%)
(0.4%)
1,805,243
788,935
2,175,873
N/A
Chile
(11%)
(4.6%)
(12.4%)
1,559,852
1,532,678
1,905,617
1,905,617
Colombia
(3.4%)
(3.3%)
(4.4%)
(4.3%)
104,143
104,143
104,143
101,870
Costa Rica
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
1,018,176
1,018,176
1,018,176
1,020,330
Ecuador
(7%)
(7%)
(7%)
(7%)
14,408
14,865
13,310
13,730
El Salvador
(0.2%)
(0.2%)
(0.2%)
(0.2%)
5,881,009
5,880,046
6,491,199
6,481,762
Guatemala
(41%)
(41%)
(43.6%)
(43.6%)
536,541
548,727
646,244
601,823
Honduras
(7%)
(7.2%)
(7.8%)
(7.2%)
16,933,283
16,836,877
25,694,928
27,526,158
Mexico
(15.1%)
(15%)
(21.5%)
(23%)
518,104
349,333
321,753
187,840
Nicaragua
(8.9%)
(6%)
(6.3%)
(3.6%)
417,559
417,559
417,559
416,080
Panama
(12.3%)
(12.2%)
(12.3%)
(12.2%)
112,848
112,848
117,150
N/A
Paraguay
(1.8%)
(1.7%)
(1.8%)
7,021,271
7,596,039
7,628,308
6,383,284
Peru
(24%)
(26%)
(26%)
(24.8%)
76,452
76,452
158,560
Uruguay
N/A
(2.4%)
(2.4%)
(4.8%)
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ECLAC &
LAC Equity
FILAC 2020:
Lab 2021:
ECLAC 2014:
WB 2015:
Indigenous
Indigenous
Country
Indigenous
Indigenous
Population
Population
Population
Population
with 2005-
with 2005-
around 2010
with 2010
2018 data (%
2018 data (%
(% of general
estimate (% of
of general
of general
pop.)a
general pop.)b
pop.)c
pop.)d
724,592
724,592
724,592
724,592
Venezuela
(2.7%)
(2.8%)
(2.7%)
(2.7%)
44,791,456
41,813,039
53,363,900
47,269,278
TOTALe
(8.3%)
(7.8%)
(9.8%)
(9.2%)
Sources: Compiled by CRS using the fol owing sources: ECLAC’s 2014 Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in
Latin America: Progress in the past decade and remaining challenges; the World Bank Group’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous
Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade; ECLAC and FILAC’s 2020 Los pueblos indígenas de América
Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial;
and the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab with webpage last updated in July 2021.
Notes:
a. ECLAC’s 2014 report covered 17 countries in Latin America with population figures “according to censuses
and estimates, around 2010.”
b. The World Bank’s 2015 report covered 16 countries in Latin America and the estimated population figures
vary by country from 2001 to 2012 with some projections for 2010.
c. The World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab webpage provided data on 14 countries in Latin America with the latest
population figures reported by each country varying from 2005-2018.
d. ECLAC and FILAC’s 2020 report covered 17 countries in Latin American with “the population of self-
identified Indigenous population according to the most recent census,” which varies by country from 2005-
2018.
e. The population percentage is based on the total population calculated in each source.
Figure 2 illustrates the range of estimates regarding the Indigenous population as a percentage of
the general population in each country. Bolivia’s steep decrease in the Indigenous population
reflects “reasons that probably have more to do with discrepancies in how the data were collected
between the last two censuses than with a real trend to negative growth,” according to the World
Bank.9 More generally, differences in data collection between censuses and across countries make
it difficult to estimate population changes.

9 World Bank, 2015, p. 10.
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Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Statistical Information

Figure 2. Indigenous Population in Latin America as Percentage of General
Population by Country

Sources: Graphic created by CRS using the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab with webpage last updated in July
2021, ECLAC and FILAC’s 2020 Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el
Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial; the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development and World Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade;
and ECLAC’s 2014 Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in Latin America: Progress in the past decade and remaining
challenges.
Note: The sources note that figures are based on national censuses. For more details see Appendix A.
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Indigenous Groups and Languages
Following the International Year of Indigenous Languages in 2019, the United Nations declared
2022-2032 the International Decade of Indigenous Languages.10 Experts found that 4 in 10
Indigenous languages around the world are in danger of disappearing yet figures on Indigenous
groups and languages vary among sources.11
Data on Indigenous ethnic groups
“As for the number and distribution of ethnic groups, the issue is even more problematic and the regional
censuses might not be the best source, because ethnic frontiers rarely match national borders and no country
keeps track of cross-border populations. Also, different ethnic groups sometimes receive… names given to
several unconnected peoples…. On the other hand, a single group or linguistic family might receive different
names in different countries....”
-- World Bank’s Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade12
Figure 3 shows the total number of Indigenous groups in Latin America as identified by three
sources. A 2009 UNICEF report identified a total of 655 Indigenous groups in 20 countries in
Latin America.13 The 2014 ECLAC report cites 826 Indigenous groups in Latin America although
it does not provide a country breakdown.14 Of these 826, about 200 Indigenous groups live in
voluntary isolation, which is defined by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights as
groups that “do not maintain sustained contacts with the majority non-Indigenous population.”15
The World Bank’s 2015 report identifies 774 Indigenous groups in 20 countries Latin America.16
The report adds “the total number of Indigenous peoples is not conclusive or fixed; rather, it
needs to be understood as a variable figure that is continually changing as a result of new forms
of indigenization, ethno-genesis, and legal recognition.”17

10 United Nations, “General Assembly Adopts 60 Third Committee Resolutions, Proclaims International Decade of
Indigenous Languages, Covering Broad Themes of Social Equality,” press release GA/12231, December 18, 2019, at
https://www.un.org/press/en/2019/ga12231.doc.htm
11 United Nations News, “Four in 10 Indigenous languages at risk of disappearing, warn UN human rights experts,”
August 7, 2019, at https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/08/1043871
12 IBRD and World Bank, 2015, p. 24.
13 UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Andes, Atlas Sociolingüístico de Pueblos Indígenas en América Latina Vol. I, 2009, p.
68, at https://www.unicef.org/honduras/tomo_1_atlas.pdf. Hereinafter, UNICEF, 2009. This figures excludes 10
Indigenous groups from Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, French Guiana, Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago, which
are not otherwise included in the report.
14 ECLAC, 2014, pp. 38-39.
15 Rapporteurship on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Indigenous peoples in voluntary isolation and initial contact in
the Americas: Recommendations for the full respect of their human rights, Inter-American Commission on Human
Rights, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc.47/13, 2013, p. 4, at http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/Indigenous/docs/pdf/report-Indigenous-
peoples-voluntary-isolation.pdf.
16 IBRD and World Bank, 2015, p. 26. This figure excludes six Indigenous groups from French Guiana.
17 Ibid., p. 24.
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Figure 3. Number of Indigenous Groups in Latin America

