Timber Harvesting on Federal Lands
July 28, 2021
Congress has granted some federal land management agencies the authority to sell timber from
federal lands. Two agencies, the Forest Service (FS) and the Bureau of Land Management
Anne A. Riddle
(BLM), conduct timber sales as an authorized use. Together, the FS and the BLM manage 76%
Analyst in Natural
of federal forest area. FS manages 144.9 million acres , while BLM manages 37.6 million acres .
Resources Policy
The other major federal land management agencies, the National Park Service (NPS) and the Fish

and Wildlife Service (FWS), rarely conduct timber sales.

Lands managed by the FS, the National Forest System (NFS), are managed under a multiple use -
sustained yield model pursuant to the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA). This statute directs FS to
balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of those uses in perpetuity. Congress, through the National
Forest Management Act (NFMA), has directed FS to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning. Plans
set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed through an interdisciplinary process with
opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber harvesting may occur and include
measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. FS uses these plans to guide implementation of individual sales, which
generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue.
Timber harvest on FS lands has varied over time. FS harvest volumes in the 1940s were around 1-3 billion board feet per
year. Annual harvest volumes rose from the 1950s through the 1980s, sometimes exceeding 10 billion board feet. Annual
harvested volumes decreased in the early 1990s and have remained between 2.0 and 3.0 billion board feet since FY2010. The
total dollar value of FS timber harvests generally rose from the early 1940s to over $3 billion in FY1979. Total value has
been between $100 million and $300 million since FY2001. From FY2016 to FY2020, the greatest average annual harvest
volume on FS lands was from Oregon and Washington.
BLM lands are managed under a multiple use-sustained yield model pursuant to the Federal Land Policy and Management
Act of 1976 (FLPMA). This statute directs BLM to balance multiple uses of their lands and ensure a sustained yield of th ose
uses in perpetuity. Congress has directed BLM to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning through
FLPMA. Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection; they are developed made through an
interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. In the case of timber, they describe where timber
harvesting may occur and contain measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. The FS and the BLM use these plans to
guide implementation of individual sales, which generate revenue. Congress has specified various uses for this revenue.
Although trends in timber activities on BLM lands are challenging to infer from the available data, volumes sold in the past
appear to be larger than recent volumes offered for sale. Data on harvested volumes for the BLM are available from FY1994
onward. During that time, harvested volumes generally have been between 100 million and 300 million board feet annually,
except in FY1994 and between FY2001-FY2003. Total harvest values have declined since the mid-1990s, and have generally
been between $20 million and $60 million annually since FY2011. From FY2016 to FY2020, the greatest average annual
harvest volume from BLM lands was from Oregon and Washington.
Congress has debated the appropriate balance of timber harvesting and other uses on federal lands. Determining the
proportions of these uses, in whole and on individual lands, is challenging for land management agencies. Preferences for
certain balances of these uses often stem from values about federal forests’ purposes, such as consideration of economic,
environmental, or recreational values. Debate has also centered on the relationship of timber harvesting levels to forest
health, including whether changing harvest levels is a desirable forest management tool.
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Introduction
Timber harvesting on federal lands is a long-
Forest Land, Woodland, and Timberland
standing activity which sometimes generates
Forest land, woodland, and timberland are al
controversy. Most timber harvesting on federal
classifications referring to lands dominated by trees.
lands occurs on lands directed to provide a
This report, and al reported data herein, use
regular output of multiple uses under current
definitions from the decennial assessment of forest
resources prepared by the Forest Service as required
law. Determining the proportions of these
by the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources
uses, in whole and on individual lands, is
Planning Act (RPA, P.L. 93-378).
chal enging for land management agencies.
Forest Land (also referred to as “forest” in this
Often at issue is the appropriate use of federal
report) is defined as land with at least 10% cover by
lands for timber harvesting under these
live trees, including lands that formerly had this tree
policies, including what amount of timber
cover and wil be regenerated.
harvesting should occur and what constitutes
Timberland is defined as forest land that is producing
or is capable of producing crops of industrial wood and
proper balance among timber harvesting and
is not withdrawn from timber use by statute or
other uses.
regulation. Areas qualifying as timberland are capable of
producing in excess of 20 cubic feet per acre per year
Congress has authorized timber harvesting on
of industrial wood. Timberland may be natural, if trees
certain federal lands under specified
are established by natural regeneration, or planted, if
circumstances. Most timber harvesting on
trees are established by human planting or seeding.
federal lands occurs on two land systems. The
Woodland is defined as land with sparse trees with a
majority of harvests occur on the National
tree canopy cover of 5% to 10%, combined with shrubs
Forest System (NFS), which is managed by
to achieve an overal cover of woody vegetation over
the Forest Service (FS) within the Department
10%. Woodland is not included in the definition of
timberland because woodland is not general y capable
of Agriculture (USDA). Harvests also occur
of producing the timber volumes in the definition.
on the public lands managed by the Bureau of
However, timber harvesting could occur on woodland.
Land Management (BLM) within the
For further information regarding these definitions, see
Department of the Interior (DOI). The FS
Sonja Oswalt, W. Brad Smith, and Patrick Miles, et al.,
manages 144.9 mil ion acres of forest, while
Forest Resources of the United States, 2012: A Technical
the BLM manages 37.6 mil ion acres of forest
Document Supporting the Forest Service Update of the
2010 RPA Assessment. U.S. Department of Agriculture
(see Figure 1).1 Together, FS and BLM forest
(USDA), Forest Service (FS), GTR-WO-91, 2014.
comprises 76% of federal forest area and 23%
of al forest in the United States. Within their respective forest, the FS has 96.1 mil ion acres of
timberlands, and the BLM has 6.1 mil ion acres of timberlands. The United States has 765.5
mil ion acres of forest, of which 514.4 mil ion acres is timberland and 57% is private. The United
States has 57.0 mil ion acres of woodland.2
Timber harvesting is the physical cutting and removal of trees or parts of trees from a given
forested site. Harvested timber, or cut and removed trees, is the raw material for items made of
wood, such as lumber, plywood, paper, and other products. Timber harvesting may occur on
private, federal, or nonfederal publicly owned lands, and may be conducted by the landowner or

1 All following acreage data herein were generated as part of the forest and rangeland resources assessment process
conducted by FS as required under the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA, P.L.
93-378). Data from Sonja Oswalt, Patrick Miles, and Scott Pugh, et al., Forest Resources of the United States, 2017: A
Technical Docum ent Supporting the Forest Service 2020 Update of the RPA Assessm ent , Forest Service (FS), U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA), 2017, https://www.fia.fs.fed.us/program-features/rpa/docs/
2017RPAFIAT ABLESFINAL_050918.pdf, hereinafter referred to as RPA 2017.
2 RPA 2017. T his source does not classify woodland by ownership.
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Timber Harvesting on Federal Lands

by another entity they al ow to do so. Most timber harvesting in the United States is conducted on
private lands: in 2011, 88% of timber harvests were conducted on private lands, and in 2012, 90%
of wood and paper products in the United States originated on private lands.3
Figure 1. FS, BLM, and Other Forest and Woodland

Source: CRS. Data from U.S. Geological Survey, Gap Analysis Program (GAP), Protected Areas Database of the
United States (PAD-US), version 1.4 Combined Feature Class, 2016, and Jaketon Hewes, Brett Butler and Greg
Liknes, Forest ownership in the conterminous United States circa 2014: distribution of seven ownership types -
geospatial dataset. Fort Col ins, CO: Forest Service Research Data Archive, 2017. Data shown are forests and
woodlands.
Notes: FS and BLM land that is not forest or woodland is not depicted. Forest or woodland in al other
ownership types, including private, public nonfederal, and federal non-FS and non-BLM ownership, is depicted
in blue.
FS and BLM conduct timber sales as the most general way to al ow timber harvesting on their
respective lands, although they may al ow harvesting in other ways.4 A timber sale is a formal
process whereby an entity may purchase a contract to cut and remove specified timber. FS and
BLM receive revenue from the sale of the contract. Information on timber harvesting in this
report, such as harvested volume, harvested value, and other statistics, derives from FS and BLM
data and may include timber harvested through timber sales or other means.