Sources: Graphic created by CRS using UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Andes’ (UNICEF) 2009 Atlas Sociolingüístico
de Pueblos Indígenas en América Latina; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World
Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade; and ECLAC’s 2014
Guaranteeing Indigenous people’s rights in Latin America: Progress in the past decade and remaining challenges.
Note: These figures exclude French Guiana and Caribbean island nations.
According to several sources, Indigenous languages number fewer than the number of Indigenous
groups across the region as some languages are spoken by more than one group and some groups
no longer speak an Indigenous language (see Figure 4). A 2009 UNICEF report found 551
Indigenous languages spoken across 20 countries of Latin America while a 2015 World Bank
report found 558 and a 2021 publication by the Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL
International) reported 881 Indigenous languages spoken across the same 20 Latin American
countries.18 Speakers of Nahuatl, K’iche,’ and Aymara number over a million each and over 5
million people speak Quechua and Guarani.19 However, 13 Latin American countries have 50%
or more of their Indigenous languages categorized as endangered.20
Figure 4. Number of Indigenous Languages in Latin America

Sources: Graphic created by CRS using UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Andes’ (UNICEF) 2009 Atlas Sociolingüístico
de Pueblos Indígenas en América Latina; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World
Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade; and SIL International’s 2021
Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Twenty-fourth ed.).
Note: Numbers indicate the number of living Indigenous languages. Not included are countries, primarily in the
Caribbean, whose only Indigenous languages are sign languages and Creole languages based on European and
African languages.

18 UNICEF, 2009, p. 81. This figure includes six languages in French Guiana. IBRD and World Bank, 2015, p. 26. This
figure excludes six languages from French Guiana. Gary F. Simons (editor), Ethnologue: Languages of the World.
Twenty- edition, SIL International, 2021, at https://www.ethnologue.com/.
19 David M. Eberhard, Gary F. Simons, and Charles D. Fennig (editors), Ethnologue: Languages of the World, twenty-
fourth edition, SIL International, 2021, at https://www.ethnologue.com/.
20 Ethnologue, “How many languages are endangered?” accessed July 7, 2021, at
https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/how-many-languages-endangered.
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Table 2 shows a breakdown of Latin America’s Indigenous groups and languages by country
according to three sources; the sources each have different
publication dates and methodologies. The countries listed in each table may differ from others in
this report based on the information available in the sources.
Table 2. Indigenous Groups and Languages of Latin America by Country
UNICEF 2009

Indigenous Groups
WB 2015 Indigenous
SIL International 2021
Country
(languages)a
Groups (languages)b
(languages only)
30
30
--
Argentina
(15)
(15)
(15)
4
4
--
Belize
(4)
(4)
(5)
36
114
--
Bolivia
(33)
(33)
(39)
241
241
--
Brazil
(186)
(186)
(201)
9
9
--
Chile
(6)
(6)
(8)
83
83
--
Colombia
(65)
(65)
(81)
8
8
--
Costa Rica
(7)
(7)
(6)
12
32
--
Ecuador
(12)
(13)
(21)
3
3
--
El Salvador
(1)
(1)
(2)
24
24
--
Guatemala
(24)
(24)
(25)
9
9
--
Guyana
(9)
(9)
(11)
7
7
--
Honduras
(6)
(6)
(8)
67
67
--
Mexico
(64)
(67)
(282)
9
9
--
Nicaragua
(6)
(6)
(9)
8
7
--
Panama
(8)
(7)
(8)
20
20
--
Paraguay
(20)
(20)
(19)
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UNICEF 2009

Indigenous Groups
WB 2015 Indigenous
SIL International 2021
Country
(languages)a
Groups (languages)b
(languages only)
43
52
--
Peru
(43)
(47)
(91)
5
5
--
Suriname
(5)
(5)
(12)
0
0
--
Uruguay
(0)
(0)
(1)
37
50
--
Venezuela
(37)
(37)
(37)
655
774
--
TOTAL
(551)
(558)
(881)
Sources: Graphic created by CRS using UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Andes’ (UNICEF) 2009 Atlas Sociolingüístico
de Pueblos Indígenas en América Latina; the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World
Bank’s (WB) 2015 Indigenous Latin America in the twenty-first century: the first decade; and SIL International’s 2021
Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Twenty-fourth ed.).
Notes: This report uses “peoples” rather than “tribe,” “nation,” “ethnic minority,” or “sociolinguistic group.”
a. While UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Andes’ 2009 Atlas covered 25 countries in Latin America and the
Caribbean, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, French Guiana, Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago are not
otherwise included.
b. While the World Bank’s 2015 report covered 16 countries in Latin America, French Guiana is not included
in this report.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, almost 20,000 Indigenous language speakers from Latin
America reside in the United States.21
Indigenous languages also relate to issues such as biodiversity. A 2020 study states that “most of
the places with the highest concentration of biological diversity coincide with spaces inhabited by
Indigenous peoples whose members continue to speak the language of their ancestors” and
highlights Mexico and Brazil.22 A 2012 study explored “the co-occurrence of linguistic and
biological diversity in regions containing many of the Earth’s remaining species…Results
indicate that these regions often contain considerable linguistic diversity, accounting for 70% of
all languages on Earth.”23 The study specifically notes Mesoamerica as a biodiverse hotspot with
more than 250 Indigenous languages. Additional resources about Indigenous groups and
languages can be found in Table A-1.