3 Sonja Oswalt, W. Brad Smith, and Patrick Miles, et al., Forest Resources of the United States, 2012: A Technical
Docum ent Supporting the Forest Service Update of the 2010 RPA Assessm ent. FS, USDA, GT R-WO-91, 2014, and
Sonja Oswalt and W. Brad Smith, U.S. Forest Resource Facts and Historical Trends, FS, USDA, FS-1035, 2014.
4 For general authorities regarding timber sales on FS and BLM land, see “Statut ory Authorities for Harvesting
T imber” in the FS and BLM sections. A detailed discussion of specific authorities allowing FS to sell or otherwise
dispose of timber through various vehicles, or in specified circumstances, is beyond the scope of this report.
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Both FS and BLM timber sale planning and implementation proceed under similar principles of
achieving multiple use and sustained yield. Both agencies conduct timber harvesting for various
purposes. Both plan long-term timber management by designating areas that can support
sustainable timber harvest and calculating yields that can be taken without permanent
impairment. In the short term, both agencies create plans for timber sales, determine the value of
offered timber and specify what timber may be cut, and conduct sales in a competitive manner
open to the public.5
Timber harvesting may also occur on two other federal land systems, the National Park System,
managed by the National Park Service, and the National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS),
managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service (both agencies are within DOI). In the case of the
National Park System, the Secretary may dispose of timber to control insects and diseases or to
conserve natural or historic resources.6 In the case of the NWRS, the Secretary of the Interior may
permit timber harvesting to achieve desired fish and wildlife habitat conditions. On both systems,
timber harvesting is rare, and harvested volumes are smal .7
This report provides an overview of timber harvesting on FS and BLM lands. The report
describes general statutory authorities and regulations, planning activities, timber sales, and
trends in the volume and value of timber harvested, first from FS lands, and then for BLM lands.8
It concludes with a discussion of issues Congress has debated concerning timber harvesting and
federal lands.
The National Forest System
The National Forest System comprises nearly 193 mil ion acres. It is made up of 154 national
forests, national grasslands, and other units such as research and experimental areas.9
Approximately 75% of national forest acreage is located in 15 states.10 As discussed, the NFS
contains 144.9 mil ion acres of forest and woodland, of which 66% are considered timberland.11

5 For greater detail, see FS and BLM “Planning Rules and Process” sections. Some agency authorities and resources
describe this this process; for BLM, see 43 C.F.R. §5410 and BLM Handbook H-5410-1, Annual Forest Product Sale
Plan; for FS, see FS Manual 2431.04, Management of Tim ber Sale Program .
6 54 U.S.C. §100753.
7 For an overview of general purposes, authorities, and organization of the NWRS and the different units of the NPS,
see respectively CRS Report R45265, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: An Overview, by R. Eliot Crafton, and CRS
Report R41816, National Park System : What Do the Different Park Titles Signify? , by Laura B. Comay.
8 Unless otherwise specified, this report discusses harvested volume, also called cut volume, and harvested value, also
called cut value. Harvested volume refers to the amount of timber physically removed in a given period of time.
Volume of timber harvested in a given year typically differs from timber sold or timber offered for sale in that year.
Harvested value refers to the amount paid for the cut timber after it is removed.
9 FS, USDA, Land Areas Report (LAR), 2018, T able 1, at https://www.fs.fed.us/land/staff/lar/LAR2018/
LART able01.pdf.
10 T hese states are FS regions 1 through 6, which includes the states of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas,
Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.
11 Data from RPA 2017. For more information on the NFS, see CRS Report R43872, National Forest System
Managem ent: Overview, Appropriations, and Issues for Congress, by Katie Hoover.
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Statutory Authorities for Harvesting Timber
Most of the lands contained in the modern Forest Service were reserved from the public lands in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in what were first cal ed “forest reserves.”12 The forest
reserves were initial y managed by the DOI and later moved to the USDA and the Forest
Service.13 Through the Organic Administration Act, Congress specified that the purpose of these
forests was to “improve and protect the forest within the reservation … and to furnish a
continuous supply of timber for the use and necessities of the citizens of the United States,” in
addition to protecting water flows.14 The act authorized timber sales of “dead, matured or large
growth of trees” and set out procedures for conducting them.15
Congress expanded the purposes for the national forests, and developed management goals to
achieve those purposes, through the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960 (MUSYA).16
Congress added the provision of fish and wildlife habitat, recreation, energy and mineral
development, and livestock grazing as official purposes of the national forests, in addition to
timber harvesting and watershed protection. To supply these activities, management of the forests’
resources is to be organized for multiple uses in a “harmonious and coordinated” manner that
considers the combination of uses that best meets the needs of the American people, not that
necessarily yields the largest dollar return or output. The act also directs a sustained yield of
products and services, meaning high-level regular output in perpetuity without impairing the
lands’ productivity.17
Planning, Sale Process, and Revenues
Congress has directed FS to engage in long-term land use and resource management. Plans set the
framework for land management, uses, and protection. They are developed through an
interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. FS uses these plans to guide
implementation of site-specific activities. In the case of timber, plans describe where timber
harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels, and are used to

12 Congress granted the President the authority to establish forest reserves from lands in the public domain through the
Forest Reserve Act of March 3, 1891, P.L. 51 -561. Congress repealed the President’s authority to establish forest
reserves in certain states through the Agriculture Appropriations Act of March 4, 1907 (P .L. 60-242) and renamed the
forest reserves “national forests.” Congress repealed the President’s authority to establish nat ional forests altogether
with the passage of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA, P.L. 94-588; see “ Planning, Sale Process,
and Revenues” in the FS section below). For example, in 1910, national forests comprised 172 million acres. See FS,
USDA, Land Areas Report (LAR), 2018, T able 21 for data on historical NFS acres.
13 T he T ransfer Act of 1905 (33 Stat. 628, 16 U.S.C. §472) moved management of these lands to the Bureau of Forestry
in the USDA. Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson changed the name of the Bureau of Forestry to the Forest Service
through General Order No. 84, issued February 1, 1905. U.S. Congress, Senate, Rules and Regulations governing the
Departm ent of Agriculture in its various branches, Furnished in response to a resolution adopted by the Senate of the
United States , prepared by Government Printing Office, 59 th Cong., 2nd sess., 398 (Washington: GPO, 1907).
14 Act of June 4, 1897, Organic Administration Act, hereinafter referred to as the FS Organic Act (16 U.S.C. §473 -
476); timber authorization in seventh and ninth paragraphs under “Surveying the Public Lands.” T he act was amended
by the National Forest Management Act of 1976, described below in the FS “ Planning, Sale Process, and Revenues”
section.
15 While the FS Organic Act provides a general authorization for harvesting timber, other laws have provided specific
authorities. For example, salvage sale authority was provided in the National Forest Management Act, P.L. 94-588,
among others. Detailed description of special authorities is beyond the scope of this report.
16 P.L. 86-517, 16 U.S.C. §§528 et seq.
17 16 U.S.C. §531b.
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guide implementation of individual sales. These sales generate revenues. Congress has specified
various uses for these revenues.
Congress directed the Forest Service to conduct long-term planning and management through the
passage of the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA).18 NFMA requires the FS to
prepare a land and resource management plan—often cal ed a “forest plan”—for each NFS unit.19
These plans are to be revised at least every 15 years. The FS has issued regulations to implement
the planning requirement—often cal ed “planning rules”—and to establish the procedures for
developing, amending, and revising forest plans. The first planning rule was issued in 1979 and
later revised; the current rule dates from 2012.20 Forest planning and implementation general y
proceed as described below. Forest Service timber planning and administration proceed under
general FS planning procedures.21
Forest plans guide management of the plan area by specifying objectives, standards, and
guidelines for resources and activities. They contain certain components required by statute, such
as components addressing provision of outdoor recreation, range, wildlife, fish, and timber.
Among the most general required components addressing timber are requirements to identify
areas and quantities for timber harvesting.22 The FS must identify lands that may be not suited for
timber production.23 Al other lands in the NFS unit are considered suitable for timber production.
The plan must contain the allowable sale quantity, the measure of timber that can be removed
annual y without impairing future yield, although FS also considers other measures of sustainable
yield in planning over various time horizons.24 The al owable sale quantity informs the amount of
timber that can be removed annual y over a 10-year plan period.25 Plans are required to be
developed with public participation and in accordance with various other administrative and
environmental statutes, such as the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).26

18 P.L. 93-378 P.L. 94-588, 16 U.S.C. §1601 et al. (NFMA). NFMA amended the Forests and Rangelands Renewable
Resources Planning Act (RPA), P.L. 93-378, 16 U.S.C. §§1600 et seq.
19 NFS units may consist of more than one national forest.
20 36 C.F.R. §221. For greater detail on the history of the planning rule, see CRS Report R43872, National Forest
System Managem ent: Overview, Appropriations, and Issues for Congress, by Katie Hoover; see also Forest Service,
“History of Forest Planning,” https://www.fs.usda.gov/main/planningrule/history.
21 Information in this section derives from a general survey of selected FS laws, regulations, and other authorities, such
as manuals and handbooks. For FS timber planning and administration authorities, see 16 U.S.C. §472a, 16 U.S.C.
§1611, 16 U.S.C. §1604, 36 C.F.R. §219, 36 C.F.R. §221, 36 C.F.R. §223, FS Manual Series 1900, FS Manual Series
2400, FS Handbook 1901.12, FS Handbook Series 2400. In general, if a c ited activity is addressed in statute, statute is
cited, although other authorities may exist (for example, in regulation or agency handbooks, manuals, or other
directives); if a cited activity is addressed in regulations, regulations are cited, although o ther authorities may exist (for
example, in agency handbooks, manuals, or other directives); if a cited activity is addressed in agency handbooks,
manuals, or other directives, at least one such authority is cited.
22 Statutes also require other components addressing timber harvesting in forest plans, such as components addressing
circumstances wherein harvest levels may be increased based on intensified management practices, or components
addressing circumstances under which harvests to regenerate even -aged stands may be used, among others. See, for
example, 16 U.S.C. §1600(g)(3)(D-F), 16 U.S.C. §1600(m).
23 T he FS removes from consideration lands that cannot legally be harvested due to executive or legislative action, are
not forested, have other desired conditions established in planning, or will be difficult to restock or damaging to
harvest. 16 U.S.C. §1604(k).
24 16 U.S.C. §1611(a).
25 See FS Handbook 1901.20, Chapter 60, Forest Vegetation Resource Management, FS, Manual 2410, Timber
Resource Managem ent Planning, and FS, FS Handbook 2409.13, Tim ber Resource Planning Handbook for a
description of other concepts FS may use in planning for short - and long-term sustainable yield.
26 P.L. 91-190, 42 U.S.C. §§4321-4347; for an overview of NEPA, see CRS Report RL33152, The National
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Forest plans may consider harvesting for various purposes—for example, to produce timber or to
achieve and maintain desired resource conditions, such as habitat improvement, fire risk
reduction, and sanitation.27 If the forest plan identifies lands as suitable for timber production, the
plan must address timber harvesting on those lands.28 If the forest plan considers timber
harvesting for purposes other than producing timber, it must delineate areas where such activities
may occur. These areas may be identified by forest type, geographic area, or other criteria.29
FS conducts timber sales to achieve the objectives in the forest plan. FS establishes a sale
schedule and timber sale project plan, which may include more than one timber sale.30 The plan
estimates volume offered, acreage, and harvest methods for the relevant sales. Site-specific timber
harvests must also comport with NEPA and relevant statutes, including any requirement for site-
specific environmental analysis and review.
Prior to an individual sale, FS marks and appraises the timber to be offered. FS may designate
timber in one of three ways: physical marking, a written description of specific trees for harvest
(cal ed description), or a written description of desired post-harvest stand characteristics (cal ed
prescription).31 FS creates a sale package, including a prospectus, sample contract, and other
required documentation; some requirements are site-specific.32 FS advertises the package at an
appraised starting price.33 Interested parties may bid on the package. A contract is awarded to the
highest bidder provided legal conditions are met.34 The winning bidder conducts the timber
harvest according to the terms—such as timeline, harvest method, and road construction
conditions—specified in the contract. Timber harvests must general y be completed in 3 years,
with a maximum term of 10 years.35
Timber sales generate revenue, and disposition of this revenue depends on several factors.
Congress has established several funds for FS to retain and use timber sale receipts. Depending
on the type of sale, among other factors, FS may be required to make certain deposits to these
funds. If any portion of receipts are not required to be deposited, FS may distribute receipts
among funds at their discretion, including depositing al revenue in a single fund. The money in
these funds may be used by the FS for a variety of purposes, sometimes without further
appropriation (i.e., as mandatory appropriations).36 See Table A-1 for a list of these funds. A more