21 Languages counted by the U.S. Census Bureau are categorized as Aztecan, Sonoran, Misumalpan, Mayan languages,
Tarascan, Mapuche, Oto-Manguen, Quechua, Aymara, Arawakian, Chibchan, and Tupi-guarani. See the U.S. Census
Bureau, 2009-2013 American Community Survey, “Detailed Language Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English
for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2009-2013,” October 2015, last revised October 6, 2020 at
https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html.
22 Claudia Gafner-Rojas, “Indigenous languages as contributors to the preservation of biodiversity and their presence in
international environmental law,” Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy, (June 12, 2020).
23 L. J. Gorenflo, Suzanne Romaine, Russell A. Mittermeier, Kristen Walker-Painemilla, “Co-occurring linguistic and
biological diversity,” proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 109, no. 2 (May 2012), pp. 8032-8037.
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Socioeconomic Data
In a 2020 publication, the International Labor Organization (ILO) found that 45.5% of Indigenous
people in Latin America are poor (living on less than $5.50 a day in 2011 purchasing power parity
prices or PPP), and 7.1% are extremely poor (living on less than $1.90 a day in 2011 PPP prices),
more than twice the rates for non-Indigenous people.24
Using the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab, Figure 5 compares rates of Indigenous peoples living
on less than $5.50 a day to the general population in select countries of Central and South
America.
Figure 5. Rates of Indigenous People Living on Less than $5.50 a Day in Select Latin
American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page “Ethnicity –
Poverty.”
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented are
based on a regional data harmonization effort comprised of the World Bank and the Center for Distributive,
Labor and Social Studies, which may differ from official statistics. Monetary values are reported in USD 2011
purchasing power parity (PPP) terms. Last updated May 2021.
Access to Services
A 2020 ILO report describes that “an important transformation is underway whereby many
Indigenous peoples have migrated from their traditional territories to urban areas” due to factors
such as “changing aspirations, employment opportunities in agriculture becoming scarce, poor
income generation opportunities, a lack of adequate infrastructure, as well as an increasing
resource scarcity related to climate change.”25 The report finds that 52.2% of Latin America’s
Indigenous peoples are urban dwellers.26

24 International Labor Organization, Implementing the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention No. 169
Towards an Inclusive, Sustainable and Just Future, February 3, 2020, at https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---
dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents//wcms_735607.pdf, p.96. Hereinafter, ILO, 2020.
25 ILO, 2020, p. 74.
26 Ibid., p. 57.
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The World Bank provides statistics on Indigenous peoples’ access to various services in select
countries of Central and South America, last updated in July 2021. The following graphs compare
Indigenous rates of access to the general population by country (Figure 6, electricity; Figure 7,
internet; Figure 8, home ownership; Figure 9, sewage; and Figure 10, water).
Figure 6. Electricity Access Rates in Select Latin American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity -
Access to Services."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented are
based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
Figure 7. Internet Access Rates in Select Latin American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity -
Access to Services."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented are
based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
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Figure 8. Ownership of Dwelling Rates in Select Latin American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity -
Access to Services."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented are
based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
Figure 9. Sewage Access Rates in Select Latin American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity -
Access to Services."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented are
based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
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Figure 10. Water Access Rates in Select Latin American Countries

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity -
Access to Services."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented here
are based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
Access to Education and Work
A 2020 ILO report found that Latin America and the Caribbean has the largest wage gap between
Indigenous earnings and non-Indigenous earnings at 31.2%.27 Similarly, the region has the largest
informal labor gap of any region in the world, a sector that employs 82.6% of Indigenous peoples
and 51.1% of non-Indigenous peoples.28 Among the employed Indigenous population, 31.7%
have no education, 39.3% have a basic education, 18.7% have an intermediate education, and
10.3% have an advanced education.29
The World Bank provides labor and education statistics for Indigenous peoples in select countries
of Central and South America, last updated in July 2021. The following graphs compare
Indigenous rates with general population by country (Figure 11, literacy; Figure 12, school
attendance; Figure 13, unemployment; and Figure 14, low-skill and high-skill employment).

27 Ibid., p.18.
28 Ibid., p.16.
29 Ibid., p. 81.
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Figure 11. Literacy Rates ages 18-65 in Select Latin American Countries (2021)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity - Socio-
demographics."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented here
are based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
Figure 12. School Attendance Rates ages 6-25 in Select Latin American Countries
(2021)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity - Socio-
demographics."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented here
are based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
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Figure 13. Unemployment Rates ages 18-65 in Select Latin American Countries
(2021)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity - Socio-
demographics."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented here
are based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
Figure 14. High-Skill & Low-Skill Occupation Rates ages 18-65 in Select Latin
American Countries (2021)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab web page "Ethnicity - Socio-
demographics."
Note: The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported data. The numbers presented here
are based on a variety of sources, which may differ from official statistics reported by governments and national
statistical offices. Last updated July 2021.
The socioeconomic challenges faced by Indigenous peoples also impact their health. In light of
Coronavirus Diesease 2019 (COVID-19), the United Nations highlights that “Indigenous peoples
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face limited access to quality and culturally accessible health services, which already affect their
health outcomes, such as high maternal mortality rates and lower life expectancy.”30 A joint report
from the United Nations and the Pan-American Health Organization also highlights that the
“deficiencies in access to services and in living conditions, which prevent an optimal response to
the pandemic, intersect with and reinforce the various axes of the social inequality matrix, placing
at a particular disadvantage the Indigenous population.”31 A 2021 publication lists statistics from
six Latin American countries that reported 137,315 Indigenous people infected with COVID-19
and 5,482 deaths caused by COVID-19.32
In the appendix, Table A-2 lists resources relating to the socioeconomic standing of Indigenous
peoples in Latin America.
Land and Natural Resources
A 2017 World Resources Institute (WRI) article stated “the precise amount of communal land is
not known, but many experts argue that at least half of the world’s land is held by Indigenous
Peoples and other communities. Some estimates are as high as 65 percent or more of the global
land area.” Legally recognized land ownership is far less: the WRI article specified that “globally,
Indigenous Peoples and local communities have formal legal ownership of 10 percent of the land,
and have some degree of government-recognized management rights over an additional 8
percent.”33 An evaluation of nine Latin American countries by the Resources and Rights Initiative
found that the forest area owned by Indigenous peoples and local communities increased between
2002 (171 million hectares or 21% of the total forested area) and 2017 (236 million hectares or
29.9% percent of the total forested area).34
The United Nations’ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean’s (ECLAC)
2014 report states that “over the past decade, booming international demand for primary goods
(minerals, hydrocarbons, soybeans and other agricultural commodities) has boosted economic
growth in the countries of Latin America but has had its cost in the form of a growing number of
environmental, social and ethnic conflicts involving extractive industries located in or near
Indigenous territories.”35
In its 2015 report, the IACHR wrote that “through the implementation of its monitoring
mechanisms, the Commission has consistently received information evidencing the human,
social, health, cultural and environmental impacts of [extraction, exploitation, and development