Environm ental Policy Act (NEPA): Background and Im plementation, by Linda Luther.
27 36 C.F.R. §219.11.
28 36 C.F.R. §219.11(b).
29 FS, Manual 1920, Land and Resource Management Planning and FS, FS Handbook 1909.12, Land and Resource
Managem ent Planning Handbook.
30 FS, Manual 2431.04, Management of Timber Sale Program.
31 In 2014, P.L. 113-79 allowed the FS to denote trees by description or prescription. Before this, trees could only be
denoted by physical marking. 16 U.S.C. §472a(g).
32 For example, if revenue will be deposited into a specific fund, additional documentation may be required in the
package. FS, Manual 2430, Com m ercial Tim ber Sales, and FS, Handbook 2409.18, Tim ber Sale Preparation
Handbook.
33 16 U.S.C. §472a(d).
34 16 U.S.C. §472a(e).
35 16 U.S.C. §472a(c).
36 For information on FS funds and receipts, see the “Revenue, Receipts, and T ransfers” section of the annual FS
Budget Justifications, e.g., p. 12 of the FY2021 Budget Justification at https://www.fs.fed.us/sites/default/files/
media_wysiwyg/usfs-fy-2021-budget -justification.pdf. FS allocates some revenues to entities as required under
revenue-sharing programs, generally states or local governments. T he relationship between allocation of revenue in this
manner and deposits into timber revenue funds is determined by law. A detailed discussion of this topic is beyond the
scope of this report. For more information on some revenue-sharing programs, see CRS Report RL31392, PILT
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detailed discussion of revenue levels, expenditures, and issues related to FS timber revenue funds
is outside the scope of this report.
Timber Harvests from the NFS
Timber harvesting is one of many authorized uses of the NFS. The amount of timber harvested
from the NFS, and its relative proportion of total U.S. timber supply, has fluctuated over time.
This section provides an overview of timber volume harvested from the NFS, and value of those
harvests, along with some economic and historical factors which may have contributed to
observed changes.
The volume of timber harvested from the national forests (and their precursors, the forest
reserves) increased slowly from 1898 until the 1940s.37 Most demand for wood was met by
private timberlands; by 1940, for example, FS lands supplied 2% of U.S. timber supply.38
In the post-World War II era, timber harvest volume from the NFS grew (see Figure 2).39 The
timber supply from private forestry was unable to keep pace with the increased demand, due in
part to high harvest levels during WWII.40 In the 1950s, the FS began to raise harvest limits.41
Harvests rose from 1-3 bil ion board feet (abbreviated BBF) annual y in the early 1940s to more
than 10 BBF in some years of the 1960s and 1970s.42 According to historical data from one
source, harvest from the NFS rose from 9% of total U.S. harvest in 1952 to 16% in 1962 and
1970, and 15% in 1976.43
Harvest volume declined from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s. Harvest on FS lands shifted to
more marginal timberlands; in part, clear-cutting in the previous decades had reduced tree volume
available for harvest in productive areas.44 This period also coincided with recessions in 1980 and
1982, which may have reduced demand.

(Paym ents in Lieu of Taxes): Som ewhat Sim plified , by Katie Hoover, and CRS Report R41303, The Secure Rural
Schools and Com m unity Self-Determ ination Act: Background and Issues, by Katie Hoover.
37 For more information about the FS before 1940, see Paul Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optimism: Management of the
National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).
38 T erry West, Centennial Mini-Histories of the Forest Service, USDA, Report FS-518, 1992. See also Miles Burnett
and Charles Davis, “Getting Out the Cut: Politics and National Forest T imber Harvests, 1960 -1995.” Administration &
Society, vol. 34, no. 2 (2002): pp. 202-228.
39 Deborah Che, “T he new economy and the forest: rural development in the post -industrial spaces of the rural
Alleghenies,” Social Science Quarterly vol. 84, no. 4, (2003) pp. 963-978.
40 Miles Burnett and Charles Davis, “Getting Out the Cut: Politics and National Forest T imber Harvests, 1960-1995.”
Adm inistration & Society, vol. 34, no. 2 (2002): pp. 202-228; Paul Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optim ism : Managem ent of the
National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).
41 For example, according to FS, Report of the Chief of the Forest Service, 1953 and 1961, measures of sustainable
allowable cut were estimated to be at least 6.9 billion board feet (BBF) in 1953, and 11.2 BBF in 1961; in 1961, authors
reported a “steady increase in the annual allowable cut in recent years.”
42 A board foot is a unit of wood measuring 12 inches by 12 inches by 1 inch.
43 Calculation from historical national forest timber harvest data and historical U.S. timber harvest data presented in
Richard Haynes (T echnical Coordinator), An Analysis of the Tim ber Situation in the United States: 1952 to 2050, FS,
USDA, PNW-GT R-560, 2003. Historical data presented in this source are from 1952, 1962, 1970, 1976, 1986, 1991,
and 1997. Data were compiled as part of the forest and rangeland resources assessment process conducted by FS as
required under the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act of 1974 (RPA, P.L. 93-378). They may
differ from other assessments of historical timber harvesting if differences exist in the data generating process.
44 Miles Burnett and Charles Davis, “Getting Out the Cut: Politics and National Forest T imber Harvests, 1960 -1995.”
Adm inistration & Society, vol. 34, no. 2 (2002): pp. 202-228.
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Figure 2. Annual Cut Volume and Value, NFS

Source: CRS. FY1977-FY2020 data: Forest Service, Forest Products Cut and Sold Reports, at https://www.fs.fed.us/
forestmanagement/products/cut-sold/index.shtml. FY1940-FY1976 data: Forest Service Legislative Affairs Office.
Notes: MMBF stands for mil ion board feet. 1,000 mil ion board feet equals 1 bil ion board feet. Nominal dol a rs
have been converted to FY2020 dol ars using Bureau of Labor Statistics Historical Consumer Price Index, Al
Urban Customers, annual averages.
Timber harvests rose from the early 1980s to the early 1990s, sometimes reaching levels of over
12 BBF per year. These timber harvests coincided with the 1986 U.S. peak in per capita
consumption of wood products, driven in part by an increase in housing starts following the 1982
recession.45 In 1986, timber harvests from the NFS were 13% of total U.S. timber harvests.
In the early 1990s, harvested timber volume began a sustained decrease. In 1991, the NFS
supplied 11% of total U.S. harvested timber, and in 1997, the NFS supplied 5% of total U.S.
harvested timber.46 In 2011, NFS supplied 2% of U.S. wood and paper products.47 Numerous
interrelated factors, including statutory, administrative, biological, and market influences, may
have contributed to this decline. The effect of each individual factor is not settled, as is the effect
of each factor over time. These factors occurred at varying points in time and may not coincide
directly with observed harvest level changes. Some sources have noted that statutory changes
added complexity to forest management and increasing litigation frequency, while also increasing
transparency and public participation.48 Other sources have noted changing management

45 James Howard and Kwameka Jones, U.S. Timber Production, Trade, Consumption, and Price Statistics, 1965 -2013,
USDA, FPL-RP-679, 2016.
46 Calculation from historical national forest timber harvest data and h istorical U.S. timber harvest data presented in
Richard Haynes (T echnical Coordinator), An Analysis of the Tim ber Situation in the United States: 1952 to 2050 , FS,
USDA, PNW-GT R-560, 2003.
47 Sonja Oswalt, W. Brad Smith, and Patrick Miles, et al., Forest Resources of the United States, 2012: A Technical
Docum ent Supporting the Forest Service Update of the 2010 RPA Assessm ent. Forest Service (FS), U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA), GT R-WO-91, 2014
48 For a historical perspective of FS timber administration, and a description of changes following the enactment of
statutes such as NFMA, see Herbert Kaufman, The Forest Ranger: A Study in Adm inistrative Behavior (Johns Hopkins
Press, 1967), T erence T ipple and J. Douglas Wellman, “ Herbert Kaufman’s Forest Ranger T hirty Years Later: From
Simplicity and Homogeneity to Complexity and Diversity,” Public Administration Review 51(5), 1991, pp. 421-428,
and Paul Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optim ism : Managem ent of the National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press, 1994). For FS analysis of the effect of procedural requirements on NFS management, see
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priorities.49 Others have noted decreasing domestic demand, volatile prices, and the prevalence of
less valuable timber due to high harvest levels in previous decades.50 The listing of the northern
spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) under the Endangered Species Act in 1990 is often
discussed in regard to declining timber harvest levels.51
Harvested volumes have consistently been between 2 BBF and 3 BBF annual y from FY2004
onward. In FY2020, approximately 2.6 BBF were harvested from FS lands. Although the national
timber market in the United States was affected by the 2008 housing market collapse and the
subsequent decline in demand, timber volumes harvested from FS experienced relatively little
change in volume, for unclear reasons.52
In FY2020 dollars, harvest values from approximately FY2000 onward are similar to harvest
values in the early 1940s. Harvest values general y increased from the early 1940s to a peak of
approximately $3.5 bil ion (FY2020 dollars) in FY1979, before a decline through FY1982. They
rose again thereafter, reaching another peak of approximately $2.8 bil ion (FY2020 dollars) in
FY1989, before again declining. Values from FY2001 onward have general y been between
approximately $100 mil ion and $300 mil ion in FY2019 dollars. In FY2020, cut value was
approximately $139.1 mil ion. FS harvest value declined during the recession and housing
collapse of 2008. Harvest value may vary due to quality, species, and age class of offered timber
and timber market conditions, and is correlated with volume harvested.
Geographic Distribution of Timber Harvests from NFS Lands
FS harvest volume differs by region; these differences mirror the major production regions in
private forestry (see Figure 3). FS Region 6 (the Pacific Northwest), Region 8 (the Southeast),
and Region 9 (the North), are the three largest producing regions in both private and public
forestry.53 In general, harvest volume and value by region is a function of many complex factors,