30 UN Inter-Agency Support Group on Indigenous Issues, “Indigenous Peoples and COVID-19 A Guidance Note for
the UN System prepared by the UN Inter- Agency Support Group on Indigenous Issues,” April 23, 2020, at
https://www.un.org/development/desa/Indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2020/04/Indigenous-peoples-
and-COVID_IASG_23.04.2020-EN.pdf
31 United Nations’ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean and the Pan American Health
Organization, Social Panorama of Latin America 2020, 2021, p. 18.
32 Fund for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean and, the Indigenous Forum
Abya Yala, Pueblos Indígenas y vacunación contra COVID-19: cuarto informe regional, May 2021, at
https://www.filac.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/informe-acceso-a-vacunasTP.pdf.
33 Peter Veit and Katie Reytar, “By the Numbers: Indigenous and Community Land Rights,” World Resources Institute,
March 20, 2017, at https://www.wri.org/blog/2017/03/numbers-Indigenous-and-community-land-rights.
34 Rights and Resources Initiative, At a Crossroads: Consequential Trends in Recognition of Community-Based Forest
Tenure from 2002-2017, September 2018, at https://rightsandresources.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/At-A-
Crossroads_RRI_Nov-2018.pdf.
35 ECLAC, 2014, p. 50.
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activities concerning natural resources] on Indigenous peoples and Afrodescendent communities.
Many extractive and development activities in the hemisphere are implemented in lands and
territories historically occupied by Indigenous and Afro-descendent communities, which often
coincide with areas hosting a great wealth of natural resources.”36 For example, a 2020 report
found that “industrial mining concessions and illegal small-scale mining occur on more than 20
percent of Indigenous lands in the Amazon.”37
Climate Change
Indigenous peoples are particularly affected by climate change; they are also adapting to it and
participating in high-level policy discussions regarding climate change responses. According to
the International Indigenous Peoples Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC) established in 2008 as
the caucus for Indigenous participants in the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change
processes, Indigenous peoples “are especially vulnerable to, and disproportionately impacted by,
climate change” and “play a critical role in climate change mitigation and adaptation through
their historic and effective role as stewards of much of the world's remaining forests.”38 In the
2015 U.N. Paris Agreement, article 7 establishes the “global goal on adaptation of enhancing
adaptive capacity, strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability to climate change,” which
“should be based on and guided by the best available science and, as appropriate, traditional
knowledge, knowledge of Indigenous peoples and local knowledge systems.”39
Global organizations are also consulting Indigenous peoples about managing the climate change
impact on biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity published the first draft of the
Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework in July 2021, which includes the target to “ensure that
relevant knowledge, including the traditional knowledge, innovations and practices of Indigenous
peoples and local communities with their free, prior, and informed consent, guides decision-
making for the effective management of biodiversity.”40 Such targets are generally seen as critical
given that 80% of the world’s biodiversity can be found within Indigenous territories.41 Some of
the key messages from the 2019 Global Assessment of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
include “nature is generally declining less rapidly in Indigenous peoples’ land than in other lands,
but is nevertheless declining, as is the knowledge of how to manage it.”42 The same is said of the
decline in biodiversity.43 The report stresses that the “Indigenous and local knowledge systems are
locally based, but regionally manifested and thus globally relevant.”44

36 Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, Indigenous Peoples, Communities of African Descent, Extractive
Industries, OEA/Ser.L/V/II, Doc. 47/15, December 31, 2015, at
http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/reports/pdfs/ExtractiveIndustries2016.pdf, p. 9.
37 World Resources Institute, Undermining Rights: Indigenous Lands and Mining in the Amazon, October 2020, at
https://files.wri.org/d8/s3fs-public/Report_Indigenous_Lands_and_Mining_in_the_Amazon_web_1.pdf.
38 International Indigenous Peoples' Forum on Climate Change, "About the International Indigenous Peoples' Forum on
Climate Change," accessed on July 26, 2021, at https://iipfcc.squarespace.com/who-are-we-1.
39 United Nations, “Paris Agreement,” 2015, at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/english_paris_agreement.pdf.
40 Convention on Biological Diversity, “First Draft of the Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework,” July 5, 2021, at
https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/abb5/591f/2e46096d3f0330b08ce87a45/wg2020-03-03-en.pdf.
41 Linda Etchart, “The role of Indigenous peoples in combating climate change,” Palgrave Communications, 3, article
no. 17085, (August 22, 2017).
42 IPBES, 2019, p. 14.
43 IPBES, 2019, p. 31.
44 IPBES, 2019, p. 32.
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Table A-3 lists resources about Indigenous peoples’ lands, natural resources, and climate change
in Latin America. While the titles may not exclusively focus on Indigenous peoples, the
industries’ impact on Indigenous people is a part of the analysis of each resource.
Human Rights and Multilateral Instruments
Various international human rights mechanisms are designed to protect the rights of Indigenous
peoples of Latin America and the Caribbean. Table 3 identifies those countries that have ratified
or voted in favor of the following three multilateral instruments on Indigenous peoples’ rights:
International Labor Organization’s Indigenous and Tribal Peoples
Convention, 1989 (No. 169).45 The convention includes sections on land;
recruitment and conditions of employment; vocational training, handicrafts and
rural industries; and social security and health; education and means of
communication.
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
(UNDRIP).46 The 2007 declaration covers such topics as self-determination or
autonomy; land and environment; employment; religion; language and media;
education; discrimination and violence; and health.
American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (ADRIP).47 The
2016 declaration approved by the Organization of American States includes
sections on human and collective rights; cultural identity; organizational and
political rights; and social, economic and property rights.
Table 3. Latin America and Multilateral Instruments on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights
Voted in favor of
Voted in favor of
Country
Ratified ILO No. 169a
adopting UNDRIP
adopting ADRIP
Argentina
X
X
X
Belize
--
X
X
Bolivia
X
X
X
Brazil
X
X
X
Chile
X
X
X
Colombia
X
Xb
Xc
Costa Rica
X
X
X
Ecuador
X
X
X
El Salvador
--
X
X
Guatemala
X
X
X