USDA, FS, The Process Predicam ent: How Statutory, Regulatory, and Adm inistrative Factors Affect NFS
Managem ent, 2002. For a description of some changes to FS litigation patterns over time, see Robert Malmsheimer,
Denise Keele, and Donald W. Floyd, “ National Forest Litigation and the U.S. Court of Appeals,” Journal of Forestry,
vol.10, no.20 (2004), pp. 20-25, and Amanda Miner, Robert Malmsheimer, and Denise Keele, “ T wenty Years of Forest
Service Land Management Litigation,” Journal of Forestry, vol. 112, no. 1 (2014), pp. 32-40.
49 For example, see Dale Bosworth and Hutch Brown, “After the T imber Wars: Community -Based Stewardship,”
Journal of Forestry, vol. 105, no. 5 (2007), p. 271, and George Hoberg, “ T he Emerging T riumph of Ecosystem
Management: T he T ransformation of Federal Forest Policy,” in Western Public Lands and Environmental Politics, ed.
Charles David, 2nd ed. (Routledge, 2018), pp. 55-86.
50 For information on market changes over time, see James Howard and Kwameka Jones, U.S. Timber Production,
Trade, Consum ption, and Price Statistics, 1965 -2013, USDA, FPL-RP-679, 2016; Sonja Oswalt, W. Brad Smith, and
Patrick Miles, et al., Forest Resources of the United States, 2012: A T echnical Document Supporting the Forest Service
Update of the 2010 RPA Assessment. FS, USDA, GT R-WO-91, 2014; and Paul Hirt, A Conspiracy of Optim ism :
Managem ent of the National Forests since World War Two (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1994). For
perspectives on the relationship between timber availability and timber harvest trends before 2000, see Roger Sedjo
(ed.), A Vision for the Forest Service: Goals for Its Next Century (Washington, DC: 2000).
51 See Steven Lewis Yaffee, The Wisdom of the Spotted Owl: Policy Lessons for a New Century (Washington, DC:
Island Press, 1994) for a history of the listing of the spotted owl. For more information on the Endangered Species Act,
see CRS Report R46677, The Endangered Species Act: Overview and Im plem entation , by Pervaze A. Sheikh, Erin H.
Ward, and R. Eliot Crafton.
52 T he national timber market includes demand and supply from public and private sources. T he housing industry is the
single largest consumer of wood products in the United States. For an overview of U.S. timber consumption, including
discussion of timber consumption by sector, see James Howard and Kwameka Jones, U.S. Tim ber Production, Trade,
Consum ption, and Price Statistics, 1965-2013, USDA, FPL-RP-679, 2016.
53 James Howard and Kwameka Jones, U.S. Timber Production, Trade, Consumption, and Price Statistics, 1965 -2013,
USDA, FPL-RP-679, 2016.
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including the dominant timber type, age class, and condition; the suitability of FS sites for harvest
operations; the legal limitations on land uses; and the status of the local forest products industry.
Figure 3. Average Annual Cut Volume by NFS Region, FY2016-FY2020

Source: CRS. Calculation from Forest Service, Forest Products Cut and Sold Reports, https://www.fs.fed.us/
forestmanagement/products/cut-sold/index.shtml.
Notes: MMBF = mil ion board feet. The FS refers to its regions by number, as labeled above. FS Region 7, the
North Central, was merged with FS Region 9, the Eastern, in 1965. The new region is referred to as Region 9,
the Eastern Region, and there is currently no Region 7. Average annual cut volume is reported by NFS region;
average annual cut volume differs for each state and cannot be inferred from a regional average.
Bureau of Land Management Lands
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) administers about 246 mil ion surface acres of federal
lands, almost entirely located in 12 western states.54 As noted, about 37.6 mil ion acres of BLM
lands are forest; of that, 16% is considered timberland.55 The Oregon and California (O&C) lands,
which comprise approximately 2.6 mil ion acres, contain 2.4 mil ion acres of forest (see
“Statutory Authorities for Harvesting Timber,” below, for a description of the O&C lands).56 The
transfer of the forest reserves to FS administration in the early 1900s reduced the amount of forest
land and timberland under BLM management today.

54 T he 12 states are Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah,
Washington, and Wyoming. BLM lands in these states comprise 99% of BLM lands.
55 RPA 2017.
56 BLM, DOI, BLM Facts: Oregon-Washington, 2017.
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Statutory Authorities for Harvesting Timber
The modern BLM was formed in 1946 to manage the public domain lands.57 At its formation,
BLM had no general authority to harvest timber on those lands.58 Congress authorized BLM to
dispose of forest materials through the Materials Act of 1947.59 Congress later elaborated BLM’s
management responsibilities with the passage of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of
1976 (FLPMA).60 Like the MUSYA’s mandate for the FS, FLPMA requires BLM to manage the
public lands for multiple use and sustained yield in a “harmonious and coordinated” manner that
considers the combination of uses that best meets the needs of the American people, not
necessarily yields the largest dollar return or output. The act directs a sustained yield of
renewable resources, meaning high-level regular output in perpetuity without impairing the lands’
productivity.61
The O&C lands are lands in western Oregon managed according to their own establishing
statutes, mostly by BLM. FS manages 492 thousand acres of the O&C lands, or 18% of this total
area. The lands consist of several areas, the Oregon and California lands and the Coos Bay Wagon
Road (CBWR) lands, which were revested to the federal government following violation of grant
terms.62 They are usual y referred to collectively as “O&C lands” and often grouped for
legislative purposes. BLM or FS’s mandate to sel timber on the O&C lands derives directly from
the O&C lands’ establishing statute. The O&C Act directs that O&C lands be managed for
sustained yield of permanent forest production, watershed protection, recreation, and contributing
to the economic stability of local communities and industries.63
Planning, Sale Process, and Receipts
Congress has directed BLM to engage in long-term land use and resource management planning.
Plans set the framework for land management, uses, and protection. They are developed through
an interdisciplinary process with opportunities for public participation. BLM uses these plans to
guide implementation of site-specific activities. In the case of timber, plans describe where timber
harvesting may occur and include measures of sustainable timber harvest levels. They are used to
guide execution of individual sales, which generate revenues. Congress has specified various uses
for these revenues.