45 International Labor Organization, “Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169),” 1989, at
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C169.
46 United Nations, “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” September 13, 2007, at
https://www.un.org/development/desa/Indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2018/11/UNDRIP_E_web.pdf.
47 Organization of American States, “American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” June 15, 2016, at
https://www.oas.org/en/sare/documents/DecAmIND.pdf. For more information on the Organization of American
States, see CRS Report R42639, Organization of American States: Background and Issues for Congress, by Peter J.
Meyer.
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Voted in favor of
Voted in favor of
Country
Ratified ILO No. 169a
adopting UNDRIP
adopting ADRIP
Guyana
--
X
X
Honduras
X
X
X
Jamaica
--
X
X
Mexico
X
X
X
Nicaragua
X
X
X
Panama
--
X
X
Paraguay
X
X
X
Peru
X
X
X
Suriname
--
X
X
Uruguay
--
X
X
Venezuela
X
X
X
Sources: Compiled by CRS using the fol owing sources: ILO’s web page “Ratifications of C169 - Indigenous and
Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169);” the U.N. web page “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
Indigenous People;” and the OAS’ official publication of ADRIP.
Notes:
a. International Labor Organization, “Ratifications of C169 - Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989
(No. 169),” at
https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11300:0: NO:11300:P11300_INSTRUMENT_ID:312314.
b. From the region, only Colombia abstained from the vote. See U.N, Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, “United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People,” September 13, 2007, at
https://www.un.org/development/desa/Indigenouspeoples/declaration-on-the-rights-of-Indigenous-
peoples.html.
c. In the footnotes, Colombia “breaks with consensus” on paragraphs within Articles XXIII, XXIX, and XXX.
See Organization of American States, “American Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” June 15,
2016, at https://www.oas.org/en/sare/documents/DecAmIND.pdf.
The United Nations has a Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues and in 2001 created the Special
Rapporteurship on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, which promote the rights of Indigenous
peoples across the globe.48 In 1990, the Organization of American States created the
Rapporteurship on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to promote the rights of Indigenous peoples
throughout the Western Hemisphere.49 Table A-4 provides additional resources about the work of
international organizations with Indigenous peoples.
In a 2000 report, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) wrote “concern for
the human rights of Indigenous peoples and their members has been a constant feature in the
work of the Commission.”50 The IACHR has tracked its work involving Indigenous peoples. It
hosts multiple sessions per year to hold hearings regarding human rights issues affecting a
particular country or subregion of the Western Hemisphere. One of the categories for hearings is
the rights of Indigenous peoples. Table 4 shows the number of IACHR events by country

48 U.N. Office of the High Commissioner on Human Rights, “Special Rapporteur on the rights of Indigenous peoples,”
at https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/IPeoples/SRIndigenousPeoples/Pages/SRIPeoplesIndex.aspx.
49 Organization of American States, “Rapporteurship on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” at
http://www.oas.org/en/iachr/Indigenous/.
50 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, The Human Rights Situation of the Indigenous People in the
Americas, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.108, Doc. 62, October 20, 2000, at http://www.cidh.org/Indigenas/TOC.htm.
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involving Indigenous peoples’ rights. It also shows the number legal cases brought by Indigenous
peoples against countries in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights.
Table 4. Human Rights Events and Legal Cases about the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples in the Inter-American System 1996-2020
Country
Events on the Rights
Legal Cases brought
of Indigenous Peoples
by Indigenous Peoples
Colombia
27
2
Peru
22
0
Guatemala
18
2
Ecuador
14
2
Mexico
13
1
Brazil
12
2
Nicaragua
9
2
Chile
9
2
Argentina
8
2
Panama
8
1
Bolivia
8
0
Honduras
7
2
Venezuela
5
1
Costa Rica
4
0
Paraguay
3
2
Belize
2
1
Suriname
1
2
Guyana
1
0
Regionala
34
N/A
Source: Table created by CRS using available data from the IACHR from sessions 91-178 (February 1996-
December 2020). The first column data comes from the webpage “Hearings by Topic: Rights of Indigenous
Peoples” and the second column data comes from the webpage “Hearings by Topic: Petitions and Cases.”
Notes: IACHR events include topical hearings, petitions, and precautionary measures, which may or may not be
related to a legal case. Legal cases receive an identification number and are counted only once no matter how
many events are associated with it. Information is not available for all sessions, particularly before 1996.
a. The IACHR uses the regional category for hearings that span multiple countries. Where countries were
named along with the tag “regional,” the hearing was counted for all entities tagged.
In the appendix, Table A-5 lists publications that document various human rights issues
confronting Indigenous peoples. CRS also publishes a number of reports with country-specific
information on Indigenous peoples’ human rights issues.51

51 See CRS In Focus IF11325, Bolivia: An Overview, by Clare Ribando Seelke; CRS Report R43813, Colombia:
Background and U.S. Relations, by June S. Beittel;CRS In Focus IF11218, Ecuador: An Overview, by June S. Beittel;
CRS Report R42580, Guatemala: Political and Socioeconomic Conditions and U.S. Relations, by Maureen Taft-
Morales; CRS Report RL34027, Honduras: Background and U.S. Relations, by Peter J. Meyer; CRS Report R42917,
Mexico: Background and U.S. Relations, by Clare Ribando Seelke; and CRS Report R44841, Venezuela: Background
and U.S. Relations, coordinated by Clare Ribando Seelke.
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Appendix A. Data Sources and Resources Lists
Below are notes on the data sources most consulted for this report followed by resource lists
regarding Indigenous languages; socioeconomics; land, natural resources and climate change;
international organizations; and human rights.
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and Fundación para la Educación en Contextos
de Multilingüismo y Pluriculturalidad (the Foundation for Education in Multilingual and
Multicultural Contexts or FUNPROEIB) gathered data in 21 Latin American and Caribbean
countries in 2009 for its report in two volumes titled Atlas Sociolingüístico de Pueblos Indígenas
en América Latina. The report notes the limitations of using national censuses.52
In 2014, the United Nations’ Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
(ECLAC) collected population data from 17 Latin American countries using national censuses for
Guaranteeing Indigenous People’s Rights in Latin America: Progress in the Past Decade and
Remaining Challenges. The report notes that most countries ask people to self-identify as
Indigenous with the exception of Peru, which asks people if they speak an Indigenous language.53
In 2015, the World Bank published data from 16 countries using national censuses and household
surveys in Indigenous Latin America in the Twenty-First Century: the First Decade.54 The report
noted that the definition of Indigenous has become increasingly controversial and “underscores
the complexity of identifying Indigenous people across the region and argues that the conditions
of indigeneity vary over time and are, in some cases, context- and country-specific.”55
In 2020, ECLAC and the Development Fund for the Indigenous Peoples of Latin America and the
Caribbean (Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas de América Latina y el Caribe)
published Los pueblos indígenas de América Latina - Abya Yala y la Agenda 2030 para el
Desarrollo Sostenible: tensiones y desafíos desde una perspectiva territorial. The report’s focus
on the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals notes the advances in including
Indigenous peoples’ in official statistics and lists data from 17 national censuses.
The 2021 edition of Ethnologue counted languages for each country and divided them into
Indigenous and non-Indigenous categories. Indigenous languages figures were used in Table 2 as
non-Indigenous is defined as “a language that did not originate in the country, but which is now
established there either as a result of its longstanding presence or because of institutionally
supported use and recognition.”56 Only living languages were included in the count, not
languages classified as extinct. Ethnologue’s “about” section provides details on the
methodology, language names, and status of usage.
In 2020, the International Labor Organization’s Implementing the ILO Indigenous and Tribal
Peoples Convention No. 169 Towards an Inclusive, Sustainable and Just Future presented multi-
faceted statistics on the working conditions of Indigenous peoples with a special emphasis on

52 UNICEF, 2009. pp. vii-ix.
53 ECLAC, 2014, pp. 34-36.
54 IBRD and World Bank, 2015, pp. 6, 9.
55 Ibid.
56 Gary F. Simons (editor), “Language Information,” Ethnologue: Languages of the World. Twenty-third edition, SIL
International, 2020, at https://www.ethnologue.com/about/language-info.
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gendered dimensions of labor. The report noted the “continued ‘invisibility’ of Indigenous and
tribal peoples in official data and statistics.”57 The data provided is global and regional only.
The World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab provides national data on poverty, access to services,
education and labor (last updated in July 2021). Some subnational data is also available although
not covered in this report. The World Bank notes that ethnic identity is based on self-reported
data. Statistics may vary from official statistics reported by governments as the World Bank uses
SEDLAC, “a regional data harmonization effort that increases cross-country comparability.”58
The web page of the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights “Sessions by Topic: Rights of
Indigenous Peoples” provides detailed information on hearings and court cases related to
Indigenous peoples’ rights.59
For each table below, sources are listed in reverse chronological order with the year in
parentheses following the title. Multiple sources from the same year are listed alphabetically as
are sources without a publication date, such as websites. Some sources are global, with a section
dedicated to Latin America.
Table A-1. Resources on Indigenous Languages in Latin America
Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Languages of the World,
David M. Eberhard, Gary
World language
http://www.ethnologue.co
Twenty-fourth edition
F. Simons, and Charles D.
encyclopedia with maps
m
(2021)
Fennig (editors),
Ethnologue
Celebrating Indigenous
Google Earth
Interactive global website
https://earth.google.com/
Languages (2019)
web/data=CiQSIhIgYTY1
Y2U1NTk3MzE4MTFlOT
kzN2RjN2JkNTNhNDc1
ZGI
International Year of
United Nations
Website with global map,
https://en.iyil2019.org/
Indigenous Languages
summary report and
(2019)
more
Atlas Sociolingüístico de
UNICEF and FUNPROEIB Regional report in Spanish http://www.funproeibande
Pueblos Indígenas en
Andes
only
s.org/wp-
América Latina,
content/uploads/2018/12/
Volúmenes I and II (2009)
Atlas-tomo_1.pdf;
http://www.funproeibande
s.org/wp-
content/uploads/2018/12/
Atlas-tomo_2.pdf
Source: Compiled by CRS.