57 60 Stat. 1097, 5 U.S.C. §403.
58 For more information on BLM authorities at its formation, see Paul W. Gates, History of Public Land Law
Development, written for the Public Land Law Review Commission (Washington, DC: GPO, November 1968), pp.
610-622 ; and James Muhn, Hanson R. Stuart, and Peter D. Doran, Opportunity and Challen ge: T he Story of BLM
(Washington, DC, 1998).
59 61 Stat. 681, 30 U.S.C. §§601-604. While the Materials Act provides a general authority to conduct timber sales,
other special authorities exist: for example, the salvage sale authority provided in the Interior and Related Agencies
Appropriations Act for FY1993 (P.L. 102-391). Detailed description of these special authorities is beyond the scope of
this report.
60 P.L. 94-579, 43 U.S.C. §§1701 et seq.
61 43 U.S.C. §1702e(h).
62 T he CBWR lands were established by 40 Stat. 1179, which is not classified in the U.S. Code. T he Oregon and
California lands were established by 50 Stat. 874; 43 U.S.C. §§2601-2634. For a more detailed history of the lands, see
CRS Report R42951, The Oregon and California Railroad Lands (O&C Lands): Issues for Congress, by Katie Hoover,
and BLM, O&C Sustained Yield Act: the Land, the Law, the Legacy, http://www.blm.gov/or/files/OC_History.pdf.
63 50 Stat. 874; 43 U.S.C. §2601.
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BLM timber planning and administration follow general BLM land use planning procedures.64
Through FLPMA, Congress directs BLM to develop, maintain, and revise plans for managing
public lands. BLM issued the first regulations to implement the planning requirement in 1979,
and subsequently revised them; the current BLM planning rule dates from 2005.65 Plans must be
developed with public participation and in accordance with various other administrative and
environmental statutes (e.g., NEPA).66
Under BLM’s planning rule, resource management plans remain in effect indefinitely. They are to
include monitoring and evaluation standards, and are to be amended or revised when
circumstances warrant.67 The planning rule directs BLM to identify indicators that describe the
desired forest outcomes in the plan area. BLM is to identify a suite of management actions to
achieve those outcomes, including identifying sustained yield areas, areas that could support
long-term timber harvest.68 BLM personnel determine a harvest level for these areas that can be
maintained without permanent impairment; this harvest level is known as the allowable sale
quantity.69 Al owable sale quantity is measured for a ten-year period.70
In addition, BLM general y makes annual forest product sale plans.71 These plans contain
estimates of sale volume, acreage, and permitted harvest methods for any sales proposed for the
year.72 Site-specific timber harvests must comport with NEPA and relevant statutes, including any
additional requirement for site-specific analysis and review.
To conduct an individual sale within the plan, BLM designates the timber for sale and appraises
the value of the timber.73 BLM timber may be designated by physical marking or by enclosing
timber in a sale boundary.74 BLM prepares a sale contract, along with a prospectus describing the
sale.75 The sale is advertised at an appraised starting price.76 Interested parties may bid on the

64 Information in this section derives from selected BLM law, regulation, and other authorities, such as manuals and
handbooks. For BLM timber planning and administration authorities, see 43 U.S.C. §§1701 et seq., 43 U.S.C. §2601,
43 C.F.R. §1601.0-1601.8, 43 C.F.R. §5003.1-5511.5, BLM Manual Series MS-5000 through MS-5420, BLM Manual
MS-1601, BLM Handbook 5000 Series, and BLM Handbook H-1601-1. In general, if an activity is addressed in
statute, statute is cited, although other authorities may exist (for example, in regulation or agency handbooks, manuals,
or other directives); if an activity is addressed in regulations, regulations are cited, although other authorities may exist
(for example, in agency handbooks, manuals, or other directives); if an activity is addressed in agency handbooks,
manuals, or other directives, at least one such authority is cited.
65 43 C.F.R. §1610.
66 P.L. 91-190, 42 U.S.C. §§4321-4347; for an overview of NEPA, see CRS Report RL33152, The National
Environm ental Policy Act (NEPA): Background and Im plementation, by Linda Luther.
67 43 C.F.R. §1610.4-9.
68 BLM Manual MS-5251, Timber Production Capability Classification.
69 Allowable sale quantity (ASQ) is the harvest level that can be maintained without decline over the long term if the
schedule of harvests and regeneration is followed. An ASQ is not a co mmitment to offer for sale a specific level of
timber volume every year. Volumes offered for harvest sale may vary in the short term if sustained yield is maintained.
BLM Manual MS-5000, Forest Managem ent.
70 BLM Manual MS-5000, Forest Management.
71 43 C.F.R. §5410.
72 BLM Handbook H-5410-1, Annual Forest Product Sale Plan.
73 43 C.F.R. §5420.
74 BLM Manual M-5420, Preparation for Sale.
75 43 C.F.R. §5430.0-1. A prospectus is a descriptive document describing the sale in greater detail than the
advertisement, but in less detail than the contract. It is available to interested bidders on request.
76 43 C.F.R. §5430.0-1.
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contract. A contract is awarded to the highest bidder provided legal conditions are met.77 The
winning bidder conducts the timber harvest according to the terms specified in the contract, such
as timeline and harvest method. Timber harvests must general y be completed in three years, but
may be extended under certain circumstances.78
Timber sales generate revenues, and disposition of these revenues depends on a number of
factors. Congress has established several funds for timber sale revenues. Depending on the type
of sale and the originating lands, BLM may be required to make certain deposits to these funds. If
any portion of revenues are not required to be deposited, BLM may al ocate those revenues
among funds at its discretion, including depositing al revenues in a single account. Some funds
are permanently appropriated to BLM and may be used without further congressional action (i.e.
as mandatory appropriations).79 See Table A-2 for a list of these funds. A more detailed
discussion of funding levels, expenditures, and issues related to BLM timber revenue funds is
outside the scope of this report.
Timber Harvests from BLM Lands
Timber harvesting is one of many authorized uses of BLM lands. Long-term historical data
regarding BLM timber harvesting is unavailable. Other data on past timber program activity show
that BLM timber harvesting may have changed over time. This section provides data on timber
offered for sale, timber sold, and timber harvested from BLM lands at various points in time,
along with some economic and historical factors which may have contributed to observed
changes.
Data on cut timber volume from BLM lands is available from FY1994 onward (see Figure 4).
While complete historical cut data is unavailable prior to FY1994, some data exists about past
sales (see Table 1). The intermittent nature of this data chal enges drawing conclusions about
larger trends in these periods, especial y in the missing decades. In addition, these data refer to
either timber sold or timber offered for sale, which differs from volume of timber cut.80 However,
as an approximate comparison, the data show that the volumes sold prior to FY1990 are large
compared to recent volumes offered for sale. Observers confirmed a decline in public domain
timber offered for sale beginning in 1991, though the investigation did not consider the O&C
lands.81

77 43 C.F.R. §§5440-5450.
78 43 C.F.R. §5463.1, 43 C.F.R. §5473.
79 For information on BLM funds and receipts, see the annual BLM Budget Justifications on the Department of the
Interior’s Budget Office website, e.g., https://www.doi.gov/budget/appropriations/2020. BLM allocates some revenues
to entities as required under revenue-sharing programs. BLM allocation of revenue is determined by law, including law
pertaining to individual funds and activities. A detailed discussion of this topic is beyond the scope of this report. For
more information on some revenue-sharing programs, see CRS Report RL31392, PILT (Paym ents in Lieu of Taxes):
Som ewhat Sim plified, by Katie Hoover, and CRS Report R41303, The Secure Rural Schools and Com m unity Self-
Determ ination Act: Background and Issues, by Katie Hoover.
80 Volume of timber offered for sale, volume of timber sold, and volume of timber cut typically differ in a given year.
Volume of timber offered for sale differs from volume of timber sold in that not all offered sales may be completed.
Both differ from timber cut for a number of reasons. For example, purchasers may have a period of several years to cut
timber, they may not fully execute the cut specified in the contract, or disturbances may alter volume between the time
the sale is made and the harvest is executed.
81 U.S. General Accounting Office, BLM Public Domain Lands: Volum e of Timber Offered for Sale Has Declined
Substantially since Fiscal Year 1990, GAO-03-615, June 2003.
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Table 1. BLM Timber Sales, Historical
Timber Volume Sold
Timber Volume Offered
Fiscal Year
(MMBF)
for Sale (MMBF)
1948
431.8
NA
1951
499.5
NA
1960
359.8
NA
1970
1787.5
NA
1980
1196.8
NA
1990
1221.8
NA
2000
NA
277.8
2010
NA
92.5
Source: CRS. Sum of timber volume sales from public lands and O&C lands found in Report of the Director, 1948;
Report of the Director, 1951; Statistical Appendix, Annual Report, 1960; and for each of Public Land Statistics, 1970;
Public Land Statistics, 1980; Public Land Statistics, 1990; Public Land Statistics, 2000; and Public Land Statistics, 2010.
Notes: These data report either volume of timber offered for sale, or volume of timber sold. Volume of timber
offered for sale differs from volume of timber sold in that not al offered sales may be purchased. Thus, volume
of timber offered for sale is general y greater than volume of timber sold. BLM data sources reported timber
volume sold in 1948, 1951, 1960, 1970, 1980, and 1990. BLM data sources reported timber offered for sale in
2000 and 2010. “NA” means data were not reported in that year.
Volumes harvested from BLM lands were between 100 and 300 MMBF from FY1995 to FY2000
and from FY2004 to FY2019 (see Figure 4). Harvests were lower in FY1994 and between
FY2001 and FY2003. Harvested volumes have shown a general y increasing trend since FY2001,
with the largest recently recorded harvest in FY2015 (about 258 MMBF). Like the NFS, harvests
from BLM lands during the recession and housing market collapse of 2008 experienced relatively
little change in volume, for unclear reasons. In FY2020, about 239 MMBF were harvested from
BLM lands.
Data on cut timber value from BLM lands is available from FY1996 onward (see Figure 4). Total
value of harvests has declined since FY1996. Harvest values have general y increased since the
low value of approximately $15.4 mil ion in FY2001, and have been between $20 mil ion and
$60 mil ion since FY2011 (FY2020 dollars). In FY2020, cut value was $58.8 mil ion. Like the
FS, BLM harvest value during the recession and housing market collapse of 2008 declined, but
the relative change was smal compared to the decreases of the late 1990s. Harvest value may
vary due to the quality, species, and age class of offered timber as wel as timber market
conditions, and is correlated with harvested volume. BLM harvest values per unit of timber are
higher than FS values per unit, due to the dominant timber type harvested from BLM lands,
among other factors.82

82 T he great majority of timber harvested from BLM land is from the O&C lands (see “ T imber Harvests on BLM
Lands”). O&C lands are dominated by Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), a species used extensively for timber.
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Figure 4. Annual Cut Volume and Value, BLM

Source: CRS. FY2012-FY2020 data: BLM, Bureau Wide Timber Data, Transaction Reports, https://www.blm.gov/
programs/natural-resources/forests-and-woodlands/timber-sales/bureau-wide-timber-data. FY1994-FY2011 cut
volume data and FY1996-FY2011 cut value data: personal communication between BLM legislative affairs office
and CRS, December 14, 2018.
Notes: Complete historical cut volume data is unavailable prior to FY1994, and complete historical cut value
data is unavailable prior to FY1996. MMBF stands for mil ion board feet. Nominal dol ars have been converted to
FY2020 dol ars using Bureau of Labor Statistics Historical Consumer Price Index, Al Urban Customers, annual
averages.
Geographic Distribution of Timber Harvests on BLM Lands
Most timber harvests on BLM lands are conducted on the O&C lands. From FY2014 to FY2018,
the average harvested volume from O&C lands was 93% of the average total volume. The large
proportion of volume harvested from O&C lands reflects the forest cover and type, dominant use
for forest production, and the size of the forest industry in the Pacific Northwest.83 As with the
NFS, in general, BLM harvest volume and value is a function of many complex factors, including
the dominant timber type, age class, and condition; the suitability of sites for harvest operations;
legal limitations on land uses; and the status of the local forest products industry.
Issues for Congress
Management of federal lands for multiple uses and sustained yield is chal enging, including
balancing timber harvesting with other uses. Timber production from federal lands is driven by a
complex interaction of environmental factors, market forces, and land management policies.
Under current law, efforts to change harvest levels must comport with the provision of a sustained
yield of multiple uses. Congress has sometimes considered legislation to prioritize or exclude
some uses in a limited manner—in certain geographic regions, for example—but has not changed
these fundamental management concepts since their enactment in the 1960s and 1970s.
The public often expresses preferences for uses of federal forests, including with respect to timber
harvesting. Some may support timber harvesting general y, and believe the current levels of
production are sufficient. Others may wish to see the levels of production increased or decreased,

83 T he largest forest producing regions in the United States are the Pacific Northwest and the Southeast. T he BLM does
not manage any forestland in the Southeast.
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depending on their perspective. Those who support timber harvesting on federal lands may cite
benefits to the local timber industry, a belief that harvesting is part of the core mission of federal
forests, or a belief that timber harvesting is a tool for improving forest health conditions, among
other reasons.84 Proponents of timber harvesting on federal lands may also emphasize the role of
timber harvesting in some forest-adjacent rural economies.85 Others may oppose timber
harvesting due to concerns about ecological or human impacts: for example, they may cite beliefs
that timber sales have detrimental impacts on environmental quality, fish and wildlife habitat,
forest character, recreation and tourism, or cultural and aesthetic values.86 Opponents may also
contend that conducting timber sales favors the timber industry over other interests.87
In addition to the themes identified above, Congress may also debate other issues related to
federal timber harvests that are not discussed in detail in this report. For example, these include
issues related to the disposition and use of timber sale revenues; the relationship between timber
harvest planning and statutes such as NEPA and the Endangered Species Act (ESA); and special
harvest authorities, among others.