57 ILO, 2020, p. 44.
58 World Bank’s LAC Equity Lab, “Overview,” accessed July 27, 2021, at
https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/lac-equity-lab1
59 Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, “Sessions by Topic: Rights of Indigenous Peoples,” accessed July 27,
2021, at https://www.oas.org/es/cidh/audiencias/TopicsList.aspx?Lang=en&Topic=17
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Table A-2. Resources on Indigenous Socioeconomics
Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Linking Indigenous
Organization for
Report on OECD
https://www.oecd-
Communities with
Economic Cooperation
member countries
ilibrary.org/urban-rural-
Regional Development
and Development
including Chile and
and-regional-
(2019)
Mexico with some
development/linking-
information on non-
Indigenous-communities-
member countries
with-regional-
development_97353723-
en
State of the world`s
United Nations
Global report with a
http://www.un.org/develo
Indigenous peoples:
chapter on Latin America
pment/desa/Indigenouspe
Education, 3rd volume
and the Caribbean
oples/wp-
(2017)
content/uploads/sites/19/2
017/12/State-of-Worlds-
Indigenous-
Peoples_III_WEB2018.pdf
Indigenous Latin America
International Bank for
Regional report covers
http://documents.worldba
in the twenty-first
Reconstruction and
statistical numbers,
nk.org/curated/en/2016/0
century: the first decade
Development and the
migration, development,
2/24863854/Indigenous-
(2015)
World Bank
poverty, and education
latin-america-twenty-first-
century-first-decade
The state of the world´s
United Nations
Global report with a
https://www.un.org/esa/so
Indigenous people:
chapter on Latin America
cdev/unpfi /documents/20
Indigenous people´s
and the Caribbean
16/Docs-
access to health services,
updates/SOWIP_Health.p
2nd volume (2015)
df
Indigenous Peoples
U.S. Agency for
Website with policy, blog,
https://www.usaid.gov/Indi
International
and more
genous-peoples
Development
LAC Equity Lab: A
World Bank
Regional economic data
http://www.worldbank.or
Platform for Poverty and
and maps
g/en/topic/poverty/lac-
Inequality Analysis
equity-lab1
Source: Compiled by CRS.
Table A-3. Resources on Indigenous Land, Natural Resources, and Climate Change in
Latin America
Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
The State of the World´s
United Nations
Global report
https://www.un.org/devel
Indigenous Peoples: Rights
opment/desa/Indigenousp
to Lands, Territories, and
eoples/wp-
Resources, 5th volume
content/uploads/sites/19/2
(2021)
021/03/State-of-Worlds-
Indigenous-Peoples-Vol-
V-Final.pdf
Forest Governance by
United Nations Food and
Regional report
http://www.fao.org/3/cb29
Indigenous and Tribal
Agriculture Organization
53en/cb2953en.pdf
People. An Opportunity
and the Fund for the
for Climate Action in
Development of the
Latin America and the
Indigenous Peoples of
Caribbean (2021)
Latina America and the
Caribbean
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Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Environmental
Inter-American
Regional report
https://worldjusticeprojec
Governance Indicators in
Development Bank and
t.org/our-work/research-
Latin America and the
World Justice Project
and-data/environmental-
Caribbean (2020)
governance-indicators-
latin-america-and-
caribbean
Undermining Rights:
World Resources Insitute
Regional report
https://files.wri.org/d8/s3fs
Indigenous Lands and
-
Mining in the Amazon
public/Report_Indigenous
(2020)
_Lands_and_Mining_in_th
e_Amazon_web_1.pdf
Authorized to Steal:
Center for International
Regional report covers
https://www.ciel.org/wp-
Organized Crime
Environmental Law
government oversight,
content/uploads/2019/07/
Networks Launder Il egal
laundering, supply chains
Authorized-to-Steal-July-
Timber from the Peruvian
and recommendations
2019.pdf
Amazon (2019)
Blood Gold in the
Jon Lee Anderson, The
Regional long article
https://www.newyorker.c
Brazilian Rain Forest
New Yorker
om/magazine/2019/11/11/
(2019)
blood-gold-in-the-
brazilian-rain-forest
Global assessment report
Intergovernmental
Global report with
https://ipbes.net/global-
on biodiversity and
Science-Policy Platform
discussion of Indigenous
assessment-report-
ecosystem services (2019) on Biodiversity and
peoples integrated
biodiversity-ecosystem-
Ecosystem Services
throughout
services
Global Report on the
Joji Carino, Loreto
Global report with a
https://www.iwgia.org/ima
Situation of Lands,
Tamayo, Indigenous
section on Latin America
ges/documents/briefings/I
Territories and Resources Peoples Major Group for
and the Caribbean
PMG%20Global%20Repor
of Indigenous Peoples
Sustainable Development
t%20FINAL.pdf
(2019)
Rainforest Mafias: How
Human Rights Watch
Report on Brazilian public
https://www.hrw.org/repo
Violence and Impunity
and private actors, climate rt/2019/09/17/rainforest-
Fuel Deforestation in
change and public policy
mafias/how-violence-and-
Brazil’s Amazon (2019)
impunity-fuel-
deforestation-brazils-
amazon
Situation of Human Rights Inter-American
Regional report examines
http://www.oas.org/en/iac
of the Indigenous and
Commission on Human
threats to Indigenous
hr/reports/pdfs/Panamazo
Tribal Peoples of the Pan-
Rights
peoples, challenges to
nia2019-en.pdf
Amazon Region (2019)
their rights and
recommendations
At a Crossroads:
Rights and Resources
Global report
https://rightsandresources
Consequential Trends in
Initiative
.org/wp-
Recognition of
content/uploads/2019/03/
Community-Based Forest
At-A-
Tenure from 2002-2017
Crossroads_RRI_Nov-
(2018)
2018.pdf
Cornered by Protected
Victoria Tauli-Corpuz,
Website with global
https://www.corneredbyp
Areas (2018)
Janis Alcorn, and Augusta
resources including
as.com/
Molnar
report with case studies
of Panama and Peru
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Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Looted Amazon (2018)
Infoamazonia and Amazon Regional report covering
https://il egalmining.amazo
Georeferenced Socio-
mercury, protected areas,
niasocioambiental.org/?lan
Environmental
Indigenous territories and
g=en
Information Network
conflicts
Amazonía Socioambiental
Amazon Geo-Referenced
Website with maps about
https://www.amazoniasoci
Socio-Environmental
the Amazon’s protected
oambiental.org/en/maps/
Information Network, a
areas, Indigenous
consortium of civil society territories, deforestation
organizations from several and more (English,
countries
Spanish, Portuguese)
EcoCrime Data
Igarapé Institute and
Mapping tool for
https://ecocrime.igarape.o
InSight Crime
environmental crime in
rg.br/
the Amazon including
deforestation, il egal
mining, and cattle, soy,
and oil activity
Environmental Justice
Autonomous University
Global map with
https://ejatlas.org/
Atlas
of Barcelona’s Institute of
information about level of
Environmental Science
conflict, communities,
and Technology
commodities, companies,
and governmental
agencies involved, and
reference links
Indigenous peoples and
FAO Regional Office for
Website links to
http://www.fao.org/americ
food security in Latin
Latin America and the
additional regional
as/priorities/pueblos-
America and the
Caribbean
documents
indigenas/en/
Caribbean
International Indigenous
United Nations
Website for global caucus
https://iipfcc.squarespace.c
Peoples Forum on
of Indigenous peoples
om/home
Climate Change
participating in United
Nations Framework
Convention on Climate
Change
Landmark Map
World Resources
Global maps, data,
https://www.landmarkmap
Institute, International
country profiles
.org/
Land Coalition and others
Source: Compiled by CRS.
Table A-4. Resources on International Organizations and Indigenous Peoples in Latin
America
Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Implementing the ILO
International Labor
Global report on income
https://www.ilo.org/wcms
Indigenous and Tribal
Organization
and employment with
p5/groups/public/---
Peoples Convention No.
regional statistics and a
dgreports/---dcomm/---
169 Towards an Inclusive,
focus on gender
publ/documents/publicatio
Sustainable and Just
differences
n/wcms_735607.pdf
Future (2020)
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Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
The state of the world´s
United Nations
Global report covers
https://social.un.org/unpfi /
Indigenous peoples:
Declaration
sowip-vol4-web.pdf
Implementing the United
implementation, official
Nations Declaration on
statistics, challenges and
the Rights of Indigenous
priorities
Peoples, 4th volume
(2019)
Indigenous Peoples and
World Intellectual
Website provides access
https://www.wipo.int/tk/e
Local Communities Portal
Property Organization
to global publications and
n/Indigenous/
events
Indigenous Peoples—OAS Organization of American
Website provides access
http://www.oas.org/en/top
States
to the Rapporteurship on
ics/Indigenous_peoples.as
the Rights of Indigenous
p
Peoples of the Inter-
American Commission on
Human Rights, Summits of
the Americas, special
regional projects and
more
Indigenous and tribal
International Labor
Website provides access
https://www.ilo.org/global/
peoples
Organization
to global projects,
topics/Indigenous-
publications and
tribal/lang--en/index.htm
supervision of
conventions
United Nations for
United Nations’
Website provides access
https://www.un.org/devel
Indigenous Peoples
Department of Economic
to the global Permanent
opment/desa/Indigenousp
and Social Affairs
Forum on Indigenous
eoples/
Issues, the World
Conference on Indigenous
Peoples, expert group
meetings, the Special
Rapporteur on the rights
of Indigenous peoples and
more
Source: Compiled by CRS.
Table A-5. Resources on Indigenous Peoples’ Human Rights in Latin America
Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Front Line Defenders
Front Line Defenders
Global report about
https://www.frontlinedefe
Global Analysis 2020
physical, digital, legal and
nders.org/sites/default/file
(2021)
social attacks against
s/fld_global_analysis_2020
human rights defenders
.pdf
Annual Report 2020/21:
Amnesty International
Global report, see
https://www.amnesty.org/
The State of the World’s
“Americas Regional
download/Documents/PO
Human Rights
Overview”
L1032022021ENGLISH.P
DF
Human Rights in the
Amnesty International
Regional report with
https://www.amnesty.org/
Americas Annual Report
subsection on Indigenous
en/documents/amr01/135
2019 (2020)
peoples for each country
3/2020/en/
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Title
Author
Resource Type
URL
Indigenous World 2021
International Work
Annual global reports
https://www.iwgia.org/en/
Group for Indigenous
since 1986 about
resources/Indigenous-
Affairs
developments affecting
world.html
Indigenous peoples,
organized by country
Indigenous Women and
Inter-American
Regional report with
http://www.oas.org/en/iac
Their Human Rights in
Commission on Human
hearings, cases, thematic
hr/reports/pdfs/Indigenou
the Americas (2017)
Rights
and country reports that
sWomen.pdf
document violations of
the human rights of
Indigenous women
Guaranteeing Indigenous
United Nations Economic
Regional report covers
https://repositorio.cepal.o
people’s rights in Latin
Commission for Latin
sociopolitical context,
rg/bitstream/handle/11362
America: Progress in the
America and the
territorial rights, and
/37051/4/S1420782_en.pd
past decade and remaining Caribbean
rights to well-being and
f
challenges (2014)
information
Business, Civic Freedoms
Business & Human Rights
Global database of attacks https://www.business-
& Human Rights
Resource Centre
on human rights
humanrights.org/search-
Defenders Portal
defenders from 2015 to
human-rights-defenders
present, which specifies
Indigenous victims
Country Reports on
U.S. State Department
Annual global reports
https://www.state.gov/rep
Human Rights Practices