84 See Roger Sedjo, The Future of the Forest Service, Property and Environment Research Center, Vol. 36, No. 1,
2017; Greg Brown, “Relationships between spatial and non-spatial preferences and place-based values in national
forests,” Applied Geography, vol. 44 (2013), pp. 1-11; and Greg Brown and Pat Reed, “Validation of a forest values
typology for use in national forest planning,” Forest Science, vol. 46, no. 2 (2000), pp. 240-247.
85 For example, see U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, Improving Forest Health and
Socioeconomic Opportunities on the Nation’s Forest System , 114th Cong., 1st sess., 2015, S. Hrg. 114-262
(Washington: GPO, 2016).
86 Greg Brown, “Relationships between spatial and non-spatial preferences and place-based values in national forests,”
Applied Geography, vol. 44 (2013), pp. 1-11; and Greg Brown and Pat Reed, “ Validation of a forest values typology
for use in national forest planning,” Forest Science, vol. 46, no. 2 (2000), pp. 240-247.
87 See, for example, Mike Garrity, “T axpayer subsidized logging makes no sense,” Helena Independent Record, (2014).
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Appendix. Timber Receipt Funds
The following tables list and describe the funds that receive timber sale revenues; the funds’
statutory authority is also shown. A detailed discussion of funding levels, expenditures, and issues
related to these funds is outside the scope of this report.
Table A-1. Timber Revenue Funds: Forest Service
Name
Description
Authority
Brush Disposal
FS determines an amount for each
Act of August 11, 1916; 16 U.S.C.
sale, above the stumpage price for
§490.
the sale, to be deposited in this
permanently appropriated account.
Money in the fund may be used to
dispose of brush and debris from
harvesting within the sale area.
Credits for Purchaser-Built Roads
Purchasers elect for FS to build the
National Forest Management Act,
permanent roads required in a sale
P.L. 94-588; 16 U.S.C. §472a(i).
contract, and make deposits to this
permanently appropriated fund. The
FS uses the money in the fund to
build the required roads.
Knutson-Vandenberg (K-V) Fund
The act authorizes FS to retain
Knutson-Vandenberg Act, PL 71-
revenue col ected from NFS timber
319, as amended; 16 U.S.C. 576-
sales in a permanent fund
576b.
appropriated to the FS. Congress
initial y authorized use of K-V funds
to finance reforestation, non-
commercial thinning, and other
improvements on the sale site.
Subsequent action by Congress has
expanded the K-V fund’s authorized
uses for other forest and renewable
resource projects, and extended
the eligible spending area to the FS
region of the sale. Reforestation of
the sale site is required to make K-
V Fund deposits.
Salvage Sale Fund
Revenue from a timber sale with
National Forest Management Act,
any salvage component may be
P.L. 94-588; 16 U.S.C. §472a(h).
placed in this fund, which is
permanently appropriated to FS.
Money in the fund must be used to
conduct other salvage sales.
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Name
Description
Authority
Stewardship Contracting Fund
FS may enter into stewardship
Healthy Forests Restoration Act
contracts to achieve land
(HFRA), P.L. 108-148, as amended;
management goals and to apply the
16 U.S.C. §6591c.
value of any harvested timber
against the cost of those
stewardship services.a Timber
revenue above the cost of
stewardship services is deposited in
this fund and is authorized to be
used for other stewardship projects
or to cover liabilities from canceled
sales.
Timber Sales Pipeline Restoration
Revenues from certain timber sales,
Omnibus Consolidated Rescissions
Fund
and from additional sales prepared
and Appropriations Act of 1996,
using the fund, are permanently
P.L. 104-134, §327; 16 U.S.C. §1611
appropriated to FS. Of the available
note.
money, 75% is al ocated to prepare
additional timber sales, and the
other 25% is for recreation
projects. b
Source: CRS. Table compiled using FS budget justifications from FY2010 onward; and David C. Powel , U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Fact Sheet: Forest Service Trust Funds, FS White Paper F14-SO-WP-
SILV-17, Umatil a National Forest, Pendleton, OR, last updated February 2014.
Notes: Funds are listed in alphabetical order by name of fund.
a. For more information on stewardship contracting, see CRS In Focus IF11179, Stewardship End Result
Contracting: Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, by Anne A. Riddle.
b. The sales were original y made under the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Act for FY1990
(P.L. 101-121) but were halted in 1992 due to a new Endangered Species Act listing in the region of the
sales. The sales were reinstated under the 1995 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations and Rescissions
Act (P.L. 104-19, §327). Prior to the passage of the Omnibus Consolidated Rescissions and Appropriations
Act of 1996, which authorized the Timber Sales Pipeline Restoration Fund, revenues from the reinstated
sales were disposed of as general timber receipts.
Table A-2. Timber Revenue Funds: Bureau of Land Management
Type of Land
Name
Description
Authority
Public Domain Lands
Reclamation Fund
In 17 western states, a
Reclamation Act of June
portion of revenues from
17, 1902; 43 U.S.C. §391.
timber sales on public
domain lands are
deposited in this fund.a
Expenditures require an
annual appropriation, and
are typical y for water
infrastructure projects.
Public Domain & O&C
Forest Ecosystem Health
After payments to states
Interior and Related
Lands
and Recovery Fund
and to O&C counties, up
Agencies Appropriations
to 100% of the federal
Act for FY1993; P.L. 102-
share of receipts from
391.
sales designated as salvage
sales are permanently
appropriated to BLM to
prepare and administer
more salvage sales.
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link to page 22 link to page 22 Timber Harvesting on Federal Lands

Type of Land
Name
Description
Authority
Public Domain Lands &
Stewardship Contracting
BLM may enter into
Healthy Forests
O&C Lands
Excess Receipts
stewardship contracts to
Restoration Act (HFRA),
achieve land management
P.L. 108-148, as amended;
goals and to apply the
16 U.S.C. §6591c.
value of any harvested
timber against the cost of
those stewardship
services.b Timber receipts
above the cost of
stewardship services are
deposited in this fund and
are authorized to be used
for other stewardship
projects or to cover
liabilities from canceled
sales.
Public Domain Lands &
Timber Sales Pipeline
Receipts from certain
Omnibus Consolidated
O&C Lands
Restoration Fund
timber sales and from
Rescissions and
additional sales prepared
Appropriations Act of
using the fund are
1996, P.L. 104-134, §327;
permanently appropriated
16 U.S.C. §1611.
to the BLM after
payments to counties. Of
the available money, 75%
is al ocated to prepare
additional timber sales,
and the other 25% is for
recreation projects.c
Source: Table compiled using BLM Budget Justifications from FY2010 onward.
Notes: Funds are listed by the applicable lands. For each set of applicable lands, they are listed in alphabetical
order by name of fund.
a. The 17 states are al states west of the Mississippi, except Alaska and Hawai . Although statute specifies that
monies received from 17 states are to be deposited in the fund, 99% of BLM land is located in 12 of those
states. For more information on the Reclamation Fund, see CRS In Focus IF10042, The Reclamation Fund, by
Charles V. Stern.
b. For more information on stewardship contracting, see CRS In Focus IF11179, Stewardship End Result
Contracting: Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, by Anne A. Riddle.
c. The sales were original y made under the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations Act for FY1990
(P.L. 101-121) but were halted in 1992 due to a new Endangered Species Act listing in the region of the
sales. The sales were reinstated under the 1995 Emergency Supplemental Appropriations and Rescissions
Act (P.L. 104-19, §327). Prior to the passage of the Omnibus Consolidated Rescissions and Appropriations
Act of 1996, which authorized the Timber Sales Pipeline Restoration Fund, receipts from the reinstated
sales were disposed of as general timber receipts.

Congressional Research Service
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Timber Harvesting on Federal Lands

Author Information

Anne A. Riddle

Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

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Congressional Research Service
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