cover each country with a orts-bureau-of-
section “Discrimination,
democracy-human-rights-
Societal Abuses, and
and-labor/country-
Trafficking in Persons”
reports-on-human-rights-
that includes Indigenous
practices/
peoples
Indigenous Navigator
Community-generated
Website and global
http://nav.Indigenousnavig
data, website supported
database
ator.com/
by the European Union
Source: Compiled by CRS.
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link to page 34 Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Statistical Information

Appendix B. National Agencies of Indigenous
Affairs
Table B-1. Principal National Agencies Overseeing Indigenous Affairs
Country
Agency (parent agency, office)
Website
Argentina
Secretaría de Derechos Humanos,
https://www.argentina.gob.ar/derec
Instituto Nacional de Asuntos
hoshumanos/inai
Indígenas
Bolivia
Ministerio de Culturas,
https://www.minculturas.gob.bo/
Descolonización y
Despatriarcalización
Brazil
Fundação Nacional do Índio;
http://www.funai.gov.br/
Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária

e Abastecimento
http://www.agricultura.gov.br/
Chile
Ministerio de Desarrol o Social y
http://www.conadi.gob.cl/
Familia, Corporación Nacional de
Desarrol o Indígena
Colombia
Ministerio del Interior, Dirección
https://www.mininterior.gov.co/misi
de Asuntos Indígenas, ROM y
on/direccion-de-asuntos-indigenas-
Minorías
rom-y-minorias
Costa Rica
Comisión Nacional de Asuntos
http://www.conai.go.cr/
Indígenas
Ecuador
Consejo Nacional para la Igualdad
http://www.pueblosynacionalidades.
de Pueblos y Nacionalidades
gob.ec/
El Salvador
Ministerio de Culturaa
https://www.cultura.gob.sv/marco-
institucional/
Guatemala
Ministerio Público, Secretaría de
https://www.mp.gob.gt/nosotros/
Pueblos Indígenas
Guyana
Ministry of Amerindian Affairs
https://moipa.gov.gy/
Honduras
Secretaría de Desarrol o e Inclusión http://dinafroh.sedis.gob.hn/direccio
Social, Dirección de Pueblos
n-de-pueblos-indigenas-y-
Indígenas y Afrohondureños
afrohondurenos-dinafroh
Mexico
Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos
https://www.gob.mx/inpi
Indígenas; Secretaría de Cultura,
Instituto Nacional de Lenguas
Indígenas;
Nicaragua
Asamblea Nacional, Comisión de
http://legislacion.asamblea.gob.ni/Ta
Asuntos de los Pueblos Originarios,
blas%20Generales.nsf/InfoComision.
Afrodescendientes y Regímenes
xsp?documentId=70FB74CCEB9CB
Autonómicos; Comisión Nacional
64E0625838C004FC379&action=op
de Demarcación y Titulación
enDocument
Panama
Ministerio de Gobierno y Justicia,
http://www.mingob.gob.pa/viceminis
Viceministerio de Asuntos
terio-asuntos-indigenas/
Indígenas; Ministerio de Salud,
http://www.minsa.gob.pa/direccion/
Dirección de Asuntos Sanitarios
direccion-de-asuntos-sanitarios-
Indígenas
indigenas
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Indigenous Peoples in Latin America: Statistical Information

Paraguay
Presidencia de la República,
http://www.indi.gov.py/
Instituto Paraguayo del Indígena
Peru
Ministerio de Salud, Dirección de
https://www.gob.pe/7662-
Pueblos Indígenas u Originarios;
ministerio-de-salud-organizacion-
Ministerio de Cultura, Base de
de-ministerio-de-salud
datos de Pueblos Indígenas u
https://bdpi.cultura.gob.pe/index.php
Originarios
/
Uruguay
Ministerio del Interior, Área Étnico
https://www.minterior.gub.uy/index.
Racial
php?option=com_content&view=ar
ticle&id=3447
Venezuela
Ministerio del Poder Popular para
http://www.minpi.gob.ve/
los Pueblos Indígenas
Source: Compiled by CRS.
a. The Ministry of Culture mentions Indigenous peoples only in its list of responsibilities “Ejercer la rectoría de
los procesos relacionados con el desarrol o socio cultural de los pueblos indígenas.”

Author Information

Carla Y. Davis-Castro

Research Librarian

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